Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of silica fume, metakaolin & SBR latex on strength

and durability performance of pervious concrete
Hassan Bilal a, Tiefeng Chen a, Miao Ren a, Xiaojian Gao a,b,⇑, Anshuang Su c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
c
Heilongjiang Provincial Hydraulic Research Institute, Harbin 150080, China

h i g h l i g h t s

 Sand 5% and proper compaction significantly improved durability performance.

 SCMs have a positive influence on the mechanical and durability of pervious concrete.
 The optimum content of SCMs was 10% based on mechanical and durability performance.
 Latex improved the mechanical property, but did not noticeably improve the durability.
 The combined attack induced more severe surface deterioration and damages.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study evaluates the performance of pervious concrete subjected to rapid freeze–thaw (F-T) cycling,
Received 14 April 2020 calcium leaching and the combined attack of calcium leaching and F-T cycling. Silica fume, metakaolin
Received in revised form 14 December 2020 and SBR polymer emulsion were incorporated at different levels into pervious concrete mixes to improve
Accepted 20 December 2020
strength and durability performances. The results indicated that the addition of 5% fine sand and proper
Available online 6 January 2021
compaction had a positive influence on improving the resistance of pervious concrete to F-T cycling. The
increase of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) from 5% to 10% significantly improved the
Keywords:
resistance to rapid F-T cycling and to the combined attack of calcium leaching and F-T cycling. The opti-
Pervious concrete
Mechanical strength
mum content of SCMs was 10% based on the mechanical and durability performance of pervious concrete
Durability with acceptable permeability. Calcium leaching in 6 M NH4NO3 solution combined with F-T cycling
Freeze-thaw cycling induced severe surface deterioration and internal damage compared to individual attacks of F-T cycling
Calcium leaching or leaching. Compared with control and polymer-modified mixes, pervious concrete incorporated SCMs
possessed better resistance of calcium leaching and frost. The morphological changes caused by calcium
leaching exhibits the decreased volume fraction of solid phases in a cement matrix and consequently
increased the porosity, which ultimately degraded strength and durability performance of pervious
concrete.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction be strengthened by several kinds of supplementary cementitious

materials (SCMs) like fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, latex poly-
Pervious concrete is a kind of environmentally friendly porous mers and polypropylene fibers [6-17]. The cement paste in pervi-
material developed based on ordinary concrete technology [1-4]. ous concrete is uniformly distributed to bind the coarse
Pervious concrete typically contains gap-graded coarse aggregate, aggregates and facilitate the cellular network of interconnected
Portland cement, water and a limited amount of fine aggregate porosity. In general, pervious concrete has void contents from
[5-7]. Similar to conventional concrete, pervious concrete could 15% to 35% [18-20]. The void contents provide minimal strength
while facilitating higher water permeability [21,22]. Pervious con-
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of
crete is broadly acknowledged as sustainable material because it
Technology, Harbin 150090, China. offers several environmental benefits such as a reduction in
E-mail addresses: hassanbilal@hit.edu.cn (H. Bilal), 16s033075@stu.hit.edu.cn stormwater runoff, improvement of stormwater quality, recharg-
(M. Ren), gaoxj@hit.edu.cn (X. Gao). ing groundwater aquifer, reducing road-noise, improving skid

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122124
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

resistance and relieving the heat-island effect [23]. Considering all strength and durability performance of pervious concrete to
these advantages, pervious concrete is recognized as one of the broaden its application in high traffic highways. Since lower
best materials for urban pavement and drainage system [24]. Gen- strength is typically associated with high porosity, pervious con-
erally, 28 days compressive and tensile strength of pervious con- crete is prone to freeze–thaw damage; therefore, the applications
crete vary from 3.4 to 27.5 MPa and 1.0 to 3.4 MPa on average, of pervious concrete are limited to sidewalks, low-volume traffic
respectively. The primary factors which influence the desired void and parking lots. There is a need to fabricate pervious concrete
content and strength include the densification energy, aggregate with high strength and adequate durability without sacrificing per-
gradation and the dosage of fine sand in the mix design [25-28]. meability property. Besides, water percolation through the open
In addition to the aggregate size, the increase of water-to-cement void channels can also leach out the cement hydrates from the thin
ratio can also reduce the strength considering the cement matrix layer of cement paste in pervious concrete pavements. This leach-
is usually the weakest part in pervious concrete. However, an ing phenomenon would decrease the mechanical and long term
increase in cement content can potentially enhance the mechanical durability in service life [45]; therefore, the combined attack of cal-
and durability resistance of pervious concrete due to better bond- cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling was considered in this
ing among aggregate particles [27,29-32]. The compressive study to evaluate the durability performance of pervious concrete
strength and void content of pervious concrete can also be influ- in a cold climate. This research aims at enhancing the mechanical
enced by placement techniques, compaction effort, use of various properties and long-term durability of pervious concrete. The influ-
cementitious materials, the addition of sands and different admix- ence of freeze–thaw cycling, calcium leaching and the combined
tures in pervious concrete [7,33-35]. The strength and freeze–thaw attack of freeze–thaw cycling and calcium leaching on the mechan-
durability of pervious concrete can be improved by the addition of ical and durability performance of pervious concrete are
smaller size coarse aggregate along with a certain amount of fine investigated.
sand in the mix design. Optimal content of 5% or 10% fine sand is
considered to maintain adequate strength and permeability
2. Materials and methods
[25,29,36,37].
Moreover, the interconnected network of voids has a negative
2.1. Materials
impact on the mechanical behavior of porous concrete, thus hinder
its broad application in cold and wet weather regions where cyclic
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with PO 42.5 in accordance
freezing-thawing is the deepest concern [30]. Due to high porosity
with the Chinese standard was used in this study. The silica fume
and permeability, pervious concrete is used for drainage purposes
(SF) used had spherical particles size less than 1 mm and a specific
where strength requirements are not stringent. However, its appli-
surface area of 17.30 m2/g complying with Chinese Standard GB/
cations in high traffic highway can put a great demand on the
T21236-2007. Metakaolin (MK) was an anhydrous aluminum sili-
strength properties [38]. The open-pore cellular structure and thin
cate (Al2O3.2SiO2) formed by kaolin (Al2O3
2SiO2
2H2O) dehy-
paste of cement pose severe concerns for the capability of pervious
drated at a suitable temperature (600–900 °C). Styrene-butadiene
concrete to endure the freeze–thaw cycles [38,39]. Kevern, Wang
rubber (SBR) latex was a polymer emulsion having excellent stabil-
and Schaefer [29] reported that the water absorption capacity of
ity and bonding with cement paste. The physical characteristics of
coarse aggregate has a considerable impact on freeze–thaw dura-
styrene-butadiene latex are presented in Table 1. Polycarboxylate
bility of pervious concrete. For high durability mixtures, the pro-
superplasticizer was adopted to adjust concrete workability, pur-
posed water absorption of less than 2.5% is recommended
chased from Environmental Water Treatment Plant, Harbin, China.
[25,33,40]. An increase of water to cement ratio has shown
The chemical composition of cement, metakaolin (MK) and silica
improvement in freeze–thaw durability of water cured pervious
fume (SF) are listed in Table 2.
concrete under slow freeze–thaw testing [41]. The use of air-
The size distribution of fine sand was in the range of 4.75–
entraining admixtures can improve freeze–thaw durability in rapid
0.15 mm sieve interval with the Fineness Modulus of 2.67, accord-
cycles [33,42]. However, air-entraining has no positive influence in
ing to GB/T14685-2011. The fine sand was substituted from 5% to
slow cycles [41]. The inclusion of fibers in porous concrete also
15% by weight of coarse aggregate in specified trial batch mixes to
improved the freeze–thaw durability and workability without sac-
optimize the permeability and early age compressive strength. The
rificing infiltration potential [33,43]. In practical application, the
loose bulk density and dry rodded bulk density of coarse aggregate
voids in pervious concrete are almost never water-filled and could
were 1522 kg/m3 and 1638 kg/m3 respectively. The specific gravity
always release the pressure caused by freeze water, the rapid
of the coarse aggregate was 2.60, following the method outlined in
freeze–thaw cycling in full saturation is not suitable for pervious
GB/T14685-2011. The superplasticizer dosage was adjusted
concrete. Therefore, testing under the drained condition and one
through a series of trial and error methods to prepare workable
freeze–thaw cycle per day has been endorsed by some studies
mixes with no accumulation of cement paste at the bottom layer
[41,44]. The critical saturation level is needed to induce damages
of pervious concrete.
in pervious concrete from freezing and thawing [42]. As a contrast,
critical saturation in conventional concrete is expected to be about
77% to 82% for the freeze–thaw damage to occur. Additionally, fro- 2.2. Mix design and specimen preparation
zen water in the large pores of pervious concrete acts to create
negative vapor pressure, drowning the water through the cement The mix design for different pervious concretes is presented in
paste, causing scaling damage [42]. Table 3. The control mixture included only 5% fine sand by weight
The existing research on pervious concrete has made significant of coarse aggregate and no SCMs. Silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK)
progress on optimizing the strength and permeability properties; and styrene-butadiene latex (SBR) were used to partially replace
however, limited work has been carried out to improve the OPC by 5% and 10% in modified pervious concrete. The water to

