Contents

1 High Voltage AC Transmission:................................................................................................3

1.1 Components of HVAC:......................................................................................................3
1.1.1 POWER Transformer:................................................................................................3
1.1.2 Reactive Power Compensation:................................................................................4
1.1.3 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR:........................................................................6
1.1.4 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR AND THYRISTOR SWITCHED CAPACITOR:........6
1.1.5 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):..........................................................................7
1.2 TRANSMISSION CABLES:...................................................................................................7
1.2.1 CROSS LINK POLYETHYLENE CABLE (XLPE):...............................................................8
1.3 Auxiliaries:........................................................................................................................8
1.4 Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS):.......................................................................9
2 HVDC transmission system:.....................................................................................................9
2.1 Converter Station:..........................................................................................................10
2.2 Transmission Medium:...................................................................................................10
2.3 Advantages of HVDC Systems.........................................................................................11
3 LCC Composition: (HVDC Light or HVDC Classic)...................................................................11
3.1 Overview and Basic Components of LCC HVDC:.............................................................11
3.1.1 Smoothing Reactors:...............................................................................................11
3.1.2 Converter Transformer:..........................................................................................12
3.1.3 CONVERTER STATION:............................................................................................13
3.1.4 CONVERTER FOR LCC:.............................................................................................14
3.1.5 Thyristor Valve:.......................................................................................................14
3.1.6 12-Pulse Converter:................................................................................................14
3.1.7 STATCOM:...............................................................................................................15
3.1.8 STATCOM V-I curve:................................................................................................16
3.1.9 AC AND DC FILTERS (Harmonics Elimination):........................................................17
3.1.10 AC Filters:................................................................................................................17
3.1.11 DC Filters:................................................................................................................17
3.2 Protection and Control:..................................................................................................18
3.3 CABLE and Return Path:.................................................................................................18
3.3.1 XLPE:.......................................................................................................................18
4 CONFIGURATION of HVDC:....................................................................................................19

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 4.1 Monopolar:.....................................................................................................................19
4.1.1 Monopolar HVDC System with Ground Return:.....................................................19
4.1.2 Monopolar HVDC System with Metallic Return:.....................................................19
4.1.3 Bipolar HVDC Systems:...........................................................................................20
4.1.4 Back-to-Back HVDC Links:.......................................................................................21
5 HVDC with Voltage Source Converters (HVDC Plus):.............................................................21
5.1 Components of HVDC Plus:............................................................................................22
5.2 CONVERTERS:.................................................................................................................23
5.3 IGBT Valve:.....................................................................................................................23
5.3.1 Shunt Connected VSC.............................................................................................25
5.3.2 Series Connected VSC.............................................................................................26
5.3.3 Transformer:...........................................................................................................26
5.3.4 Phase Reactor:........................................................................................................26
5.3.5 DC Link Capacitors:.................................................................................................26
5.3.6 Control of VSC HVDC:..............................................................................................26
5.3.7 ADVANTAGES OF VSC HVDC:..................................................................................27
6 COMPARISON:.......................................................................................................................28
6.1 POWER and VOLTAGE Limitations:.................................................................................28
6.2 TRANSMISSION CAPACITY:.............................................................................................29
6.3 REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION:..............................................................................30
6.4 ENERGY TRANSMISSION COST:......................................................................................30
7 Environmental Effects:...........................................................................................................31
7.1 EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD:............................................................................................31
7.2 EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD:.........................................................................................32
7.2.1 Radio Interference:.................................................................................................32
7.2.2 AUDIBLE NOISE:......................................................................................................32
7.3 GROUND CURRENTS AND CORROSION EFFECTS:...........................................................32
7.4 Right of Way Cost:..........................................................................................................33
7.5 VISUAL IMPACTS:............................................................................................................33
7.6 Transmission Losses:......................................................................................................33
7.7 CORONA Discharge LOSSES:...........................................................................................33
8 CONCLUSION:........................................................................................................................33
9 References:............................................................................................................................35

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1 High Voltage AC Transmission:

High voltage Alternating Current transmission was the most popular transmission system in
whole world since the first transmission link invented and it is the simplest method also.
HVAC is a passive system, in the meaning that the current produced by the generator is
directly transmitted to the grid via a transformer if a stepping up or down is needed. This
system permits a power transmission and operations in the both directions (i.e. Bi-
Directional power flow) and direction of power flow is maintained via potential difference
between the two end points.

1.1 Components of HVAC:

The basic components of a HVAC system are;

1. Power Transformers
2. Transmission Cables
3. Reactive Power Compensators (SVC)
4. Auxiliaries (Control and Protection system etc)

1.1.1 POWER Transformer:

To transmit electrical power from the generating unit to a consumer at far end, we need to
transform the Voltage level for this purpose. Therefore we need 3-phase step up
transformers for voltage conversion. Transformers allow the voltage level of a network to be
increased to transfer large amounts of power over long distances, and then bring the
voltage level back down to a level useable by consumers. Transformers commonly contain
all 3 phases in the same enclosure, so there are 3 primary windings (one for each phase),
and 3 secondary windings. The ratio between the number of turns on the primary and
secondary windings determines the voltage conversion ratio.

1.1.1.1 Tap Changer:

Most of the transformers are equipped with tap changers. Tap changer is a concept that we
can change the transformer turns-ratio and hence secondary voltage according to the load
conditions. A tap changer can increase or decrease the number of turns on one side of a
transformer to change the voltage conversion ratio. The significance of this is that the
voltage of the primary network can vary while the transformer regulates the voltage of the
secondary network.

1.1.1.2 Step Up Transformer:

A step up transformer is made to accept the large currents generated at medium voltage
and transfer the power to the transmission system at a high voltage level, and relatively low
current. Generator transformers typically have a large voltage ratio and have a delta
connection on the generator side to limit the flow of zero sequence current. These
transformers are installed on the Generating station output feeders.

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1.1.1.3 Step Down Transformer:
Step down Transformers are inverse of step up transformers. There are two major
categories of step down transformer
a. Supply Transformer: This steps the voltage down from transmission or sub-
transmission to distribution voltage levels
b. Distribution Transformer: It steps the voltage down from distribution high voltage to
low voltage
There are other transformers too used in AC transmission systems e.g. Current and Potential
Transformers etc, but these transformers are mainly used for protection systems.

