Durability testing procedure for washing

machines – approach and first learnings

Rainer Stamminger Fulvio Ardente Fabrice Mathieux

Universität Bonn European Commission, Joint Research Centre European Commission, Joint Research Centre
Household and Appliance Technology Section (JRC) (JRC), Directorate D – Sustainable Resources,
Nussallee 5 Directorate D – Sustainable Resources Unit D3 – Land Resources
53115 Bonn Unit D3 – Land Resources Via E. Fermi 2749, T.P. 290
Germany Via E. Fermi 2749 I-21027 Ispra (VA)
stamminger@uni-bonn.de T.P. 290 Italy
I-21027 Ispra (VA) fabrice.mathieux@ec.europa.eu
Paolo Tecchio Italy
European Commission, Joint Research Centre fulvio.ardente@ec.europa.eu Phoebe Niestrath
(JRC), Directorate D – Sustainable Resources, Universität Bonn
Unit D3 – Land Resources Household and Appliance Technology Section
Via E. Fermi 2749, T.P. 290 Nussallee 5
I-21027 Ispra (VA) 53115 Bonn
Italy Germany
paolo.tecchio@ec.europa.eu phoebe@niestrath.de

Keywords
washing machines, indoor air quality, durability, stress testing tions of the control procedure regarding unbalance loads dif-
fer from machine to machine. Therefore, future developments
will need to replace the series of spinning cycles with various
Abstract washing programmes, and the fixed unbalanced loads with real
Durable products allow to reduce the consumption of raw loads, paying attention to limit the time required by the test.
materials long-term and to contribute to waste minimization. The outcomes of this research can be used as a basis to develop
Thus, durability plays a key role to enhance circular economy standardized durability tests and to hence contribute to the de-
and resource conservation, for example in the category of elec- velopment of future product’s policy measures.
trical and electronic equipment. However, it was observed that
the average lifetime of these products has decreased over recent
years. We identified the washing machine product group as a Introduction
relevant case study for the development of a durability test, and Durability of products has the potential to play a key role to
as a potential trigger to systematically address durability in the enhance circular economy and resource conservation. Product
design of products. The main objective of this research was to lifespan extension is indeed among the main product design
develop a procedure to test minimum durability performance strategies to address material efficiency (Allwood and Cullen,
of washing machines, on which limitations and potentials for 2012; Ghisellini et al., 2015). Ardente and Mathieux (2014),
future improvements would be highlighted. The procedure was and Tecchio et al. (2016a) proved through a life-cycle based
developed to potentially be used in policy. approach that environmental benefits may be gained by ex-
The durability test was developed considering the whole tending the lifespan of washing machines, even when this life-
product tested under overstressed conditions. A series of spin- time extension delays the purchasing of a more energy efficient
ning cycles with fixed unbalanced loads was run on two wash- product. Evaluations were done considering average products,
ing machines, to observe failures and performance changes lifetime extensions of 1–6 years and energy efficiency improve-
during the test. Even though no hard failures occurred, results ments of newer products up to 20 %, compared to the old ones.
clearly showed that not all of the washing machines are able to Similar conclusions were also drawn for other products
sustain such a test without abrasion, or performance deteriora- groups: vacuum cleaners (Bobba et al., 2016), dishwashers (Tec-
tion. The proposed test allowed to have results in a relatively chio et al., 2016b), refrigerators (Bakker et al., 2014; Ricardo-
short amount of efforts and time, which makes it compatible AEA, 2015), ovens (Ricardo-AEA, 2015), notebooks (Bakker et
with policy constraints. al., 2014; Prakash et al., 2012) and desktop computers (Prakash
However, the attempt to mimic the stress induced on a wash- et al., 2016b). Durable products allow also to reduce the con-
ing machine by doing a high number of pure spinning cycles sumption of raw materials and to contribute to waste minimi-
with fixed loads did not allow equal testing conditions: The ac- sation (European Commission, 2008; European Union, 2008).