Table 1
Properties of SBR latex polymer.

Product technical quality index Solid content Melting/ freezing point Boiling point Density (g/m3) Viscosity (cps) Appearance
SBR Latex 48–60% 5–0 °C 100 °C 0.95 800–1000 Milky white emulsion

2
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Table 2 same specimen after permeability measurement. The test device

Chemical composition of raw materials (wt %). can automatically measure permeability flow rate and permeabil-
Chemical composition Index Cement Silica fume Metakaolin ity flow time, then the water permeability coefficient would be cal-
(%) (SF) (MK) culated. The mechanical design of the instrument is reasonable and
SiO2 20.38 87.67 62–70 the measurement method lays the foundation for the formulation
CaO 63.25 0.64 0.29 of the permeability coefficient standard. First of all, concrete sam-
Al2O3 4.26 0.28 17–23 ples were wrapped up with high viscosity adhesive waterproof
SO3 4.10 0.82 0.19
MgO 3.08 1.80 0.12
duct tape to prevent side leakage during the test. The waterproof
Fe2O3 3.58 0.60 4.0 adhesive tape could prevent side leakage of water from samples
Loss on ignition 2.97 1.57 2.01 so water could percolate through the specimen only in a vertical
direction. Three pervious concrete samples were tested for each
mixture and the permeability test was performed three times on
cement ratio of 0.28 was kept constant in this study. Throughout each sample for a consistent and reliable result (Fig. 1).
all the laboratory concrete tamping rodding, one person has pre-
pared all the specimens to avoid uncertainty in the compaction. 2.3.3. Rapid freeze–thaw testing
Fresh concrete was poured in three layers, while each layer was The freeze–thaw test was conducted according to Chinese spec-
tamping rodded 25 times. After this initial preparation, specimens ification GB/T50082-2009. The temperature was controlled at
were placed on plain hard ground and each mold contained three 18 ± 2 °C and 5 ± 22 °C in an automatic freeze–thaw chamber.
specimens was vibrated for 30 s using a surface vibrator to simu- Mass loss of specimens was monitored after every 15 or 25 cycles
late field condition. After compaction, all specimens were covered
with polythene plastic film and kept under room temperature for
24 h. Prism specimens of 100 mm  100 mm  400 mm were
poured in two layers and each layer was tamping rodded 75 times.
The last layer was overfilled with the fresh mix and extra materials
were struck off with a square trowel. Then compaction was con-
ducted for 30 s by the surface vibrator. All the prism specimens
were demolded after 24 h and water was sprayed on the specimens
to keep them moist and stored in the standard curing room for
28 days. Then these specimens would be water cured until the
testing day.

2.3. Laboratory testing

2.3.1. Mechanical tests

The compressive strength test was performed according to GB/
T50081-2002. The compressive strength after 3, 7, 14, 28, 90 and
120 days curing were measured to evaluate the long term materi-
als behavior of pervious concrete. The splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength and modulus of rupture tests were outlined in
the GB/T50081-2002 standard. The average value of the triplicate
specimen was presented as the strength value at 28 days of curing.
Three prism specimens (100 mm  100 mm  400 mm) were
tested for each mix and the average of three results was taken as
the rupture modulus of the mixture.

2.3.2. Permeability coefficient test

The permeability coefficient of pervious concrete was deter-
mined by the NELD-PC370 permeability coefficient tester made
by Beijing Nilde Intelligent Technology Company. This permeabil-
ity tester is suitable for a 100 mm  100 mm  100 mm cubic size
specimen, which is convenient for measuring the strength of the Fig. 1. Sample setup and NELD-PC370 concrete permeability coefficient tester.

Table 3
Mix design for Pervious Concrete.

Mix Types Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Sand (5%) SBR SF MK W/C SP (1.25%)
A-350-S-5% 350 1504 75.2 – – – 0.28 4.375
B-L-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 17.5 – – 0.28 4.375
C-SF-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – 17.5 – 0.28 4.375
D-MK-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – – 17.5 0.28 4.375
E-MK-SF-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – 8.75 8.75 0.28 4.375
B-L-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 35 – – 0.28 4.375
C-SF-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – 35 – 0.28 4.375
D-MK-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – – 35 0.28 4.375
E-MK-SF-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – 17.5 17.5 0.28 4.375

Note: SF = Silica fume, SBR = Styrene butadiene latex, MK = Metakaolin, SP = Superplasticizer.

3
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

during the test. Freeze-thaw cycles would either be stopped when attack test was stopped when the average mass remaining of spec-
300 cycles were completed, or mass loss of specimen reached 15% imen was less than 85 percent of the initial saturated mass of
of the initial saturated mass of concrete [43]. concrete.