1.1.2 Reactive Power Compensation:

Reactive power gives the power system the voltage support it needs to transfer real power
from generation to loads.
Reactive power support can be installed at any point on a network (although substations are
commonly chosen) to help stabilise the surrounding network and ensure normal operation.
Common types of reactive power support are listed below:
1.1.2.1 Capacitor bank:
At times of large loading on a power system at points that are distant to generation, the
voltage can drop to undesirable operational levels, and in extreme cases lead to unplanned
load tripping. The net effect of installing capacitors is a boost in voltage, and helps alleviate
voltage sag during heavy loading.
This is caused by a decrease in the reactive power flow in the supply circuit, and a
subsequent reduction of the voltage drop along the length of the circuit.
1.1.2.2 Shunt reactor:
A shunt reactor can be required to prevent over-voltages from occurring at parts of the
network, either during periods of light loading or when a supply point in the network rises
with the export of large volumes of power.

1.1.2.3 Static Var Compensator (SVC):

An SVC allows a variable amount of reactive power to be supplied or consumed which is
consequently used to control the voltage of a point on the network to a desired level over a
range of different operating scenarios. An SVC employs the use of heavy duty electronic
switches, which switch many times a second to regulate the amount of reactive power
produced or consumed.
The following figure shows the over view of a HVAC system. In this figure the major
components are shown including SVCs, Power Transformers, XLPE cables etc.

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1.1.2.4 Static VAR Compensator:
Normally transmission lines are pretty expensive therefore it is important to load them to
their capacity. Static VAR Compensation using a thyristor switching helps to provide VARs in
a matter of milliseconds in response to transient event, thus providing damping, and helps
hold terminal voltage constant by minimizing line losses due to improved power factor.

There are basically two configurations of Static VAR compensators;

a. Thyristor Controlled Shunt Reactance (TCR)

b. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)

In the limit of minimum or maximum susceptance, SVC behaves like a fixed capacitor or an
inductor. Choosing appropriate size is one of the important issues in SVC applications in
voltage stability enhancement. The following figure shows SVC structure

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1.1.3 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR:
In this scheme, the capacitors are usually selected to provide the maximum reactive power
needed at the point of installation. The required inductive power is dynamically controlled
to maintain the desired voltage profile when the demand for reactive power is less than the
maximum. The control is performed through phase angle variation. A typical scheme is
shown in the following figure;

In this scheme we get a nearly unity power factor and continuous voltage regulation. At
maximum leading VAR, the switch is open and the current in the reactor is zero.
As the firing angle increases, the harmonic content increases. A 10MVAR unit typically
consists of 10MVAR of capacitor bank and 10MVAR of reactor in addition to the thyristor
controls. The variation of inductive, capacitive VARS with the system voltage is shown in
Figure below.

1.1.4 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR AND THYRISTOR SWITCHED CAPACITOR:

In this scheme it contains several capacitor sections operating in parallel with a phase
controlled reactor. The task of controlling both the reactor and capacitor requires an
electronic controller. The overall efficiency of the scheme is less due to losses in the reactor.
The number of capacitor branches depends on the amount of kVAR, thyristor ratings, etc.
The variation of reactive power due to a two-switched capacitor and one reactor per phase

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is shown in Figure a. For a 10 MVAR SVC, the capacitor bank will be two 5 MVAR (or in some
other combination) and the reactor will be 10 MVAR. A typical VAR demand versus VAR
output profile of a scheme is shown in Figure b.

Fig. a TCR with TSC Fig. b VAR output Vs VAR demand

1.1.5 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):

In this case, all the required capacitors are switched in and out using SCRs. To reduce the
number of capacitors, binary grouping is sometimes employed. This scheme is suitable for
both balanced and unbalanced loads. A typical scheme is shown in figure below. For a
10MVAR size, bank 1 is 4 MVAR, bank 2 is 3 MVAR, and bank 3 is 3 MVAR. Some designs use
binary-based steps. In this scheme, only the capacitor banks are used.

With this scheme, the reactive compensation is corrected on a cycle-by-cycle basis. Each
phase is compensated independently and correction to unbalance is made.

1.2 TRANSMISSION CABLES:

IN HVAC, cables play a vital role. They are indeed the back bone of transmission system.
There are following 3 kinds of HVAC cables employed;
Mass Impregnated Cable

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Low Pressure Filled Cable and
Cross Link Polyethylene Cable
In these days XLPE is given more importance than the rest and major AC transmission
systems are utilizing this cable vastly since 1940s.

1.2.1 CROSS LINK POLYETHYLENE CABLE (XLPE):

It has high electric strength and poor dielectric properties but it is easy to process and low
cost therefore it is the perfect client for power cable. However the low melting point of
polyethylene, around 110°C, limited the maximum current rating, overload and short-
circuits temperatures. But cross-linking the polyethylene, using electron beam processing,
permits to increase the thermal properties of the polyethylene. The cross-linked
polyethylene is called XLPE. New thermal properties allow conductor temperature around
90°C with emergency capacities up to 140°C.

Underground and Sea Cables (XLPE)

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A XLPE also has excellent dielectric properties for insulation applications. A XLPE cable has a
similar design than a Mass Impregnated cable. Due to the XLPE intrinsic properties,
Polymeric Insulating cables are lighter than Paper Insulating cables. Furthermore, the very
good insulating properties of this material lead to less insulation material, so smaller
dimensions of the cable. In DC applications, the breakdown strength of the cable is around
75kV/mm with a working stress of 25kV/mm whereas, for a paper insulated cable, the
breakdown strength is around 40kV/mm with a working stress of 10 to 15kV/mm. Another
advantage of this kind of cable is the mechanical properties of the XLPE. The bending
capabilities and the mechanical resistance are higher than other cables, which permits an
easier installation and less maintenance. Likewise the absence of oil circulation requires
fewer joints along the cable and no risk of contamination for the environment. XLPE
insulating cable can handle lower temperatures than paper insulating cable, and so can be
used in cold conditions, for example in cold waters, like in Norway.

1.3 Auxiliaries:
The auxiliary components in an AC transmission system include Towers, Protection systems
and control. In protection systems there are alot of equipments like Differential Relay,
Impedance Relay and many other devices. The control of Ac transmission is mainly done via
SCADA (supervisory and data acquisition system) which employs different monitory or
instrumentation devices and computer control units.

1.4 Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS):

Flexible AC transmissions systems are actually a revolution in AC transmission and involve

electronic equipments. The first FACTS installation was at the C. J. Slatt Substation in
Northern Oregon. This is a 500 kV, 3-phase 60 Hz substation. FACTS insure to have lower
transmission losses than usual AC transmission systems. There are basically two types of
power that have to be dealt with in power transmission viz. the active power and the
reactive power. The active power is said to be “useful power”, the power that home
appliances, lighting etc use. But reactive power is a necessary evil. It does no useful work
but is essential for transmission of active power through the lines. It is by proper matching
up of these two quantities FACTS system allows for higher power transfers. By use of
sophisticated solid state devices, FACTS system is able to add or remove precise amount of
reactive power from the line by using Static VAR compensators etc. With the aid of FACTS
the transmission line capacity has increased and more power can be transferred by the old
transmission lines.