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Durability is however a material efficiency aspect not easy whole machine and many failures are associated with the tub/
to evaluate upfront. Endurance tests in real life condition of- drum system (Prakash et al., 2016a).
ten last months (if not years) and are expensive. Therefore, we Engineers in the manufacturing industries have used accel-
developed an accelerated durability test that can be potentially erated life test (ALT) experiments for many years (Escobar and
automated to reduce time and cost of testing. Such a test fo- Meeker, 2007). ALTs with overstressed conditions try to simu-
cuses on the spinning function, as spinning is the main source late the actual user behaviour and can be an effective method
of mechanical stress during of a washing programme. of acceleration for washing machines. However, establishing a
Experiments were run with three main issues to address: 1) relationship between ALT experiments and the actual failure
to verify if washing machines currently on the market are able mechanism of a washing machine is usually extremely compli-
to sustain a series of stress without any hard failure, 2) to de- cated (Escobar and Meeker, 2007).
fine procedure parameters and to evaluate the degradation of
a washing machine performance over time, and 3) to identify
possible further developments, based on identified limitations Method
and potentials. Starting from a literature review focused on Spinning at a high speed is the most stressful part of a washing
life cycle perspectives, obsolescence and durability tests at the programme, for a horizontal axis WM, therefore weak points
product level, a durability test is the introduced in the meth- on the mechanical design of such machines may be identified
odological section. Two exemplary washing machines were through a series of spinning cycles. The task of this research
used as case studies to test the developed procedure. Finally, consisted of developing a durability procedure mainly based
outcomes were discussed in regards of the feasibility of the pro- on spinning cycles, in order to reduce time and cost of testing,
posed durability test, highlighting final remarks, opportunities compared to conventional endurance tests. Even though the
and drawbacks. testing conditions do not reflect the real conditions WMs are
working in real life, experiments were conducted to understand
if such a concept can deliver useful information to assess the
Scientific background durability of washing machines.

LIFE CYCLE PERSPECTIVE AND OBSOLESCENCE METHOD DEVELOPMENT

Regarding the overall life cycle of a washing machine, the use The work conducted by Tucci et al. (2014) and De Carlo et al.
phase can be considered the most important contributor to (2013), and private communications with a WM manufacturer
environmental impacts such as cumulative energy demand were used as a foundation of our durability test. As almost all
(80 %) (Rüdenauer et al., 2005) and global warming potential washing machines offer programmes that either allow the spin-
(84 %), while impact categories mainly dependent on resource ning or a rinsing cycle combined with a final spinning cycle, the
depletion (i.e. abiotic depletion of elements) are largely affected proposed test is based exclusively on the spinning programme.
by the production phase, which includes the impact of the ex- The “rinse & spin” program, which was used by the consumer
traction and refining of materials, manufacturing and packag- organization Altroconsumo (2015) for an assessment of WM
ing (Tecchio et al., 2016a). Moreover, the improvements of the durability and reparability, could be adopted for future devel-
efficiency of products during the use phase generally imply a opments of the method. Aligned with relevant literature, the
relative shift of environmental impacts towards the production durability test includes the execution of 500 spinning cycles,
phase, for example due to the higher amount and complexity run in series on the same machine. During each spinning cycle,
of electronic components (Rüdenauer et al., 2005). On average, an unbalanced load of maximum 500 g is fixed on the drum of
the expected lifetime of a washing machine can be estimated the machine, in order to simulate an overstressed condition,
in 12,5 years (JRC, 2016). However, it was found that products and the machine is asked to reach the highest spin speed. After
are more and more experiencing early failures. According to each spinning cycle, the washing machine is allowed to rest
Prakash et al. (2016a), more than 10 % of the washing machines and cool down for at least 10 min. The duration of the spin-
disposed at municipal collection points or recycling centres in ning cycle is measured. During each spinning cycle, the spin
2013 were just 5 years old or less. speed is measured. Spinning duration, as in figures 3 and 4, is
defined as the duration of spinning at maximum spin speed
DURABILITY TESTS AT THE PRODUCT LEVEL with a tolerance of 30 rpm.
In order to understand possible failure modes and the rel- The maximum unbalanced load considered in this proce-
evance of tests at the product level instead of the components dure was initially fixed to 500 g. Differently from De Carlo et al.
level, a detailed analysis of washing machine failure modes was (2013), who adopted heavier unbalance loads, the present test
carried out by some of the authors, who analysed and catego- does not bypass the machine control procedure for unbalance
rizes thousands of repair services (Tecchio et al., 2016a). Most with external controls. The standard IEC 60335-2-7 (2012) re-
recurring failure modes involved the electronics (including quires slightly higher loads (200 g or 10 % of the rated capacity,
control electronics, control panels, program selectors, relays, whichever is greater), but for 4 cycles only; furthermore the
line filters, etc.), shock absorbers and bearings, doors (includ- endurance test is run for safety purpose.
ing seals, handles, hinges and locks) and motor carbon brushes. Initial, intermediate and final inspections of the machines
Another analysis, conducted through different sources of infor- were included. These are conducted through visual inspec-
mation (consumer reports, consumer organization test reports tion of the accessible components (especially for initial and
on life tests, service reports, manufacturer feedback) revealed final inspections), and by performing washing programmes
that the spinning operation is a main source of stress for the according to EN 60456 standardized procedures (IEC 60456,