2.3.4. Leaching test

3. Results and discussion
Ammonium nitrate solution of 6 M concentration was used to
accelerate the leaching processes because naturally leaching of cal-
3.1. Compressive strength development of pervious concrete
cium ion from cement-based materials is a prolonged process and
takes years to degrade concrete [46]. In this study, 6 M NH4NO3
The compressive strength of pervious concrete with 5% partially
solution was prepared in a polyethylene vessel. A total of fifteen
replaced SBR latex, silica fume and metakaolin is shown in Fig. 3.
specimens were tested for each mix. The solid to liquid volume
The modified pervious concrete achieved greater strength than
ratio (Vs/Vl) was 1:6 and the solution was not renewed during
the control mix (A-350-S-5%) at later curing. Mix E-MK-SF-S-5%
the leaching test. An advanced Shanghai Sanxin PHS-2C PH Meter
exhibited higher compressive strength compared to other mixtures
was used for monitoring the pH of ammonium nitrate solution.
due to the filler effect and pozzolanic activities of silica fume and
Chinese standard buffer solutions of 4.0, 6.86 and 9.18 pH were
metakaolin [22,47,48]. With proper compaction effort, the smaller
used for calibration of pH Meter. Three-point calibration was per-
size coarse aggregate and 5% sand inclusion in pervious concrete
formed on a standard buffer solution before testing the pH of the
significantly enhanced the compressive strength [10]. Mix D-MK-
measured solution. The percentage of electrode slope would be
S-5% achieved the lowest compressive strength at 7 days compared
automatically displayed after calibration was completed. The solu-
to other mixes; however, the same mix attained greater strength at
tion was collected at different intervals for the determination of
28 days except for E-MK-SF-S-5%. On the other hand, the later age
calcium ion concentration. The compressive strength, mass loss,
curing marginally contributes to the strength development due to
pH and calcium ion concentration were measured at 7, 14, 21, 28
less contribution of small cementitious paste and limited ability of
and 90 days’ exposure in 6 M NH4NO3 solution. The experimental
hydration products [28]. However, a significant gain in strength
setup for the leaching test is shown in Fig. 2.
was observed for pervious concrete made with both metakaolin
and silica fume due to the filler effect and pozzolanic reaction of
2.3.5. Combined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling cementitious materials.
Pervious concrete was first exposed to 6 M NH4NO3 solution for The strength of latex modified mixes (B-L-10%) quite lagged
one week, then followed by 25 cycles of rapid freeze–thaw cyclings behind the strength development of mixtures produced with sup-
according to GB/T50082-2009. This repeated pattern of leaching plementary cementitious materials (SCMs) at early curing age. It is
followed by freeze–thaw cycling was continued until the speci- time-consuming for cement hydration products and polymer films
men’s deterioration. After a week’s leaching, specimens were to intertwine and interpenetrate; therefore, polymer-modified por-
washed with water to clean up the chemical solution inside the ous concrete (B-L-10%) achieved rapid strength at later curing age
pore structure of pervious concrete because it could severely affect [28,48]. It should be noted that there is an inconsistency between
the specimen’s deterioration in freeze–thaw cycling. These speci- cement hydration and SBR latex polymerization. Thus, it is favor-
mens were assessed and monitored during the test. The combined able for polymer-modified pervious concrete to be saturated cured

Fig. 2. Experimental Protocol and setup of leaching test operation.

4
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

3.2. Splitting tensile strength

The split tensile strength of SBR latex mix (B-L-S-5%) and mix E-
MK-SF-S-5% is greater than silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and metakaolin
mixes (D-MK-S-5%) as shown in Fig. 5. Due to the nice film-forming
effect of polymers and commingling of cement hydration products
embedded in cement matrix, the SBR latex mixture had a strong
resistance to cracking [7,50]. The split tensile strength of C-SF-S-
5% and D-MK-S-5% was also improved by increasing the dosage
rate from 5% to 10%, but the increment of tensile resistance was
not as high as that of SBR latex mixture. When both metakaolin
(MK) and silica fume (SF) were added into the mixture, the split
tensile strength was almost the same as the SBR latex polymer
mix. The split tensile strength is highly susceptible to porosity or
voids in the structural skeleton of pervious concrete because a
slight variation in porosity considerably influences the split tensile
strength [28].

3.3. Flexural strength

Fig. 3. Compressive strength development of 5% mixtures with curing age.

The flexural strength of modified pervious concrete included
SBR latex and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) was
higher than the control mix (A-350-S-5%). The highest flexural
for three days to expedite the hydration of cement. Then these strength was achieved by mix B-L-S-5%, followed by C-SF-S-5%
specimens should be stored in an environment with relative and E-MK-SF-5%, while the flexural strength of mixture D-MKS-
humidity less than 70% for improving the formation of polymer 5% increased marginally. The addition of SBR latex exerted positive
films [28]. On the other hand, higher early strength of SCMs mod- effects on the mid-span deflection of specimens, as illustrated in
ified pervious concretes is attributed to pozzolanic reactivity of Fig. 6. The SBR polymers interpenetrated in cement hydrates pro-
SCMs together with superplasticizer. The aggregate particles are duced a commingling network of films, which enhanced the ductil-
wrapped and cemented together by stiff paste to form the ity and flexibility of pervious concrete [49]. The flexural strength of
skeleton-pore structure, attaining strong resistance to loading at reference mix A-350-S-5% was lower than mixtures produced with
an early age. However, due to the small amount of cementitious metakaolin (D-MK-10%) and both silica fume and metakaolin (E-
paste in pervious concrete compared to conventional concrete, it MK-SF-10%) except silica fume mixture (C-SF-10%), which had
is reasonable that there is no remarkable increase in strength at almost identical flexural strength to reference mixture. The SCMs
the later curing age [8,28]. When SBR latex partial substitution modified pervious concrete also showed an increase in flexural
increased from 5% to 10%, 28 d compressive strength increases strength due to cement matrix densification caused by filler effect
by 24%. On the contrary, an increased from 5% to 10% of silica fume of fine particles and strong bonding between aggregate particles.
partial replacement produced only a 9% rise in strength, while the The flexural strength is more sensitive to porosity variation in per-
increase in metakaolin content from 5% to 10% improved the vious concrete than the compressive loading resistance [28]. The
strength by 8%. Generally, the increase in the dosage rate of SBR results showed that pervious concrete achieved both higher
latex and SCMs in pervious concrete progressively improved the strength and good permeability by incorporating smaller size
strength of pervious concrete, as shown in Fig. 4. coarse aggregate and SCMs or SBR polymers along with
superplasticizer.

Fig. 4. Compressive strength development of 10% mixtures with curing age. Fig. 5. Splitting tensile strength results of pervious concrete.

5
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

24% and 8% when the replacement dosage increases from 5% to

10%. The permeability of all mixes produced in this study is in
the range of 3–7 mm/sec.