2 HVDC transmission system:

HVDC was first used commercially 50 years ago. Since then a growing number of
transmission schemes have been constructed around the world. HVDC differs from high
voltage alternating current HVAC that the voltage is not alternating 50 or 60 cycles per
second but is constant. The advantage of HVDC is that long distance transmission is more
efficient as there is no need to charge the capacitance of a transmission line with the
alternating voltage. The drawback of HVDC is that one needs more expensive terminals at
the line ends. The HVDC converter station is made up of a number of equipment known

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from ac transmission schemes. It also contains some special features of which the most
important one is the converter valves. In the beginning the converters were equipped with
mercury arc valves. Later Thyristor and IGBT valves have been developed and have made
the design of HVDC more flexible and also increased the power that is possible to transfer.
The basic structural layout of standard HVDC system is shown in the figure below and is
briefly discussed.

2.1 Converter Station:

Converter stations are situated at each end of DC transmission system and may consist of
the following components;
1. Thyristor or VSC valve:
Thyrisor valves are used to convert AC to DC and reverse (Inverter). Normally 12-
pulse grouped to form quadruple valves. Each thyrisor valve consists of cascaded
thyristors. Similarly VSC valves are built using IGBTs in multi-level manner.
2. Transformers:
The converter transformers are used to couple AC and DC sides and it is single phase
three winding transformer usually.
3. Reactive Power Compensators and Filters:
On the AC side of a 12-pulse HVDC converter, current harmonics of the order of 11,
13, 23, 25 and higher are generated. Filters are installed in order to limit the amount
of harmonics to the level required by the network. Capacitor banks, STATCOM or
SVCs are used to compensate reactive power because HVDC can’t transmit reactive
power. DC filters are used to minimize dc disturbances.

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2.2 Transmission Medium:
The transmission medium for bulk power transfer over land is over-head lines. Normally
these lines are bipolar (2 conductors with opposite polarity). Most economic cable used in
HVDC is Impregnated Mass (IM) but XLPE (Polymeric) is extensively used because if its good
insulation.

2.3 Advantages of HVDC Systems

It is important to remark that HVDC system not only transmit electrical power from one
point to another, but it also has a lot of value added which should have been necessary to
solve by another means in the case of using a conventional AC transmission.
Some of these aspects are:
1. No limits in transmitted distance. This is valid for both OH lines and sea or
underground cables.
2. Very fast control of power flow, which implies stability improvements, not only for
the HVDC link but also for the surrounding AC system.
3. Direction of power flow can be changed very quickly (bi-directional).
4. HVDC can carry more power for a given size of conductor
5. The need for ROW (Right Of Way) is much smaller for HVDC than for HVAC, for the
same transmitted power. The environmental impact is smaller with HVDC.
6. VSC technology allows controlling active and reactive power independently without
any need for extra compensating equipment (STATCOM or SVC).

3 LCC Composition: (HVDC Light or HVDC Classic)

LCC HVDC is the oldest of this technology and uses Line Commutated Current source
converter (Thyristors).

3.1 Overview and Basic Components of LCC HVDC:

LCC consists of HVDC components utilising Power Electronics equipments and basic building
blocks of LCC are mentioned in the followings;

1. Converter Transformer
2. Smoothing reactor
3. Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM) or Capacitors
4. AC-DC Converters (Consisting of Thyristor Valves)
5. AC and DC Filters for removing harmonics
6. Protection and Control devices
7. DC Cable and return Path

3.1.1 Smoothing Reactors:

In every HVDC there are some inevitable harmonics produced by the converters and other
auxiliaries in the system that need to be reduced. These harmonics are of higher order (12 th,

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24th, 36th) and need AC and DC filters along with some large inductances called ‘Smoothing
Reactors’. In HVDC different Smoothing Reactors are used for example

a. Oil insulated Reactor (nominal 360mH)

b. Air Insulated Reactor (nominal 180mH)

Oil Insulated Reactor in New Dehli

The dc reactor contributes to the smoothing of the dc current and provides harmonic
voltage reduction in the dc line. The dc reactor also contributes to the limitation of the crest
current during a short-circuit fault on the dc line. It should be noted that the inductance of
the converter transformer also contributes significantly to these functions.
Reason of using Reactors:
1. Prevention of intermitted currents
2. Limitation of DC fault currents
3. Prevention of DC resonance in circuit
4. Reducing harmonic currents and telephone interferences
5. Reduce level of Voltage and current harmonics on a DC link and transfer of non-
harmonic frequencies between two interconnected AC systems
3.1.2 Converter Transformer:
The HVDC (high voltage direct current) converter transformer is a key component in an
HVDC transmission system. In addition to its normal application to provide transfer of power
between two voltage levels, it serves a number of additional functions like galvanic
separation between the AC and DC systems. A fairly large tapping range permits optimum
operation also for a large variation in load without loss of efficiency.
A converter transformer is placed on the core location to link the AC network with the valve
bridge. Owing to expensive component cost and complicated manufacture technology, the
converter transformer is one of most important components.

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Usually, modern HVDC systems employ the configuration of one 12pulse converter for each
pole. A converter transformer provides 30º phase shift between two 6pulse converters to
obtain the configuration of 12pulse converter; if the short circuit occurs on the valve arm or
DC busbar, the impedance of converter transformer can restrict the fault current, in order to
protect converter valve.
A converter transformer employs single phase arrangement or three phase arrangement.
Therefore, for a 12pulse converter, the standard configurations of converter transformer
banks can be: six single phase two winding transformers; three single phase three winding
transformers; two three phase two winding transformers and one three phase three
winding transformer.

Types of Converter Transformer

3.1.3 CONVERTER STATION:

The layout for Converter Station is shown below and its components are also discussed.

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3.1.4 CONVERTER FOR LCC:
In Direct Current transmission system (HVDC), generated power is Alternating (i.e. AC) and
to transmit this AC power over a DC link needs rectification. Rectification in old times was
done by Mercury Arc Rectifiers (for High Voltages) and they were the primary method of
rectification before the advent of Power Electronics equipments like SCRs, GTOs and IGBTs.
In case of Line Commutated Converter HVDC systems rectification is done by using
Thyristors (SCR). But for High Voltage conditions Thyristors need to withstand high currents.
Therefore Thyristors are cascaded to form a Bulk entity called ‘VALVE’.