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2010). Modifications of the EN 60456 procedure have been WM B only showed an expected profile (up to 1,600 rpm) for
included for practical reasons: no soiled test strips and no de- the lowest unbalanced weight of 200 g (Figure 2). For higher
tergent for washing performance measurements are used, as unbalanced weights, the machine repeatedly tried to distrib-
the only monitored parameters are water consumption, elec- ute the load more equally on the drum surface and, when this
tricity consumption, time and spin speed profile. At the end failed, decided to spin at lower spin speeds.
of such a washing programme the weight of the spun load Seeing both results, it was decided to start the spinning tests
is recorded and the remaining moisture content (RMC) is with an unbalanced load of 300 g for both machines.
calculated using the conditioned weight of the load (see EN
60456 for details). These washing programmes are done every
100 spinning cycles, for a total of 5 washing cycles during the Results
spinning test, plus another washing programme conducted
after the initial inspection. During the washing programmes, WM A: SPINNING CYCLES
the unbalanced load is removed from the machine. Spin Figure 3 shows the maximum spin speed and spinning dura-
speed, energy consumption and water consumption are meas- tion for WM A from spinning cycle 1 to 500. Regular gaps
ured through appropriate sensors and recorded continuously. between the data indicate the execution of the washing cycle
Any failure or deterioration of the WM has been monitored after all 100  spinning cycles. It is also indicated the unbal-
during the test. anced weight used. The initial unbalance load of 300 g was
chosen as for this mass, both machines showed in the initial
METHOD TESTING PHASE test a straightforward spinning without redistribution phase
Two washing machines from different manufacturers were se- WM A performed at these conditions without any problems.
lected for the test, called WM A and WM B. Both machines Therefore, after 159 spinning cycles it was decided to increase
are currently on the market, declared in Energy Efficiency the weight of the unbalance mass to 500  g, the maximum
class A+++ (EU Regulation), declared highest spin speed at unbalanced load considered for this test, for the remaining
1,600 rpm and spinning performance class A (RMC < 45 %). spinning cycles. WM A showed a constant spinning rate at a
Both are declared having a maximum washing capacity of 8 kg spin speed of 1,605–1,610 rpm for about 145 sec most times.
of cotton load. The increase of the unbalanced load at the 160th cycle caused
During the spinning cycles, rubber plates have been used to a reduction of the spinning time to about 107 sec for about
mimic a constant imbalance. These plates were placed to the 50 % of the cycles, then returning at the usual average dura-
inner drum surface with a spring rod fixed to the opposite side tion of 145  sec. It was observed that WM A moved about
of the drum. 10 cm away from its original standing position in 20 cycles,
At first, both machines were operated with different fixed although it was positioned well at the beginning of the test
unbalanced weights to see how the control procedure for un- series. This movement always occurs in the first spinning tests
balance works. of the day after the unbalanced weight was increased to 500 g.
WM A delivered the same spinning profile for all unbalanced The machine was always placed back to the original position
weights up to 500 g (Figure 1). for the next cycle.