3.5. Influence of leaching on compressive strength of pervious concrete

The strength and permeability of pervious concrete determined

at 28 days standard curing are presented in Table 4. The polymer-
modified pervious concrete (B-L-S-5%) exhibited the lowest
strength with greater permeability than other mixtures. The incor-
poration of fine sand 5% by weight of coarse aggregate in all mix-
tures significantly increased the compressive strength with
adequate permeability.
The compressive strength of pervious concretes leached for 7,
14, 21, 28 and 90 days in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution is shown
in Fig. 8. The decreasing rate of compressive strength is gradual at
the early leaching because the dissolution and diffusion of calcium
hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate increased with the leaching
duration. As the leaching proceeded, the cement matrix of pervious
concrete becomes more porous, which caused a reduction in
strength. The binary blend (E-MK-SF-S-5%) showed good resistance
to strength loss throughout the leaching test compared to other
Fig. 6. Flexural strength results.
mixtures because of lower permeability associated with lower
porosity. The fine particles of metakaolin and silica fume con-
3.4. Permeability coefficient sumed the calcium hydroxide to a certain extent and reduced the
calcium hydroxide diffusion and transport from the cement paste
The permeability of pervious concrete is shown in Fig. 7. The matrix [51]. However, the strength loss significantly increases with
SBR latex produced a thick cement paste coating around aggregate the leaching duration due to the increase in calcium leaching from
particles, which assisted pervious concrete in achieving higher the calcium hydroxide and progressive decalcification of calcium
strength. However, porosity and permeability decreased due to silicate hydrate of cement paste. The permeability associated with
the filling of the voids among aggregates [6,7]. Pervious concrete the high porosity of pervious concrete facilitated the aggressive
produced with 5% silica fume had lowered permeability character- solution to be in contact with a large surface area of cement paste
istics; however, the reduction was less than mix B-L-S-5%. The that also favored the leaching processes and caused a significant
inclusion of metakaolin in mixtures significantly reduced voids reduction in strength [48,52]. On the other hand, the compressive
and porosity, thereby reducing the permeability of pervious con- strength loss of pervious concretes exposed to 90 days of leaching
crete [11]. The increase in partial replacement of cement from 5% caused a significant reduction in strength compared to 28 days of
to 10% with SBR latex, metakaolin, or both silica fume and meta- leaching exposure. The 90 days leaching had more influence on
kaolin reduced permeability by about 50% compared to the control changing the micro-pores of cement matrix to more macro-pores
mix. The permeability rate of B-L-10% is considerable low com- therefore negatively affecting the strength. The result indicates
pared to other mixtures and increased dosage of SBR latex from that the addition of silica fume, metakaolin and SBR latex polymers
5% to 10% causes a 39% reduction in permeability. The permeability into pervious concrete did not have a positive effect on retaining
of mixes D-MK-10%, E-MK-SF-10% and C-SF-10% reduced by 28%, the compressive strength in 90 days leaching. The plausible reason
could be meager amount of cementitious materials and SBR latex
partial replacement content, though the addition of cementitious
materials could consume the calcium hydroxide to some extent
and reduce the leaching of cement hydrates out of solid phase of
cement matrix. The addition of cementitious materials did not
show positive contribution in retaining the strength loss of pervi-
ous concrete due to highly porous structure of pervious concrete
and large contact area exposed to aggressive solution.

3.6. Mass loss of pervious concrete with leaching duration

Fig. 9 indicates that the control mix (A-350-S-5%) exhibited

excellent mass retention against the aggressive solution. The
polymer-modified mix (B-L-S-5%) showed a greater mass loss

Table 4
Compression strength and permeability before leaching test.

Mix ID Compressive strength (MPa) Permeability, K, (mm/sec)

A-350-S-5% 34.66 3.98
B-L-S-5% 34.26 5.88
C-SF-S-5% 38.73 2.68
D-MK-S-5% 35.28 3.88
E-MK-SF-S-5% 36.96 2.91
Fig. 7. Permeability of modified pervious concrete mixtures.

6
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

a) Strength loss in short term leaching (28 days) b) Strength loss in extended leaching (90 days)
Fig. 8. Compressive strength loss with leaching duration in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution.

a) Mass loss in short term leaching (28 days) b) Mass loss in extended leaching (90 days)
Fig. 9. Mass loss of pervious concrete with leaching duration in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution.

because of greater permeability and porosity, which assisted the 3.7. pH evolution with leaching duration
increase in mass loss during leaching. The mass loss of binary mod-
ified mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) was slightly greater than the control mix The increase in pH values was observed just after one day of
(A-350-S-5%) throughout leaching even though the permeability sample immersion in 6 M ammonium nitrate solution, where the
and associated porosity of mix E-MK-SF-S-5% were considerably pH values reached above 8. This increase in pH values is attributed
lower than control mix. The silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and metakao- to the large quantities of calcium hydroxide phase in pervious con-
lin modified (D-MK-S-5%) mixes had almost the same mass loss up crete that could release hydroxide ions to the solution, therefore
to 21 days of leaching even though the permeability and porosity increasing the pH of the aggressive solution. The pH values
of the metakaolin modified mixes were greater than the silica fume remained stable for few days in short-term leaching and the sys-
modified mix. The visual examination of all mixes during the tem tends toward equilibrium condition with constant pH; how-
leaching revealed no physical deterioration and damage; however, ever, the change in the pH value indicates that the dissolution of
a change in colour on the sample’s surface was observed. This dark calcium hydroxide continuously released hydroxide ion and the
grayish colour could be attributed to the leaching of calcium leaching was continued with high rate. The reason to drops in pH
hydroxide present in the cement paste matrix. The mass loss of value during leaching process was hypothesized to be the reaction
control mix (A-350-S-5%), SBR latex polymer-modified mix (B-L- between OH ions and carbon dioxide from the air. In the process
S-5%), silica fume modified mix (C-SF-S-5%), metakaolin modified of leaching, the containers were opened at specified days for mea-
mix (D-MK-S-5%) and binary modified mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) are in surement of mass and strength. For the mean time, CO2 might
the following order of 1.92%, 3.09%, 1.32%, 1.96% and 1.35% at enter into the containers and dissolved in solution. So this fluctua-
90 days of leaching. tion of pH could be possibly caused by opening times of the
7
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

a) pH evolution in short leaching (28 days) b) pH evolution in extended leaching (90 days)
Fig. 10. pH evolution of pervious concrete in 6 M ammonium nitrate solution.