3.1.5 Thyristor Valve:

An SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) or Thyristor is a four layer electronic device used for
controlled switching. It is a PNPN junction silicon device with 3 terminals Anode, Cathode
and Gate. When there is a current pulse on Gate, SCR will start conduction otherwise remain
in non conducting mode. Following figure shows its detail

3.1.6 12-Pulse Converter:

In HVDC we normally utilize 12-pulse converter using two 6-pulse bridges connected in
series on the DC end. The firing delay angles (α) for the Thyristors are controlled by a
Controller. In case of Rectifier action, firing angle (α) is less than 90 degrees while for
inversion operation its more than 90 degrees. Following single line diagram depicts the
connection of converter to the ‘Converter Transformer’.

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12-pulse arrangement is helpful in reducing the large harmonic components in the DC
circuit. Normally the Thyristor Valves are suspended to the ceiling and are water cooled. The
following figure shows their layout and physical dimensions,

The Thyristors are triggered by electrical gate pulses generated in a small electronic
thyristor control unit (TCU) located near each thyristor. All these equipments are kept in-
door.

3.1.7 STATCOM:
STATCOM or Static Synchronous Compensator is a shunt device of the Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) family using power electronics to control power flow and
improve transient stability on power grids. The STATCOM regulates voltage at its terminal by
controlling the amount of reactive power injected into or absorbed from the power system.
When system voltage is low, the STATCOM generates reactive power (STATCOM capacitive).
When system voltage is high, it absorbs reactive power (STATCOM inductive). STATCOM has
no long term energy support in the DC Side and cannot exchange real power with the ac
system; however it can exchange reactive power.

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Where,
V1 is Line to Line voltage of source 1
V2 is Line to Line voltage of source 2
X is Reactance of interconnection transformer and filters
δ is Phase angle of V1 with respect to V2

The change in reactive power (Q) is performed by means of a Voltage-Sourced Converter

(VSC) connected on the secondary side of a coupling transformer. The VSC uses forced-
commutated power electronic devices (GTOs, IGBTs or IGCTs) to synthesize a voltage V2
from a DC voltage source.

In normal operation, voltage V2 generated by the VSC is in phase with V1 (δ=0), so that only
reactive power (Q) is flowing only. If V2 is lower than V1, Q is flowing from V1 to V2
(STATCOM is absorbing reactive power). On the reverse, if V2 is higher than V1, Q is flowing
from V2 to V1 (STATCOM is generating reactive power). The amount of reactive power is
given by

Q = (V1 (V1 – V2)) / X

3.1.8 STATCOM V-I curve:

As it was mentioned in above paragraph that STATCOM can absorb as well as generate
Reactive power (Q), the V-I characteristic curve can be drawn to show these properties of
STATCOM,

Reference: www.mathworks.com

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STATCOM is a better option than a SVC because of its quicker response time. STATCOM can
control Active Power where as SVC couldn’t and STATCOMs require lesser space than SVCs
(Big Capacitors).

3.1.9 AC AND DC FILTERS (Harmonics Elimination):

Since the commutation reactance is low in relation to the DC smoothing reactance, an HVDC
converter acts as a source of harmonic currents (AC point of view) and as a source of
harmonic voltage in DC point of view these harmonics are of higher order (i.e.11 th,24th,36th
etc). We need to reduce or minimize the impact of harmonics by utilising AC and DC filters.

3.1.10 AC Filters:
Converter operation generates harmonic currents and voltages on the ac and dc sides,
respectively. On the ac side, a converter with a pulse number of p generates characteristic
harmonics having the order of np±1 (n=1, 2, 3,). AC filters are installed to absorb those
harmonic components and to reduce voltage distortion below a required threshold. Tuned
filters and high pass filters are used as ac filters. These filters are divided into following types
an there combination with resistances and impedances gives very low resistive path to the
harmonic components for elimination.

Reference: www.abb.com

3.1.11 DC Filters:
On the Dc side of HVDC converters we need DC filters. Usually a DC filter is connected
between the pole busbar and the neutral busbar. The structure of passive DC filter is similar
to that of AC filter, such as single tuned, double tuned and triple tuned circuits with or
without high pass characteristic. A capacitor is installed between the neutral busbar and
ground, thereby providing low impedance path for harmonic currents of order 3n (i.e., 3rd,
6th, 9th, etc).

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3.2 Protection and Control:
The control system for HVDC has multiple functions and it comprises of the following few
topics
1. Converter Control
2. DC System Control
3. Tap Changer Control
4. Power Flow and Frequency Control
Similarly there is a protection system for overcoming AC system faults, DC line faults, over
current and converter disturbances protections. There are individual protection modules for
valve-group and filters too. All these protection and control modules are highly
sophisticated electronic devices.

3.3 CABLE and Return Path:

In case of offshore wind farms we need a transmission medium for efficient transfer of
power to onshore grid. For this purpose cables are submerged in the sea bed. There are
different types of cables used for HVDC transmission;

3.3.1 XLPE:
All kinds of cables have the same composition. There are three major parts in a cable:
- The core.
- The semiconductor screen.
- The insulation.
The core of a cable is the part which carries the current. It is composed of threaded wires
which forming a circular section. This part of the cable is usually made with copper, even if
construction with aluminium is possible. Aluminium has advantages that it is lighter and
cheaper than copper. Nevertheless, this material has not as good conduction and thermal
proprieties as the copper.
This leads to higher losses in the cable. A core made of aluminium requires a bigger cross-
section area than copper to conduct the same amount of current. Furthermore, aluminium
corrodes more easily than copper in presence of water, which is a problem for undersea
applications. Typically, cables with core made of aluminium fit more with small voltage
applications onshore whereas cables with copper core fit better in medium and high voltage
applications, and particularly in offshore conditions. For example the 600MW cable use in
the Swe-Pol Link has a copper cross-section of 2100mm 2 for a voltage of 450kV. The figure
below shows its construction.

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4 CONFIGURATION of HVDC:
HVDC systems can be configured in different ways. Some of the commonly used
configurations are listed below
a. MONOPOLAR
b. BIPOLAR
c. BACK TO BACK

4.1 Monopolar:
Monopolar HVDC systems have either ground return or metallic return.

4.1.1 Monopolar HVDC System with Ground Return:

It consists of one or more six-pulse converter units in series or parallel at each end, a single
conductor and return through the earth or sea, as shown in the followings. It can be a cost-
effective solution for a HVDC cable transmission and/ or the first stage of a bipolar scheme.
At each end of the line, it requires an electrode line and a ground or sea electrode built for
continuous operation.