Figure 1. Spin speed profiles of WM A, recorded during the extra spinning programme for various fixed unbalanced weights.

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Figure 2. Spin speed profiles of WM B, recorded during the extra spinning programme for various fixed unbalanced weights.

Figure 3. Spinning profile parameters: maximum spin speed and spinning duration for WM A from cycle 1 to 500. Regular gaps between the
data indicate the execution of the washing cycle after all 100 spinning cycles.

WM B: SPINNING CYCLES Then, the maximum spin speed dropped to below 1,500 rpm
WM B (Figure 4) showed a more variable behaviour. At the be- and the duration varied between 120 and 180  sec. From the
ginning, the maximum spin speed reached was only 1,400 rpm, 222th cycle onwards, the maximum spin speed dropped further
with an unbalanced load of 300 g. However, this speed increased to 1,468 rpm, which was kept constant for most of the cycles
cycle by cycle and, after about 20 cycles, it reached 1,540 rpm. The up to the end of the test. Spinning time varied between 140 and
spinning time was about 150 to 175 sec. At the same time in the 230 sec. The total time of the spinning programmes extended by
testing when on WM A the unbalance was increased to 500 g the more than 10 minutes, due to continuous attempts of the control
unbalance of WM B was increased to 350 g (at the 108th cycle) to procedure to redistribute the load. This redistribution was how-
also induce a maximum stress on the structure of this machine. ever not possible due to the fixed unbalanced mass.

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WASHING CYCLES VISUAL INSPECTION

Complete washing programmes (Standard cotton 60 °C) were A visual inspection was performed before and after the testing.
executed following the standard EN 60456:2012, as modified in To do so, the backside cover sheet and the top plate were re-
the methodological section. Diagrams of all six washing cycles moved. Pictures were taken for parts that may be subject to de-
for water intake, energy consumption and spin speed over time terioration or damages during the testing. None of those parts
are shown for WM A (Figure 5) and WM B (Figure 6). Water exhibited any sign of abrasion, stress or leakage. Rubber debris
consumption for WM B was not correctly recorded the first two was found in WM B during the spinning cycles and at the final
cycles, therefore it is only reported for cycles 3–6, in Figure 6. inspection, due to the contact of the door gasket to the rotat-
The profiles of WM A, especially the spinning profile, look very ing drum. Indeed, the stainless steel front side of the drum in
similar without any problems due to unbalance. Relevant dif- WM B came in contact with the rubber door gasket under the
ferences are visible in the spinning profile, especially regarding stresses test conditions, causing abrasion of the rubber.
the final spinning for WM B. It seemed that a full spinning oc- Some spots of debris were also found on WM A, but much
curred only in the first run, while the spinning in all other runs smaller in size and of a dark colour. However, it was not pos-
are somehow truncated due to problems of imbalance. sible to identify the origin of the debris.
The instability of the spinning process does also show up in
the RMC of the spun load (Table 1). While WM A shows al-
most constant RMC values for all washing programmes, RMC Discussion
results for WM B were affected by higher variation. For WM B Results of the spinning cycles clearly show the behaviour of
only the RMC value of the first washing cycle is aligned with the control procedure when detecting an unbalanced situa-
the declared class A of spinning performance. tion, and its effectiveness in mitigating the stress induced by

Figure 4. Spinning profile parameters: maximum spin speed and spinning duration for WM B from cycle 1 to 500. Regular gaps between the
data indicate the execution of the washing cycle after all 100 spinning cycles.