container for measurement during the test. The pH profile of periodically and solution was collected for element concentration
aggressive solution of polymer-modified pervious concrete shows analysis. The collected solutions were acidified with 1% nitric acid,
a high increase in pH value with leaching duration. This shows that then analyses were conducted on inductively coupled plasma
the lixiviation process was steadily increasing with the leaching atomic emission spectrometry technique (Agilent 730.ICP-OES).
duration. The pH values are in the range from 7.5 to 8.5 for all per- The results are expressed in mg/l.
vious concretes immersed in the aggressive solution except silica The quantity of leached cumulative calcium (Ca+2) with leach-
fume modified pervious concrete. On the other hand, the fluctua- ing duration is illustrated in Fig. 11. The calcium hydroxide Ca
tion of the pH could also be influenced by temperature variation. (OH)2, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and other ions in pore solu-
The solubility of calcium hydroxide increases at lower tempera- tion are in chemical equilibrium. When the concentration of Ca+2 in
tures and decreases at higher temperature [51]. The pH value of the pore solution decreases, the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 supplies
the extended leaching test is more stable and follows the same more calcium ions from the cement hydrates to sustain the chem-
trend compared to 28 days leaching test, as shown in Fig. 10. ical equivalence. It is obvious that the complete dissolution of port-
landite (Ca(OH)2) occurred first, followed by progressive
decalcification of C-S-H alteration to silica-rich C-S-H [46]. The
3.8. Calcium ion concentration monitoring during leaching cumulative quantity of calcium ion leached out from mixes C-5%
(Cement paste and pervious concrete contained 5% silica fume)
The pH value of the initial 6 M ammonium nitrate solution was and E-5% (the binary combination of metakaolin and silica fume
approximately equal to 6. The pH of the solution below 9.5 is in cement paste and pervious concrete) are relatively small com-
essential for maintaining leaching acceleration [48]. Hence, the pared to mixes A-5%, B-5% and D-5%. The addition of silica fume
renewal of aggressive solution was avoided because the pH values and metakaolin into the cement paste could consume calcium
kept less than 9.1 and the volume of solution was enough to accel- hydroxide to a certain extent; thus, less calcium hydroxide was
erate the leaching process. The pH of the solution was measured available to leach out from the solid hydrates. The quantity of lea-
ched Ca+2 is significantly greater for polymer modified mixes (B-
5%) due to the increase of Ca(OH)2 with the incorporation of SBR
latex polymers into the mixes as well as the open pores structure
of pervious concrete could also accelerate leaching of calcium ions
from the cement hydrates [52]. The highest quantity of calcium
ions leached out from the SBR latex cement paste and pervious
concrete samples, followed by metakaolin modified mixes (D-5%)
and control mixes (A-5%) as shown in Fig. 11.

4. Durability performance of pervious concrete in saturated

condition

4.1. Freeze-thaw cycling

The relative average mass remaining as a function of freeze–

thaw cycles for pervious concrete is shown in Fig. 12. No serious
damage, edge break or crack development can be observed in the
control mix (A-350-S-5%); however, raveling of aggregates and
de-bonding lead to further loss in mass at the end of freeze–thaw
Fig. 11. Change in calcium ion concentration with leaching duration. cycling. The frost damage of the control mix (A-350-S-5%) suggests
8
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Fig. 12. Freeze-Thaw durability performance based on mass loss criteria.

that proper compaction and addition of 5% fine sand by weight of capillary gel porosity. Moreover, the progressive freezing and
coarse aggregate can significantly improve the freeze–thaw resis- thawing would further coarsen the voids and developed more seri-
tance of pervious concrete [10]. At the early stage of freeze–thaw ous damage and surface deterioration in pervious concrete [54].
cycling, the degree of saturation was low and insignificant deteri- The results of mass loss with leaching and progressive freeze–thaw
oration occurred; however, once the critical degree of saturation cycling are shown in Fig. 13. The mass loss due to one-week leach-
is reached, rapid damage would develop with the progression of ing is small; however, the influence of leaching significantly inten-
freeze–thaw cycling [41]. Mixes B-L-S-5% and B-L-S-10% failed at sifies the damage produced by progressive freeze–thaw cycling.
125 and 200F-T cycles with 26% and 22% mass loss, respectively. Leaching itself does not cause any dislodging of aggregate particles
The mass loss of mixes B-L-S-5% and B-L-S-10% grows much faster from the surface of pervious concrete; nevertheless, the combined
and accelerated by substantial uptake of water during consecutive attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling amplify the deteriora-
F-T cycles. The increase in dosage of SBR latex from 5% to 10% in tion leading to more severe damage than individual mechanism
mixes improved the resistance to F-T cycling. Although SBR latex [55]. The initial porosity of pervious concrete plays a crucial role
significantly improved the strength of pervious concrete with good in the damage development during the combined attack. The
workability and ease of compaction, freeze–thaw resistance of SBR increase of SBR latex from 5% to 10% in the mixture did not consid-
latex mixes is inferior compare to mixes produced with supple- erably enhance the resistance to combined attack compare to
mentary cementitious materials (SCMs) [40]. Pervious concrete cementitious modified pervious concrete. The increase of supple-
produced with 10% silica fume and 5% fine sand, i.e. (C-SF-S-10%) mentary cementitious materials (silica fume, metakaolin and both
showed excellent freeze–thaw performance compare to the control in the same mix) from 5% to 10% significantly enhance the resis-
mix (A-350-S-5%) made with only 5% fine sand. Silica fume fine tance of pervious concrete to combined attack. The results indicate
particles created dense microstructure increasing the resistance that the combine attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling cause
to frost damage [34,53]. The metakaolin modified pervious con- severe surface deterioration and internal damage compare to indi-
crete (D-MK-S-5%) survived more F-T cycles compare to vidual contribution of freeze–thaw cycling. Pervious concrete
polymer-modified (B-L-S-5%) and silica fume modified concrete modified with silica fume (C-SF-S-5%), metakaolin (D-MK-S-5%)
(C-SF-S-5%). Mix D-MK-S-5% underwent 225 frost cycles with and binary mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) showed greater resistance to com-
24% mass loss at the end of the test. Severe surface scaling and bined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling compare to con-
deterioration of coarse aggregate caused an increase in mass loss trol mixture (A-350-S-5%) and polymer modified mixture (B-L-S-
after 125 cycles; however, the increase of mass loss of mix D- 5%).
MK-S-5% is less and more gradual than C-SF-S-5% and B-L-S-5%,
respectively. The denser microstructure due to the filler effect of
4.3. SEM investigation of pervious concrete before and after exposure
metakaolin improved the resistance of metakaolin modified mix
in 6 M NH4NO3 solution
(D-MK-S-10%) to fatigue loading of freezing and thawing [57].
The inclusion of metakaolin (MK) and silica fume (SF) in the mixes
Fig. 14 (a & b) and 15 (d, e & f) display the films of polymer and
also improved the resistance to F-T cycling. The crack developed in
cement hydrates comingle working together contributes to the
the samples passed partially through cement paste, and the aggre-
strength development and ductility of polymer-modified pervious
gate interface further aggravated the de-bonding of aggregate with
concrete. The foil like films interleave in the cement hydration
the increase in F-T cycling.
products, enhancing the flexibility and contact interfacial bonding
among aggregate particles. The portlandite crystals embedded in
4.2. Combined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling the C-S-H gel at the 28 days of normal curing; however, with the
polymerization of polymers and cement hydrate products inter-
Water infiltration through highly porous voids in pervious con- mingle together produced dense matrix; therefore, polymer-
crete may create a scenario for leaching of cement hydrates, which modified pervious concrete gained greater strength at later curing
could pose a detrimental effect on the strength development and age [8,56]. The fine particles of silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and poz-
durability of pervious concrete. The calcium hydroxide leaching zolanic reaction generated compact and dense microstructure,
could coarsen the porosity of cement paste matrix and progressive facilitating the strength development and resistance to freeze–
decalcification of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) increases the thaw fatigue loading. The partial replacement of cement with
9
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

a) Pervious concrete produced with 5% SCMs b) Pervious concrete produced with 10% SCMs
Fig. 13. Accumulative mass loss of pervious concrete exposed to the combined attack of leaching and F-T Cycling.