4.1.2 Monopolar HVDC System with Metallic Return:

It usually consists of one high-voltage and one medium voltage conductor as shown in
followings. A monopolar configuration is used either as the first stage of a bipolar scheme,
avoiding ground currents, or when construction of electrode lines and ground electrodes
results in an uneconomical solution due to a short distance or high value of earth resistivity.

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4.1.3 Bipolar HVDC Systems:
A Bipolar HVDC System consists of two poles, each of which includes one or more twelve-
pulse converter units, in series or parallel. There are two conductors, one with positive and
the other with negative polarity to ground for power flow in one direction. For power flow
in the other direction, the two conductors reverse their polarities. A Bipole system is a
combination of two monopolar schemes with ground return, as shown in following figure.
With both poles in operation, the imbalance current flow in the ground path can be held to
a very low value.

This is a very common arrangement with the following operational capabilities:

1. During an outage of one pole, the other could be operated continuously with ground
return.
2. For a pole outage, in case long-term ground current flow is undesirable, the bipolar
system could be operated in monopolar metallic return mode, if appropriate DC
arrangements are provided, as shown in figure below. Transfer of the current to the
metallic path and back without interruption requires a Metallic Return Transfer
Breaker (MRT B) and other special-purpose switchgear in the ground path of one
terminal. When a short interruption of power flow is permitted, such a breaker is not
necessary.

3. During maintenance of ground electrodes or electrode lines, operation is possible

with connection of neutrals to the grounding grid of the terminals, with the
imbalance current between the two poles held to a very low value.

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 4. When one pole cannot be operated with full load current, the two poles of the
bipolar scheme could be operated with different currents, as long as both ground
electrodes are connected.
5. In case of partial damage to DC line insulation, one or both poles could be
continuously operated at reduced voltage.
6. In place of ground return, a third conductor can be added end-to-end. This
conductor carries unbalanced currents during bipolar operation and serves as the
return path when a pole is out of service.

4.1.4 Back-to-Back HVDC Links:

Back-to-back HVDC links are special cases of monopolar HVDC interconnections, where
there is no DC transmission line and both converters (Rectifier and Inverter) are located at
the same site. For economic reasons each converter is usually a twelve-pulse converter unit
and the valves for both converters may be located in one valve hall. The control system,
cooling equipment and auxiliary system may be integrated into configurations common to
the two converters. DC filters are not required, nor are electrodes or electrode lines, the
neutral connection being made within the valve hall. It is important to note that AREVA T&D
has developed a solution for a back-to-back HVDC link which does not require a smoothing
reactor; hence, there is no external DC insulation. Following Figure shows two different
circuit configurations used by AREVA T&D for back-to-back HVDC links.

Back to Back configuration

Back to back configuration let us couple two Asynchronous systems (e.g. two grids with
different frequency).

5 HVDC with Voltage Source Converters (HVDC Plus):

HVDC with Voltage Source Converter controller is a new concept in high voltage dc
transmission system. VSC-HVDC system which employs fast-switching devices and PWM
techniques, offers a number of advantages over traditional transmission systems, such as no
need of external voltage source for commutation, rapid regulation of reactive and active
power, feeding weak AC systems or even passive loads, providing high quality power, etc.
The first power transmission system based on this technology was built in 1997 by ABB
between Hellsjön and Grängesberg in Sweden. ‘ABB’ call it HVDC PLUS. The extension 'plus'

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stands for Power Link Universal Systems and represents economical solutions to the most
challenging requirements on power transmission and distribution. Some important
highlights are:
1. Feeding AC systems with low short circuit power or even passive networks with no
local power generation.
2. STATCOM functionality, i.e. continuously adjustable reactive power support to the
AC system to control AC bus voltage and improve system stability. Active and
reactive power exchange can be controlled independently from each other within
the total power rating of a station.

5.1 Components of HVDC Plus:

The principle scheme of a VSC system converter station is shown in Figure below with
bipolar configuration scheme.

The operational range for VSC HVDC is shown in the figure below. It gives a relationship
between reactive and active power ranges for VSC HVDC. The active power and reactive
power ranges are +1 to -1 pu.

A VSC-HVDC transmission system is composed of two main parts, the converters, at both
ends of the system, and the cable between them. The main components of these two parts
are similar to the LCC-HVDC system, with some differences:
1. AC and DC side harmonic filters
2. Converter transformers
3. Converters based on IGBT valves

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 4. Phase reactors
5. Protection and control devices

Figure below gives an overview of the VSC system.

5.2 CONVERTERS:
VSC-HVDC converters use Insulator-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) as switching device.
IGBT is a recent technology and is in developing stage.
Due to the process of production similar to printed circuit, IGBTs have a small size (around
1cm2). Thus many IGBTs connected in parallel, gives to IGBT modules the capability to
handle current up to 2.4kA with blocking voltage up to 6.5kV.

5.3 IGBT Valve:

When different IGBTs are packed together to form a Bulk, its named IGBT Valve.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

An IGBT can be compared to a switch, its conduction and blocking states are commanded by
the gate. When the voltage between the gate and the emitter (VGE) is inferior to threshold
tension (VGE (TH)), the IGBT is in blocking state. Thus the voltage between the collector and
the emitter (VCE) is positive and the current flowing in the IGBT (ICE) is null. If VGE become
superior to VGE (TH), then the IGBT goes to the conductive mode and ICE flows through it.
This capability of control permits to switch at high frequency which allows the use of Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM). High frequency switching also reduces harmonics and thus the
number of filters used. A project like Tjæreborg in Denmark is designed with a switching
frequency of 1950Hz. As for the thyristors, the blocking voltage of an IGBT module does not
allow the operation within high-voltage levels. To avoid this problem, many modules are
connected in series in valves

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

 Equivalent Circuit

A basic VSC-HVDC system comprises of two converter stations built with VSC topologies.
The simplest topology is the conventional two-level three-phase bridge.
Typically, many series connected IGBTs are used for each semiconductor in order to deliver
a higher V blocking voltage capability for the converter and therefore increase the DC bus
voltage level of the HVDC system. It should be noted that an anti parallel diode is also
needed in order to ensure the four-quadrant operation of the converter. The DC bus
capacitor provides the required storage of the energy so that the power flow can be
controlled and offers filtering for the harmonics.