Table 1. Remaining moisture content (RMC) of the six washing cycles.

Remaining moisture content (RMC) WM A WM B

Washing cycle 1 (before spinning cycles) 44 % 42 %

Washing cycle 2 (after 100 spinning cycles) 43 % 56 %

Washing cycle 3 (after 200 spinning cycles) 44 % 52 %

Washing cycle 4 (after 300 spinning cycles) 46 % 50 %

Washing cycle 5 (after 400 spinning cycles) 44 % 50 %

Washing cycle 6 (after 500 spinning cycles) 44 % 51 %

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Figure 5. Profiles of water intake, energy used and spin speed for the six washing cycles for WM A.

this unbalance load to the structure and components of the Regarding washing cycles, results for WM A show compa-
washing machine. This ensures a reduced stress on the WM rable behaviour regarding spinning in all of the six washing
structure as the control procedure tries to avoid the excessive cycles (Figure  5). For WM B, instead, the declared highest
wearing of key components and preventing early failures. How- spin speed is reached in just one of the six washing trials (run
ever, the consumer may have to wait longer for the execution of #1 in Figure 6). In the other trials, the highest spin speed is
the washing programme, as the repeated attempts to distribute not reached or is only reached for a very short time. If these
the load equally takes time and, if the maximum spin speed results were to be confirmed in a test carried out fully accord-
and duration is limited, it also reduces the spinning efficiency, ing to EN 60456:2010, the declared spin speed (1,600 rpm)
meaning that the load is wetter than it could or should be. and spinning performance (class A) of this machine may be
Looking specifically at the performance of the two washing challenged.
machines, the overall durability test showed that the execution Looking specifically at the problems due to deterioration of
of washing and spinning programmes is not carried out uni- the machine, it was mentioned the presence of rubber debris at
formly throughout the five hundred spinning and the six wash- the end of the spinning cycles, in WM B. Under no stress condi-
ing cycles. The spinning tests showed variations in maximum tions, there is normally a gap of about 1 to 3 mm between the
spin speeds and respective durations. WM A showed uniform (rotating) drum and the door gasket. Under stress conditions,
trends (Figure 3), with a spinning duration at the maximum however, the drum is deformed during spinning and the gap
spin speed ranging from 100 to 145  s, when the unbalance may be reduced to 0 mm and, consequently, abrasion starts.
load was 500 g. On the other hand, WM B results were very In the long run, leakages in the rubber door gasket may result.
variable (Figure 4) and stable trends can be observed in cycles Regarding WM A, it was recorded an unexpected movement
401–500, when the unbalance load was 350 g. In this range, the of the machine in the first spinning tests of the day, in the first
maximum spin speed was about 1,460 rpm, kept for 170 s, in spinning cycles right after the increase of the unbalanced load
average. It was additionally noticed that the programme run- to 500 g. A higher friction of cold dampers might explain this.
ning time of the spinning programme in WM B did prolong by During conventional washing cycles, dampers are typically al-
about 10 min from the first to the 500th spinning cycles. ready warm when starting the spinning function.

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Figure 6. Profiles of water intake, energy used and spin speed for the six washing cycles for WM B.