Polymer latex crystal

Microcrack

Polymers covered cement hydrates C-S-H

Ca(OH)2 embedded in polymer latex

a) Polymer modified mix B-L-10% (28 days) b) Polymer modified mix -B-L-10% (90 days) c) Silica fume modified mix (C-SF-10%)

AFt

Tightly packed hydrated matrix

Cracks in matrix

d) Metakaolin modified mix (D-MK-10%) e) Binary mix (E-MK-SF-10%) f) Binary mix (E-MK-SF-10%)

Fig. 14. SEM investigation of pervious concrete mixes after 90 days of normal curing.

pozzolanic materials remarkably improved the densification of mix (E-SF-MK) at both 5% and 10% substitution significantly
microstructure; however, minor cracks were observed in the improved the mechanical interface bonding among aggregate
matrix structure. The microstructure of SCMs modified mixes indi- particles, which ultimately improve the strength development of
cates that the inclusion of silica fume and metakaolin exerted a pervious concrete. The optimization of polycarboxylate superplas-
positive influence on the densification of the matrix with the assis- ticizer at various trials adjusts the dosage of superplasticizer
tance of polycarboxylate superplasticizer. The fine particles of sil- for pervious concrete with no accumulation of silica fume-
ica fume and metakaolin are uniformly distributed in the matrix metakaolin fine particles in cement hydration products and no dif-
with no accumulation of fine particles on the surface of cement ficulty was observed in the rheology of cement paste. The partial
hydrates; therefore, the cementitious matrix remained more replacement of cement with silica fume and metakaolin helped
uniform, compact and intact with the decreased in plate like cal- in the mechanical interlocking and dense microstructure mainte-
cium hydrate crystals and flocculent of C-S-H gel [57]. The binary nance by the means of pozzolanic reaction. Therefore, the physical
10
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

actions of mineral admixtures provided a denser, more homoge- is attributed to the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 crystals, which are dis-
nous and uniform cement paste matrix suggesting better syner- solved first during the calcium leaching followed by progressive
getic performance between silica fume and metakaolin [58-59]. decalcification of calcium–silicate–hydrates (C-S-H) from
The cauliflower and porous structure after 28 and 90 days leaching calcium-rich type C-S-H progressively turned into the silicon-rich

Porous structure

Porous
C-S-H
Cracks in Ca(OH)2 on surface of
matrix i l

a) A-350-S-5% (28-days curing) b) A-350-S-5% (28-days leached) c) A-350-S-5% (90-days leached)

Polymer films bridges cement hydrates C-S-H gel in fine foil

Polymer films
CH covered cement
hydrates Porous
structure
Porous
structure

d) B-L-S-5% (28-days curing) e) B-L-S-5% (28-days leached) f) B-L-S-5% (90-days leached)

C-H crystals embedded in C-S-H

Tightly packed
hydrated C-S-H gels C-S-H
Pore
Ca(OH)2 on surface of
C-S-H gels i l

g) C-SF-S-5% (28-days curing) h) C-SF-S-5% (28-days leached) i) C-SF-S-5% (90-days leached)

Porous amorphous Ca(OH)2 on surface of

structure materials

C-S-
Crack passes H
through cement C-S-H
paste

j) D-MK-S-5% (28-days curing) k) D-MK-S-5% (28-days leached) l) D-MK-S-5% (90-days leached)

Fig. 15. SEM investigation of pervious concrete mixes at normal curing, 28 and 90 days leached in 6 M NH4NO3 solution.

11
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Ca(OH)2 on surface of
i l

Porous

Compacted cement paste

m) E-MK-SF-S-5% (28-days curing) n) E-MK-SF-S-5% (28-days leached) o) E-MK-SF-S-5% (90-days leached)

Fig. 15 (continued)

C-S-H as shown in Fig. 15. The dissolution and rapid decalcification caused a decrease in the volume fraction of solid phases in
of Ca(OH)2 lead to increased macro porosity, while the progressive the cement matrix and consequently increased the porosity,
decalcification of calcium–silicate–hydrates (C-S-H) forms micro which ultimately reduced the strength and durability perfor-
gel pores [60]. After 90 days of leaching, the microstructure of all mance of pervious concrete.
previous concrete samples changes significantly and the calcium- 4) The damage and mass loss caused by combined attack of cal-
rich C-S-H altered to silicon-rich C-S-H with a more porous and cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling are greater than the
non-uniform matrix. The morphology of the cement paste matrix individual mechanism of freeze–thaw cycling or calcium
changes during long exposure to the aggressive solution. The leaching. The combined attack significantly increased the
needle-shaped crystals of gypsum formed on the surface of deterioration and destruction of pervious concrete com-
cement-based materials when the Ca2+ ions on the surface of C- pared to samples exposed to only individual action of leach-
S-H dissolved and combined with SO24 , therefore the Ca/Si ratio ing or freeze–thaw mechanism. Leaching itself does not
of C-S-H decreased [61]. The comparison of mass change calcula- cause any dislodging of aggregate particles from the surface
tion with leaching confirmed that leaching of Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H of pervious concrete; however, the combined attack of cal-
contributes to the mass and strength loss of the samples. cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling amplifies the deteri-
oration and damage, leading to more severe damage than
5. Conclusion the individual mechanism.