The converter is typically controlled through sinusoidal

PWM (SPWM) and the harmonics are directly associated with the switching frequency of
each converter leg. Following figure presents the basic waveforms associated with SPWM
and the line-to-neutral voltage waveform of the two-level converter. Each phase-leg of the
converter is connected through reactor to the AC system. Filters are also included on the AC
side to further reduce the harmonic content flowing into the AC system.

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Following diagram shows the production of PMW by using a comparator and Triangular
wave generator.

Simplified diagram of VSC HVDC

5.3.1 Shunt Connected VSC

In this case, the VSC is connected to the power system via a shunt connected transformer,
as in the STATCOM configuration of Figure 1. By varying the amplitude and the phase of the
output voltages produced, the active power and the reactive power exchange between the
converter and the a.c. system can be controlled in a manner similar to that of a rotating
synchronous machine. The reactive power exchange between the VSC and the power
system can be controlled by varying the amplitude of the output voltage. If the amplitude of
the output voltage is increased above that of the ac system voltage, the VSC generates
reactive power to the power system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased
below that of the ac system voltage, the VSC absorbs reactive power from the power
system. The real power exchange between the VSC and altering the phase angle between
the output voltage and the ac system voltage can control the power system. If the output
voltage is made to lead the ac system voltage, the VSC supplies real power to the ac power
system. If the output voltage is made to lag the ac system voltage, the VSC absorbs real

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power from the ac power system. An energy supply or absorb device is required for the real
power exchange. This role is played by another VSC or dc energy storage device like a super-
conducting magnet or a battery. The exchange of real and reactive power is implemented
individually. The product of the power system voltage and the maximum output current
determines the VA rating of the VSC.
5.3.2 Series Connected VSC
In this case, the VSC is connected to the power system in series via a series connected
transformer, as in the SSSC configuration of Figure 2. By varying the amplitude and the
phase of the output voltages produced, the magnitude and the angle of the injected voltage
can be controlled. The VSC output voltage injected in series with the line acts as an ac
voltage source. The current flowing through the VSC corresponds to the line current. The VA
rating of the VSC is termined by the product of the maximum injected voltage and the
maximum line current. If the injected voltage is controlled with a quadrature relationship to
the line current, the VSC provides only reactive power to the ac power system and there is
no need for another VSC for energy storage device on the dc terminal. If the injected voltage
is controlled in a four-quadrant manner (360 deg.) to the line current, the VSC provides both
real power and reactive power to the ac power system and another VSC or energy storage
device is needed for the real power exchange on the dc terminal.

5.3.3 Transformer:
As it can be observed in Figure above, the transformers are used to interconnect the VSC
with the AC network. The main function of the transformers is to adapt the voltage level of
the AC network to a voltage level suitable to the converter. This voltage level can be
controlled using a tap changer, which will maximize the reactive power flow.

5.3.4 Phase Reactor:

The phase reactors, known also as converter reactors, are used to continuously control the
active and reactive power flow. The phase reactors have three main functions:
1. The first one is to provide low-pass filtering of the PWM pattern in order to provide
the desired fundamental frequency voltage;
2. the second function is to provide active and reactive power control; the active and
reactive power flow between the AC and the DC side is defined by the fundamental
frequency voltage across the reactors;
3. The last function is to limit the short-circuit currents.

5.3.5 DC Link Capacitors:

On the DC side, there are two capacitor stacks of the same power rating. The main goal of
the DC-link capacitor is to provide a low-inductance path for the turned-off current.
Moreover, the DC capacitor serves as an energy store and it reduces the harmonics ripple
on the DC voltage. Depending on the size of the DC side capacitor, DC voltage variations
caused by disturbances in the system (e.g. AC faults) can be limited.

5.3.6 Control of VSC HVDC:

VSC-HVDC highlights its capability of four-quadrant operation with no specific interaction
between active and reactive power control. Usually, the VSC have four operation modes:

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

 a) Constant DC voltage control
b) Constant active power control
c) Constant DC current control
d) Constant AC voltage control
VSC-HVDC features the feasibility of supplying power to either active or passive networks.
When supplying power to a passive network, the rectifier takes the onus to control and
stabilize the DC voltage. The inverter, on the other hand, is used to ensure the stability of
the output voltage of the converter transformer. DC voltage controlling and reactive power
controlling are two basic control goals for the rectifier. The principle diagram of the
controller is illustrated in Figure below.

Rectifier DC voltage control diagram

Inverter’s AC voltage control principle is derived from the method of space vector to provide
stable RMS values of the converter transformer output voltage. The method can be detailed
with the example of three-phase voltages as follows.
Define the space vector of the three-phase voltages as

The three-phase voltages of the converter transformer voltage are expressed as

Where Us2 is the RMS value of line-to-line output voltage of the converter transformer,
vs2a, vs2b, vs2c are the instantaneous values of abc three phase voltages, respectively.
5.3.7 ADVANTAGES OF VSC HVDC:
a. One of the main advantages of VSC-HVDC technology is that the controls of active
power and reactive power are independent. The system can operate in the four
quadrants of the PQ-plan. In a LCC-HVDC system, a limited control of reactive power
can be achieved but it requires additional expensive equipments. The use of PWM in
VSC-HVDC systems permits to achieve any amplitude and phase angle, and so the
control of active and reactive power can be made independently without additional
equipments. The AC voltage in the network can be controlled while the transmitted
active power is constant. The reactive power balance can be achieved by using the
reactive power generated or consumed by the converters.

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

 b. Another good point for VSC-HVDC technology is that it is independent of the AC
network. The converters can create an AC voltage at any frequency, and without the
presence of generator in the network. Thus passive networks can be connected with
VSC-HVDC technology.
c. There is no risk of commutation failure of converters.
d. It can operate in null powers even because active and reactive powers are
controllable within certain range.
e. VSC HVDC needs no STATCOM, Harmonic filters etc. Its design is simple and need
less space.

6 COMPARISON:
In the following paragraphs there has been produced a comparison between all the three
transmission systems with regards to different aspects:

6.1 POWER and VOLTAGE Limitations:

As we can see from the following figure, it is clear that HVDC with voltage source converters
(HVDC Light) technology can deliver high voltages with higher rated powers unlike LCC (Classic)
and AC transmission networks which have limitations.