The approach adopted in this durability test lies between the sustain a series of stress conditions without any hard failure.
strategies used by Altroconsumo (2015) and by De Carlo et al. The application of the durability test did not show any signifi-
(2013). Altroconsumo observed hard failures in four of the twen- cant failure of any part of the two exemplary washing machines
ty-four washing machines analysed, but through a conventional used in this first experiment. However, the attempt to mimic
test of 2,500 rinse & spin cycles, with partial load (60 % of the the stress induced on a washing machine by doing a high num-
rated capacity, of which 85 % cotton textile and 15 % sponge ma- ber of pure spinning cycles with fixed loads did not allow equal
terial), which can be very lengthy. De Carlo et al., instead, used testing conditions: the actions of the control procedure regard-
500 spinning cycles with different unbalance loads, but in their ing unbalance loads differ from machine to machine. In detail,
experiments, the control procedure was by-passed through ex- actions regard the procedures and precision in detecting the
ternal controls, making the test no longer relevant for a washing unbalanced load, the procedures to uniformly distribute the
machine of the market. Our approach, on the other hand, aimed textile load at the start of spinning cycle, and the reactions in
to be relatively fast (500 spinning cycles and 6 washing cycles) adapting the spinning profile to a certain level of stress.
and applicable to different washing machines, without deactivat- With these conditions, it appears that the attempt to induce
ing the control procedure for unbalance detection. The idea of certain stress on a washing machine by doing a high number
having a common procedure to be used to guarantee minimum of pure spinning cycles with a fixed unbalanced load does not
durability requirements of WMs is still an interesting task, but allow having equal testing conditions. Such kind of testing pro-
the definition of realistic loads (and therefore mechanical stress) tocol could be counter-productive if used to assess and com-
remains the most challenging issue. pare durability performance of WMs, as it pretends to replicate
durability, while real performance (e.g. RMC, washing time)
is deteriorated already after some cycles. The outcomes of this
Conclusions and recommendations experiment suggest addressing durability of washing machines
The first objectives of this research were to develop a proce- with tests where real life stress conditions are applied and real
dure to test minimum durability performance of WMs, and to performance are measured. Stress tests on individual compo-
verify if washing machines currently on the market are able to nents may be useful for certain aspects, like safety require-

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ments, but need to be considered in the context of the product sion through design. J. Clean. Prod. 69, 10–16. doi:http://
and the way they are used in this specific product. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.028.
This exercise has also shown what parameters of a wash- Bobba, S., Ardente, F., Mathieux, F., 2016. Environmental
ing machine (unbalance treatment procedure, actual spin- and economic assessment of durability of energy-using
ning profile, remaining moisture content, and maximum spin products: Method and application to a case-study vacuum
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real load and various programmes. The selection of washing degradation tests for reliability estimation of a new
programmes should include all temperature levels and could product: A case study for washing machines. Proc.
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it would have the advantage to mimic actual stress conditions, munication from the Commission to the European
as the stress is coming from real scenarios. A related durabil- Parliament and the Council. The raw materials initia-
ity test could hence require that, when three machines of the tive – meeting our critical needs for growth and jobs in
same model are tested in parallel, at least two withstand the test Europe. Commun. from Com. to Eur. Parliam. Councel.
(double 3 method according to IEC 60410) without any failure doi:SEC(2008) 699.
and without deterioration of the values declared on the energy European Union, 2008. Directive 2008/98/EC of the European
label. This can be verified by performing a full test following Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on
EN 60456, where all parameters as required by Energy Label- waste and repealing certain directives. LexUriServ. do.
ling and Ecodesign are measured, at the beginning and after doi:2008/98/EC.; 32008L0098.
all cycles. Ecodesign and Energy Labelling regulations should Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., Ulgiati, S., 2015. A review on
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This work also aimed at further stimulating the discussions Consolidated version Household and similar electrical
between industry and policy makers about industrial practic- appliances – Safety – Part 2–7: Particular requirements for
es that will enable a circular economy, focusing in particular washing machines.
on product lifetime extension. Minimum durability require- IEC 60456, 2010. IEC 60456:2010 Clothes washing machines
ments at the whole product level proved to be needed and for household use - Methods for measuring the perfor-
could be enforced via product policies and standardization. mance.
However, they will be only successful if they are verified by JRC, 2016. EU Preparatory study – Ecodesign for Washing
responsible market surveillance authorities based on afford- Machines and Washer Dryers [WWW Document]. URL
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Tecchio, P., Ardente, F., Mathieux, F., 2016a. Analysis of dura- Acknowledgements
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