This research aimed at evaluating the use of silica fume, meta- CRediT authorship contribution statement
kaolin and SBR latex polymers on the mechanical and durability
degradation of pervious concrete exposed to freeze–thaw cycling, Hassan Bilal: Investigation, Software, Validation, Formal analy-
calcium leaching and the combined attack of calcium leaching sis, Data curation, Writing - original draft. Tiefeng Chen: Investiga-
and freeze–thaw cycling. Results indicated how supplementary tion, Software, Writing - review & editing. Miao Ren: Formal
cementitious materials were beneficial to improve the durability analysis, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Xiaojian Gao:
of the pervious concrete. The following conclusions can be derived: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review &
editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
1) Proper compaction and 5% fine sand inclusion in pervious Anshuang Su: Data curation, Writing - review & editing.
concrete mixes were demonstrated to be efficient in enhanc-
ing the strength and durability performance with adequate Declaration of Competing Interest
permeability and being better than the SBR latex modified
pervious concrete. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
2) The replacement of silica fume, metakaolin and binary com-
bination of silica fume and metakaolin from 5 to 10% in per- Acknowledgements
vious concrete could help to achieve better mechanical and
durability performance with acceptable permeability and This research study was supported by the National Natural
porosity. The optimum content of supplementary cementi- Science Foundation of China (No. 51778188) and the Practical
tious materials (SCMs) was found to be 10% based on Technology Research and Development Program of Heilongjiang
improvement in mechanical and freeze–thaw durability per- Province-China [GA20C010].
formance of pervious concrete with acceptable functional
properties.
References
3) The leaching of calcium ions from the cement hydrates with
the leaching duration had a significantly negative effect on [1] ACI Committee 522 (2010). Report on Pervious Concrete 522R-10, American
the mass and strength loss of pervious concrete. The addi- Concrete Institute, Report of ACI Committee 522, ACI 522R-10, (2010).
[2] P.D. Tennis, M.L. Leming, D.J. Akers, Pervious concrete pavements, Portland
tion of silica fume and binary combination of silica fume
Cement Association Skokie, IL, 2004.
and metakaolin in cement paste matrix showed the best [3] K. Wang, V. Schaefer, J. Kevern, M. Suleiman, Development of mix proportion
resistance to calcium leaching. The compressive strength for functional and durable pervious concrete, NRMCA Concrete Technology
significantly decreased due to the dissolution of calcium Forum: Focus on Pervious Concrete, 2006, pp. 24-25.
[4] T. Chen, X. Gao, Use of carbonation curing to improve mechanical strength and
hydroxide (C–H) and progressive decalcification of calcium durability of pervious concrete, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 8 (9) (2020) 3872–
silicate hydrates (C-S-H). These morphological changes 3884, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b07348.

12
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

[5] T. Kevern John, R. Schaefer Vernon, Mixture proportioning considerations for [30] NRMCA, Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Pervious Concrete, National Ready Mixed
improved freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete, ISCORD (2013), https:// Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Maryland, 2004.
doi.org/10.1061/9780784412978.046. [31] V. Henderson, S. Tighe, Evaluation of pervious concrete pavement performance
[6] X. Shu, B. Huang, H. Wu, Q. Dong, E.G. Burdette, Performance comparison of in cold weather climates, Int. J. Pavement Eng. 13 (3) (2012) 197–208, https://
laboratory and field produced pervious concrete mixtures, Constr. Build. doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.572970.
Mater. 25 (8) (2011) 3187–3192, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [32] X. Cui, J. Zhang, D. Huang, X. Gong, Z. Liu, F. Hou, S. Cui, Measurement of
j.conbuildmat.2011.03.002. permeability and the correlation between permeability and strength of
[7] B. Huang, H. Wu, X. Shu, E.G. Burdette, Laboratory evaluation of pervious concrete, DEStech Trans. Eng. Tech. Res. (ICTIM) (2017), https://doi.
permeability and strength of polymer-modified pervious concrete, Constr. org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002058.
Build. Mater. 24 (5) (2010) 818–823, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [33] S.W. Dean, J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, M.T. Suleiman, Pervious
j.conbuildmat.2009.10.025. concrete mixture proportions for improved freeze-thaw durability, J. ASTM Int.
[8] H. Wu, Z. Liu, B. Sun, J. Yin, Experimental investigation on freeze–thaw 5 (2) (2008) 101320, https://doi.org/10.1520/JAI101320.
durability of Portland cement pervious concrete (PCPC), Constr. Build. Mater. [34] J. Yang, G. Jiang, Experimental study on properties of pervious concrete
117 (2016) 63–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.130. pavement materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (3) (2003) 381–386, https://doi.org/
[9] C. Lian, Y. Zhuge, Optimum mix design of enhanced permeable concrete – an 10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00966-3.
experimental investigation, Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (12) (2010) 2664–2671, [35] M. Suleiman, J. Kevern, V. Schaefer, K. Wang, Effect of compaction energy on
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.057. pervious concrete properties, Submitted to Concrete Technology Forum-Focus
[10] A. Bonicelli, F. Giustozzi, M. Crispino, Experimental study on the effects of fine on Pervious Concrete, National Ready Mix Concrete Association, Nashville, TN,
sand addition on differentially compacted pervious concrete, Constr. Build. May, 2006, pp. 23-25.
Mater. 91 (2015) 102–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [36] F. Giustozzi, Polymer-modified pervious concrete for durable and sustainable
j.conbuildmat.2015.05.012. transportation infrastructures, Constr. Build. Mater. 111 (2016) 502–512,
[11] N. Saboo, S. Shivhare, K.K. Kori, A.K. Chandrappa, Effect of fly ash and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.136.
metakaolin on pervious concrete properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 223 (2019) [37] J.T. Kevern, K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, pervious concrete in severe exposures,
322–328, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.185. Concr. Int. 30 (07) (2008) 43–49.
[12] J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, Mixture proportion development and [38] I. Anderson, D. Walsh, L. Oka, M.M. Dewoolkar, S. Limberg, A. Sevi, E.
performance evaluation of pervious concrete for overlay applications, ACI Schmeckpeper, Laboratory Performance of Pervious Concrete Subjected to
Mater. J. 108 (4) (2011) 439–448. Deicing Salts and Freeze-Thaw, 2015.
[13] X. Yang, J. Liu, H. Li, Q. Ren, Performance and ITZ of pervious concrete modified [39] C. Tsang, M.H. Shehata, A. Lotfy, Optimizing a test method to evaluate
by vinyl acetate and ethylene copolymer dispersible powder, Constr. Build. resistance of pervious concrete to cycles of freezing and thawing in the
Mater. 235 (2020) 117532, https://doi.org/10.1016/ presence of different deicing salts, Materials, 9 (11) (2016), https://doi.org/
j.conbuildmat.2019.117532. 10.3390/ma9110878.
[14] L. Qin, X. Gao, A. Su, Q. Li, Effect of carbonation curing on sulfate resistance of [40] K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, J.T. Kevern, M.T. Suleiman, Development
cement-coal gangue paste, J. Cleaner Prod. 278 (2021) 123897, https://doi.org/ of mix proportion for functional and durable pervious concrete, 2006,
10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123897. pp. 24-25.
[15] X. Liu, B. Ma, H. Tan, S. Jian, Z. Lv, P. Chen, T. Zhang, H. Qi, P. Wang, W. Lu, [41] Z. Yang, Freezing-and-thawing durability of pervious concrete under
Utilization of turmeric residue for the preparation of ceramic foam, J. Cleaner simulated field conditions, MJ 108 (2) (2011) 187–195.
Prod. 278 (2021) 123825, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123825. [42] Z. Yang, H. Brown, A. Cheney, Influence of moisture conditions on freeze
[16] H. Li, Z. Xue, G. Liang, K. Wu, B. Dong, W. Wang, Effect of C-S-Hs-PCE and and thaw durability of Portland cement pervious concrete, Citeseer (2006)
sodium sulfate on the hydration kinetics and mechanical properties of cement 24–25.
paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 266 (2021) 121096, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [43] J.T. Kevern, D. Biddle, Q. Cao, Effects of macrosynthetic fibers on pervious
j.conbuildmat.2020.121096. concrete properties, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27 (9) (2015) 06014031, https://doi.org/
[17] H. Li, C. Xu, B. Dong, Q. Chen, L. Gu, X. Yang, Enhanced performances of cement 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001213.
and powder silane based waterproof mortar modified by nucleation C-S-H [44] W.S. Guthrie, C.B. DeMille, D.L. Eggett, Effects of soil clogging and water
seed, Constr. Build. Mater. 246 (2020) 118511, https://doi.org/10.1016/ saturation on freeze–thaw durability of pervious concrete, Transp. Res. Rec.
j.conbuildmat.2020.118511. 2164 (1) (2010) 89–97, https://doi.org/10.3141/2164-12.
[18] X. Xie, T. Zhang, Y. Yang, Z. Lin, J. Wei, Q. Yu, Maximum paste coating thickness [45] T. Chen, X. Gao, How carbonation curing influences calcium leaching of
without voids clogging of pervious concrete and its relationship to the Portland cement paste: mechanism and mathematical modeling, J. Am. Ceram.
rheological properties of cement paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 168 (2018) 732– Soc. 102 (2019) 7755–7767, https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.16684.
746, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.128. [46] K. Wan, L. Li, W. Sun, Solid–liquid equilibrium curve of calcium in 6mol/L
[19] B.E. Jimma, P.R. Rangaraju, Film-forming ability of flowable cement pastes and ammonium nitrate solution, Cem. Concr. Res. 53 (2013) 44–50, https://doi.org/
its application in mixture proportioning of pervious concrete, Constr. Build. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.003.
Mater. 71 (2014) 273–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [47] Z. Mo, X. Gao, A. Su, Mechanical performances and microstructures of
j.conbuildmat.2014.08.018. metakaolin contained UHPC matrix under steam curing conditions, Constr.
[20] A. Torres, J. Hu, A. Ramos, The effect of the cementitious paste thickness on the Build. Mater. 268 (2021) 121112, https://doi.org/10.1016/
performance of pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 95 (2015) 850–859, j.conbuildmat.2020.121112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.187. [48] F.H. Heukamp, F.-J. Ulm, J.T. Germaine, Mechanical properties of calcium-
[21] P. Chindaprasirt, S. Hatanaka, N. Mishima, Y. Yuasa, T. Chareerat, Effects of leached cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (5) (2001) 767–774, https://doi.
binder strength and aggregate size on the compressive strength and void ratio org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00472-0.
of porous concrete, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 16 (6) (2009) 714–719, https:// [49] A.S. Agar-Ozbek, J. Weerheijm, E. Schlangen, K. van Breugel, Investigating
doi.org/10.1016/S1674-4799(10)60018-0. porous concrete with improved strength: testing at different scales, Constr.
[22] G. Xu, W. Shen, X. Huo, Z. Yang, J. Wang, W. Zhang, X. Ji, Investigation on the Build. Mater. 41 (2013) 480–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/
properties of porous concrete as road base material, Constr. Build. Mater. 158 j.conbuildmat.2012.12.040.
(2018) 141–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.151. [50] F. Xu, M. Zhou, J. Chen, S. Ruan, Mechanical performance evaluation of
[23] L. Haselbach, M. Boyer, J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, Cyclic heat island impacts on polyester fiber and SBR latex compound-modified cement concrete road
traditional versus pervious concrete pavement systems, Transp. Res. Rec. 2240 overlay material, Constr. Build. Mater. 63 (2014) 142–149, https://doi.org/
(1) (2011) 107–115, https://doi.org/10.3141/2240-14. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.054.
[24] Environmental Protection Agency, Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet— [51] S. Kamali, M. Moranville, S. Leclercq, Material and environmental parameter
Porous Pavement, Office of Water, Washington, DC, EPA 832-F-99-023, Sept. effects on the leaching of cement pastes: experiments and modelling, Cem.
1999. Concr. Res. 38 (4) (2008) 575–585, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[25] V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, M.T. Suleiman, J.T. Kevern, Mix design development for cemconres.2007.10.009.
pervious concrete in cold weather climates, 2006. [52] D.H. Nguyen, M. Boutouil, N. Sebaibi, F. Baraud, L. Leleyter, Durability of
[26] A. Ibrahim, E. Mahmoud, M. Yamin, V.C. Patibandla, Experimental study on pervious concrete using crushed seashells, Constr. Build. Mater. 135 (2017)
Portland cement pervious concrete mechanical and hydrological properties, 137–150, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.219.
Constr. Build. Mater. 50 (2014) 524–529, https://doi.org/10.1016/ [53] R. Zhong, K. Wille, Material design and characterization of high performance
j.conbuildmat.2013.09.022. pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 98 (2015) 51–60, https://doi.org/
[27] K. Ćosić, L. Korat, V. Ducman, I. Netinger, Influence of aggregate type and size 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.027.
on properties of pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 78 (2015) 69–76, [54] L. Liu, X. Wang, J. Zhou, H. Chu, D. Shen, H. Chen, S. Qin, Investigation of pore
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.073. structure and mechanical property of cement paste subjected to the coupled
[28] Y.u. Chen, K. Wang, X. Wang, W. Zhou, Strength, fracture and fatigue of action of freezing/thawing and calcium leaching, Cem. Concr. Res. 109 (2018)
pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 42 (2013) 97–104, https://doi.org/ 133–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.015.
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.006. [55] M. Rosenqvist, L.-W. Pham, A. Terzic, K. Fridh, M. Hassanzadeh, Effects of
[29] J.T. Kevern, K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, Effect of coarse aggregate on the freeze- interactions between leaching, frost action and abrasion on the surface
thaw durability of pervious concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 (5) (2010) 469–475, deterioration of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 149 (2017) 849–860, https://
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000049. doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.137.