Cables needed for Transmission:

The table below gives a detailed overview of cable requirement for different transmission
techniques used;

Wind Farm Capacity High Voltage DC High Voltage DC

(MW)
High Voltage AC LCC VSC
(100km Distance)
Bipolar Monopolar

300 2 1+1 1 1+1

500 3 2+2 1 2+2

900 5 4+4 2 3+3

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 1200 6 5+5 2 4+4

In case of monopolar scheme LCC needs lesser number of cables than HVAC, but in bipolar
mode more cables are needed. Normally for higher power transmission systems HVDC are
preferred over HVAC because of cable numbers. Apart from this fact, AC lines are normally 3-
phase, hence for a single DC line there are 3 lines for a network.

6.2 TRANSMISSION CAPACITY:

The following graph depicts the relationship between distance and transmission capacity. If an
old system needs up gradation then this graph maybe helpful to decide the system of
transmission. For higher transmission capacities (i.e.900MW) HVDC Classic (LCC) is preferred
while for 600-900MW both HVDC systems are interchangeable. From this graph, it is clear that
HVAC is not a good option for long length transmission system and hence its bound only to a
certain narrow distance of 100Km, this is because of losses in long transmission network.
Currently it has been stated that HVDC-LCC systems can be used for as high as 7000MW capacity
systems while HVDC-VSC are striving their capacity rating which is 400MW.

Transmission distance limitation:

In case of HVAC transmission system there is always a check over the length of transmission line
and cable used for this purpose. Inductive and capacitive elements on the cable, which are
proportional to the length, lead to charging current in the cable. These last, as well as useful
currents are quarried in the cable and the transmission capabilities of the cable are reduced.
The creation of large amount of reactive power is also an important limiting factor. This implies
large and expensive compensation system at the ends of the cable and losses increase
consequently. Furthermore, the number of cables is more important with HVAC system as the
connection should be done with three phases.
The following figure indicates the transmission line distance with its capacity as well as the
compensation of reactive power at sending and receiving end.

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In case of HVDC there is no limit over transmission line length because there is no existence of
capacitance ad inductance with virtue of Direct Current. The only source of loss is resistance
which remains almost constant.

6.3 REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION:

The long HVAC overhead lines produce and consume the reactive power, which is a serious
problem. If the transmission line has a series inductance L and shunt capacitance C per unit of
length and operating voltage V and current I, the reactive power produced by the line is
QC=ωCV2
And consumer reactive power is
QL=ωLI2 per unit length, if QC=QL
V/I= [L/C] 1/2=Zs=surge impedance of line
Power of the line is Pn=VI=V2/Zs and is called Natural Load. So the power carried by the line
depends on the operating voltage and the surge impedance of the line.
The power flow in an AC system and the power transfer in a transmission line can be expressed

E1 and E2 are the two terminal voltages, δ is the phase difference of these voltages, and X is the
series reactance. In case of AC transmission system, we use STATCOM and SVC (synchronous
VAR Compensators) to compensate for reactive power needed by power converters; similarly
STATCOMs are also used for LCC DC transmissions. But for VSC HVDC systems we don’t need to
use these compensation tools.

6.4 ENERGY TRANSMISSION COST:

This cost includes cost of components used in the system as well as the maintenance cost. The
data for different capacity Wind Farms depicted in the following graphs clearly differentiate
between HVAC and HVDC and shows that the energy cost is lower for long distance transmission
in case of HVDC-LCC and highest in HVAC case. Following data shows 600 and 900Mwatt
systems with average wind speeds of 11m/s.

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Energy Transmission Cost Vs. Distance

7 Environmental Effects:
There are some environmental issues which must be considered for the converter stations, such
as: audible noise, visual impact, electromagnetic compatibility and use of ground or sea return
path in monopolar operation. In general, it can be said that a HVDC system is highly compatible
with any environment and can be integrated into it without the need to compromise on any
environmentally important issues of today.
The possible influences on the environment caused by High Power Electricity Transmission
Systems can include:
• The effects of electric fields
• The effects of magnetic fields
• Radio interference
• Audible noise
• Ground currents and corrosion effects
• The Right of Way
• Visual impacts
All these issues are discussed individually in the followings;

7.1 EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD:

It is well known that the electric fields produced by a HVDC transmission line are the
combination of the electrostatic field created due to the line voltage and the space charge field
that is due to the charge produced by the line’s corona. This means that presence of a charge
between the conductors and the ground has an impact on the total electric field produced by
the DC line. There were alot of researches done in this field and it is concluded that the HVAC
has much discharge streaming currents than HVDC. Using the experimental line section,
measurements of the ionic current streaming through a human standing under a HVDC line at
voltage level of ±1000 kV (kilo-Volts), and of the capacitive current under a HVAC line at a
voltage 1150 kV were performed. These experiments indicated that the difference in current
between the two technologies was approximately 100-fold (2-3 μА for the HVDC line, versus 0.2
mA for the HVAC line).

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

7.2 EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD:
According to various estimates, the limit on the magnetic field strength of an AC power
transmission system varies from 10 to 50 μТ (micro Tesla). The magnetic fields associated with
DC lines produce no perceivable effects. The DC lines’ magnetic field is in the same range of
strength as that of the Earth's natural magnetic field.

7.2.1 Radio Interference:

The radio interference caused by electric power transmission lines is the result of the corona
discharge around conductors, which is generated only at positive voltages. As a result, on a
HVDC line radio interference is generated only by positive pole conductors, whereas with a
HVAC transmission line radio interference is generated by all of the three AC phases. The radio
interference of HVDC is usually about 6-8db lower than HVAC.

7.2.2 AUDIBLE NOISE:

Audible noise is one of the important design parameters for both overhead lines and
substations. All known measures to decrease audible noise from these sources are quite costly.
The main source of audible noise in DC transmission is ‘Converter Transformer’. Noise levels
from a DC line will usually decrease during foul weather, unlike the noise levels on AC lines. As a
rule, the audible noise from transmission lines should not exceed, in residential areas, 50 dB
during the day, or 40 dB at night.

7.3 GROUND CURRENTS AND CORROSION EFFECTS:

For cable monopole HVDC transmission systems, current return is performed through the
ground. In the case of an overhead line operating after an emergency outage on one pole, it is
possible to use the wire of an emergency pole as the return circuit. Even in this case, however, it
is necessary to provide the opportunity for the current to pass though the earth for some time.
In several cases a special additional conductor, which normally serves as the lightning guard for
the line, has been used to enable monopole operation of a HVDC overhead transmission line.
When the “metallic return” is utilized, HVDC power transmission does not introduce any
additional environmental impact in comparison with HVAC transmission lines.

If there are pipelines or other underground metal objects near the grounding installation, it is
recommended that additional cathodic protection of such objects be provided to allow prevent
rapid corrosion.