13
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

[56] W. Shen, L. Shan, T. Zhang, H. Ma, Z. Cai, H. Shi, Investigation on polymer– [59] T. Zhang, B. Ma, H. Tan, X. Liu, P. Chen, Z. Luo, Effect of TIPA on mechanical
rubber aggregate modified porous concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 38 (2013) properties and hydration properties of cement-lithium slag system, J. Environ.
667–674, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.006. Manage. 276 (2020) 111274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111274.
[57] P. Duan, Z. Shui, W. Chen, C. Shen, Effects of metakaolin, silica fume and slag on [60] Q.T. Phung, N. Maes, D. Jacques, G. De Schutter, G. Ye, Investigation of the
pore structure, interfacial transition zone and compressive strength of changes in microstructure and transport properties of leached cement pastes
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 44 (2013) 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1016/ accounting for mix composition, Cem. Concr. Res. 79 (2016) 217–234, https://
j.conbuildmat.2013.02.075. doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.09.017.
[58] J. Zhang, H. Tan, M. Bao, X. Liu, Z. Luo, P. Wang, Low carbon cementitious [61] X. Wang, K. Xu, Y. Li, S. Guo, Dissolution and leaching mechanisms of calcium
materials: sodium sulfate activated ultra-fine slag/fly ash blends at ambient ions in cement based materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 180 (2018) 103–108,
temperature, J. Cleaner Prod. 280 (2021) 124363, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.225.
jclepro.2020.124363.

14