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

7.4 Right of Way Cost:
Improved energy transmission possibilities contribute to a more efficient utilization of existing
power plants. The land coverage and the associated right-of-way cost for a HVDC overhead
transmission line is not as high as for an AC line.
This reduces the visual impact. It is also possible to increase the power transmission capacity for
existing rights of way.

7.5 VISUAL IMPACTS:

When transmission lines cross populated areas and especially national parks, resorts and other
territories where conservation of the natural landscape is important, special demands are
placed on the transmission line’s dimensions. For example, it is sometimes necessary to limit the
height of the towers with the height of the trees in woodland, so that the transmission line itself
is largely obscured. Special demands are then placed on the aesthetics of the design of the line.
HVDC overhead transmission lines offer several advantages from the point of view of visual
impact relative to HVAC lines of the same capacity. Bipolar HVDC transmission lines have two
conductors and already because of that it is simpler in design in comparison with the three-
phase structure of a HVAC line. HVDC lines require shorter tower heights in comparison with
HVAC lines of equal capacity and comparable voltage levels.

7.6 Transmission Losses:

Current and voltage limits are the two important factors of the high voltage transmission line.
The AC resistance of a conductor is higher than its DC resistance because of skin effect, and
eventually loss is higher for AC transmission. The switching surges are the serious transient over
voltages for the high voltage transmission line, in the case of AC transmission the peak values
are two or three times normal crest voltage but for DC transmission it is 1.7 times normal
voltage.

7.7 CORONA Discharge LOSSES:

Corona effects on the surface of high voltage overhead power transmission lines are the
principal source of radiated noise. The ion and corona effects on the DC transmission lines lead
to a small contribution of ozone production. The natural concentration of ozone in the clean air
is approximately 50 ppb (parts per billion) and in the city area this value may reach 150 ppb. The
limiting values for persons risk is around 180-200 ppb. The HVDC overhead transmission line
produces 10 ppb as compared with naturally occurring concentration. The losses due to corona
effect are lower in HVDC case than HVAC transmission system. The higher the transmission
voltage for HVAC, significant is the corona discharge.

8 CONCLUSION:
The HVDC transmissions can be compared with the HVAC transmission basically from two points
of view: the transmission costs point of view and the technical point of view respectively.
Analyzing the two systems regarding the transmission costs, the next advantages of HVDC
transmission systems over the HVAC transmission systems can be found
1. considering similar insulating requirements for peak voltage levels, a DC line/cable will
carry the same amount of power with two conductors as an AC line/cable with three

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

 conductors therefore for the same power level, an HVDC transmission system will
require smaller Right-of-Way, simpler towers and also the conductor and insulator costs
will be reduced, in comparison with a classical HVAC transmission
2. the power transmission losses (conductor losses) are reduced by about two-thirds when
the DC option is used instead of the AC one
3. furthermore, when a HVDC transmission is used, the absence of the skin effect can be
noticed and also the dielectric and corona losses are kept at low level, thus the efficiency
of the transmission is increased
4. However, the disadvantage of the HVDC transmissions regarding the costs comes from
use of the converters and filters
As a conclusion it can be said that the HVAC transmissions are more economical than HVDC
transmissions when used for small distances. Once the breakeven distance is reached the DC
alternative becomes more economical fact which may be observed from Figure below.

In the case of the overhead lines the breakeven distance can vary between 400 to 700 km
depending on the per unit line costs while, if a cable system is used the breakeven distance vary
between 25 and 50 km. The typical breakeven distance for overhead lines is 500 km.
Analyzing the two transmission systems, from the technical point of view, the HVDC
transmissions overcome some of the problems which are usually associated with the AC
transmissions. Thus, the stability limits are overcome when an HVDC transmission is used due to
the fact that the power carrying ability of DC lines is not affected by the transmission distance.
In the case of the HVAC transmission the power transfer in the AC lines is dependent on the
phase angle which increases with the distance and thus the power transfer is limited.
The second problem which is solved by using the DC transmission instead of the AC transmission
is the line charging. In the case of an HVAC transmission, line compensation (using STATCOMs,
SVCs etc) is used in order to solve the line charging issue, while in the case of DC lines such
compensation is not required. Due to this issue, in the case of HVAC transmission the breakeven
distance is reduced to 50 km. Therefore HVDC is more suitable and efficient transmission system
than HVAC. There is research going on in HVDC system performance and it is expected that
HVDC future is bright.

Zeeshan Ahmad 10065784 35

9 References:

HVDC transmission: power conversion applications in power systems / by Chan-Ki Kim,

Oxford Publishers;2009

Flexible power transmission: the HVDC options / J. Arrillaga, Y.H. Liu, N.R. Watson.
Chichester ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley, c2007

HVDC and FACTS Controllers: Applications of Static Converters in Power Systems,Vijay K

Sood.

HVDC Power Transmission Systems: Technology And Systems Interactions; K R

Padiyar,2005; New age International Publishers

Wind Power In Power Systems: Thomas Ackermann,2005; John Wiley and Sons

MODELING AND CONTROL OF A LINE-COMMUTATED HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM INTERACTING WITH A VSC
STATCOM, PauloFischer de Toledo
Dynamic Modelling of Line and Capacitor Commutated Converters for HVDC Power
Transmission, 2003, Germany

Grid Connection of Large Offshore Wind Farms Using HVDC: Lie Xu; 2005, Wiley
Interscience
www.abb.com , www.ieee.org.com
www.siemens.co.uk , www.mathworks.com

Topologies and Control of VSC-HVDC Systems for Grid Connection of Large-Scale Off
Shore Wind Farms: Keliang Zhou, Ming Cheng; Southeast University China
Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Sources: Juan
Manuel Carrasco, 2006, IEEE

GRID INTEGRATION OF WIND FARMS USING SVC AND STATCOM: S. Foster, L. Xu

and B. Fox; Queens University, UK
HVDC Transmission Overview: M. P. Bahrman, P.E., Member, IEEE

Analysis and Control of Wind Farm Incorporated VSC-HVDC in Unbalanced Conditions:

2005, Ming Yin, Gengyin Li, Member, IEEE, Ming Zhou, Student Member, IEEE, Yong Liu

HVDC Connection of Offshore Wind Farms to the Transmission System: 2007, Paola
Bresesti, Member, IEEE, Wil L. Kling, Member, IEEE, Ralph L. Hendriks, Member, IEEE,
and Riccardo Vailati

Economic Comparison of HVAC and HVDC Solutions for Large Offshore Wind Farms
under Special Consideration of Reliability: Master’s Thesis, Lazaros P. Lazaridis, 2005;
Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm

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