Module 1 - ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE - A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SUBJECT

Environment
Environment is a Collective term embracing all the conditions in which an
organism lives. It comprises of Soil, Water, etc. serves as Resources and Light, and
Temperature serves as Regulatory Factors to the organism. Environment in relation to
man is the sum total of all as follows:
 Social
 Economical
 Biological
 Physical
 Chemical
Environmental Studies deals with every issue that affects an Organism. It
is a multidisciplinary Approach where our Natural world and Human impacts on it. As a
Applied Science, it seeks practical answers in making human civilization sustainable on
the earth’s finite resources.

COMPONENTS
1. Life Sciences
 Botany is the study of plants
 Zoology is the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development,
and behavior
 Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their
interactions with other living organisms
2. Geoscience – Planet Earth
 Geology is the earth Science concerned with the Solid Earth, the rocks of which it
is composed.
 Oceanography – A Study of Ocean, waves, etc.
 Hydrology - scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on
Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability.
 Soil Science - the branch of science concerned with the formation, nature, ecology,
and classification of soil.
  Physics - the study of matter, energy, and the interaction between them.
 Chemistry - scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds
composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties,
behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other substances
 Atmospheric Sciences – A Study of Earth’s Atmosphere and its systems.
3. Engineering – which helps to provide solutions to environmental problems:
 Civil – design, construction and maintenance of roads, canals, bridges, etc.
 Chemical – uses principles of chemistry to use, produce, transform and transport
chemicals, materials and energy.
 Hydraulics is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems
dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement,
and use of water.
 Nano Technology - the branch of technology that deals with dimensions and
tolerances of less than 100 nanometers, especially the manipulation of individual
atoms and molecules.
4. Anthropology – study of humanity and anthropological insights which helps in
understanding the nature of the man-made environment
5. Economics - the branch of knowledge concerned with the production, consumption,
and transfer of wealth.
6. Sociology - Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social
relationships, social interaction, and culture of everyday life.
7. Statistics, Mathematics and Computer Science are tools required in Environment
Modeling.
8. Philosophy – To understand and enhance the spiritual environment, the inner health
and peace of the Individual which helps in holistic development of society.
9. Environmental education refers to organized efforts to teach how natural
environments function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behavior and
ecosystems to live sustainably.
10. Mass communication refers to the imparting and exchanging of information on a
large scale to a wide range of people. It is usually understood for
relating newspaper, magazine, and book publishing, as well
as radio, television and film, even via internet as these mediums are used for
disseminating information, news and advertising.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
a. Environmental Science – Deals with the scientific study of environmental system (air,
water, soil and land). Environmental damages incurred as a result of human interaction
with the environment
b. Environmental Engineering - Deals with the study of technical processes involved in
the protection of environment.
C. Environmental Management – Promotes due regard for Physical, Social and
Economic Environment of the enterprise or projects and it encourages planned
investment at the start of the production chain rather than forced investment in cleaning
up at the end.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

 To clarify modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity
 To know the more sustainable way of living
 To use natural resources more efficiently
 To know the behaviour of organism under natural conditions
 To know the interrelationship between organisms in populations and
communities.
 To aware and educate people regarding environmental issues and problems at
Local, National and International Levels.

GLOBAL, LOCAL AND INDIVIDUALISTIC NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT

 Damage to the forests of a hilly region.
 Cutting down of trees destroys the habitat of a variety of flora and fauna thus
reducing biodiversity which is a wealth to the field of medicine.
 Deforestation on hills – leads to soil erosion during the rainy season.
 Lost in the ground water due to the deforestation.
 Greenhouse gases in any region affects the globe as a whole by increasing the
overall temperature which creates Global Warming.
 CFCs – Chlorofluorocarbons
 Issues like ground water pollution, hydroelectric projects, impacts of mining etc.
affect a local area.
  Issues like waste water percolated into the groundwater that affects the area as
well as the health of the people.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development stands for sustainability and it represents an
approach to development which is concerned with such fundamental human concerns
like poverty, environment, equality, democracy, development and peace. The term
‘Sustainable Development was coined by Barbara Ward’, the founder of the International
Institute for Environment and Development, who made the point that development and
environment protection must be linked. The Sustainable Development was popularized
in 1987.

Definition of Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development, is thus a process of economic development, which aims at
maintaining the quality of life of both present and future generations without harming
natural resources and environment. It is the process of development which can be
sustained over a long period of time without causing fall in the quality of life of future
generations.

EVOLUTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

World Commission on Environment and Development through the
Brundtland Report, which was entitled, ‘Our Common Future’, produced the most widely
accepted definition of Sustainable of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. In 1992, the U.N. Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, the Earth Summit, called for Sustainable
Development, “to ensure socially responsible economic development while protecting
the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future generation”. The
Environment provides Life on Earth. The Environment is the Part and Parcel of the
Society. As it decides the very existence, growth and development of mankind and all its
activities. As it is a Multidisciplinary area of study which has several factors that prevails
upon the Social Lives of the People such as – Economic, Social, Ethical, Scientific,
Technological, Spiritual, etc. Due to the Development in Science and Technology, there is
a Change in the Behaviour of people. As it has brought alarming consequences on the
people. So far, man has indulged in exploitation of nature and its resources. But now there
is environmental degradation and depletion. It in turns, affect the quality of life of people.
We have to learn to live within our planetary means. For the sustainable development of
humanity, the people have to change their approach. The Government has to design
economic policies and developmental activities to nurture the environment. The
Developmental activities and environmental safety can be ensured through sustainable
development. In the following areas, Sustainability has to be adopted,
 The Climatic Changes.
 Biodiversity.
 Disposal of hazardous and toxic wastes.
 Disposal of pollution – Industrial Effluents all must be properly managed and
treated
The nine elements /aspects were recommended by Dr. M. S. Swaminathan
 Land
 Water
 Energy
 Nutrient supply
 Genetic diversity
 Pest management
 Post-harvest system
 Systems approach
 Location – specific research and development.
 The population has to be kept under control. At Global Level, a political transition
should take place on mutually agreed objectives among nations.

The environmental issues affecting Sustainable Development

 Agricultural Occupation – By encouraging high-yielding varieties, development of
aquaculture fish farming, etc. the food problem has to be solved.
 People must change towards non-conventional sources like Solar, wind, tidal, etc.
to solve the power crisis.
 The Government should take steps to control pollution.
  To check pollution, the waste management practices should be undertaken.
 Development of Natural Vegetation.

Steps vital for sustainable development:

 To provide clean and hygienic living and working conditions for the people.
 To undertake Research and Development on local environmental issues.
 Safety devices must be provided in all factories.
 To ensure better treatment method of salvaging hazardous industrial wastes.
 To create substitutes for proven hazardous materials based on local resources
needs.
 To introduce environmental education as part of school and college curricula.
 To practice non-conventional sources of energy like Solar energy, wind energy,
tidal energy.
 The companies must produce eco-friendly products.
Module 2 - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Ecosystems show large variations in size, structure, composition, etc. All
the ecosystems are characterized by certain basic structural and functional features
which are common. The basic structural components of an ecosystem are biotic and
abiotic components. That is the ecosystem can be viewed as a series of biotic components
that are linked together and thus interact with one another exchanging energy and
matter, and being influenced by other abiotic factors. The fact that ecosystem
components are linked indicates that disturbances to one component impact on all other
components of the ecosystem to varying degrees.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS
A. TROPHIC LEVELS (Biotic Components)
B. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
C. TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS
D. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
A. TROPHIC LEVELS
Ecosystems have a basic structure according to how different populations acquire energy
flow, where energy flow is a function of ecosystems. Species obtaining energy in a similar
way are grouped into trophic levels. There are three primary trophic levels:
1. Primary producers
2. Consumers
3. Decomposers
Primary Producers are autotrophic organisms (Primarily Green Plants) capable of
photosynthesis making food for themselves and indirectly for other components.
- In terrestrial ecosystems the autotrophs are usually rooted plants.
- In aquatic ecosystems shallow waters have rooted plants and deep waters have
phytoplankton as the major autotrophs.
Consumers are heterotrophic organisms dependent on other organisms for food.
Consumers can be subdivided into more specific trophic levels. Those feeding directly on
producers are called Primary Consumers (Herbivores) like rabbit, protozoa, deer.
The Secondary and Tertiary Consumers (Carnivores) eat other consumers. Ex; Frog,
Tiger, Fishes.
Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy and nutrients from remains of dead
producers and consumers. Decomposers are primarily bacteria and fungi which are
extremely important in the process of nutrient cycling.

B. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
The abiotic components are air, water, salts, light, temperature, nutrients, etc. In deserts,
temperature and light will be in excess, but with scarcity of water. In deep sea, light would
be limited. Nutrients such as N,P and Ca, necessary for the growth of living organisms are
accumulated in the biomass and the abiotic components like soil.

C. TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS
Ecosystems also have a basic structure according to trophic relationships. This is the
relationship of ‘Who-eats-whom” in an ecosystem and is a food chain. More often,
however, food chains are not isolated from one another but rather are “Cross-Linked”
into more complicated structures called food webs. Thus a food chain can be defined as a
linear series of organisms dependent on each other for food, resulting in the function of
transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
Example of Trophic Relationships
 Grass is eaten by sheep, which in turn is eaten by a Lion.
 A Food Web can be defined as an interconnected set of food chains in the
ecosystem.
 A mouse in the field may eat several types of seeds and be preyed upon by several
different carnivores animals.
The two most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through
this structure of food chains and food web. As the diversity (eg; number of species) in the
ecosystem increases, the complexity of these food webs also increases as complexity
increases so does stability. Eg; disturbance or extinction of one or two species can be
compensated for. In simple food webs or chains, extinction of one species may lead to the
collapse of the entire system.
D. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphic representation of the structure of trophic and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels leading to the apex. These are
mostly upright but can be inverted or even urn shaped. Ecological pyramids can be based
on three different kinds of information related to the trophic relationships. These are as
follows:
1. Pyramid of numbers
It is based on number of individuals in each trophic level. Example, the producers in the
grasslands are grasses which are small in size and large in number thus forming a broad
base. The Herbivores in this ecosystem are insects, while tertiary carnivores are birds
which are gradually less in number, thus forming an upright pyramid. In forest
ecosystem, the producers are big trees which are less in number, where the birds, insects,
etc. that feed on the trees are more in number. The secondary consumers like lizards,
snakes, fox, etc. which feed on these are lesser in number and thus pyramid is urn shaped.
2. Pyramid of biomass
It is based on weight of living material in each trophic level. Example, In a forest the
producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the total biomass of the consumers
feeding at each successive level decreases resulting in a broad base and narrowing top,
that is an upright pyramid. Whereas, for a pond ecosystem the producer are
phytoplanktons which have much less biomass as compared to herbivores
(zooplanktons, insects) and carnivores (small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish).
Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex.
3. Pyramid of energy
It is based on energy content of each trophic level. As energy is always lost at each step
of a food chain, the pyramid of energy is always upright. The energy loss in the form of
heat, respiration, etc. at each trophic level is as high as 90%, that is only about 10% of the
energy is passed on to the next trophic level. This would mean that if there were 1000
units of energy at the producers’ level the primary consumers would receive 100 units of
energy, the secondary consumers would receive 10 units of energy and the tertiary
consumer would receive 1 unit of energy. That is why it takes a lot of producers to
support a few top consumers. Hence the Pyramid of energy is the best representation of
the trophic relationship. This pyramid helps to demonstrate the loss of energy from one
level of the food chain to the next level.
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
1. ENERGY FLOW
2. NUTRIENT CYCLING.
Energy Flow – It is an important function that sustains the ecosystem but the energy
does not cycle and so needs a constant input. Energy flow is the one-way process in
ecosystems. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems, which provides
for the essential constant input of energy. This is called radiant energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves, as is sunlight. Primary producers capture a fraction of energy in
sunlight striking the earth and convert it into chemical energy i.e., Carbohydrate that is
stored in their tissues. Energy in tissues of primary producers is transferred to consumers
as each consumes tissues of other organisms. At each step, there is a loss of heat about
90% - 95%.
MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW
Single channel energy flow model - It depicts the energy flow in a grazing food chain
which starts from green plants and ends to carnivores passing herbivores. This is
depicted using narrowing pipes to depict the gradual loss of energy at every level and
using smaller boxes to depict the decreasing stored energy that is biomass (B). The
incident energy (I), energy assimilated (A), loss of energy that is not utilized (NU), the
energy loss or respiration (R) and the energy used for production (P) is depicted.
Y-shaped energy flow model - It is more realistic and practical than the single –channel
energy flow model because: It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems. It
separates the two chains i.e., grazing food chain and detritus food chain in both time and
space. Micro consumers (e.g. bacteria, fungi) and the macro consumers (animals) differ
greatly in size
Nutrient cycling - It is opposite to the Energy flow. Nutrients: are molecules required by
living organisms e.g. carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous. Unlike energy, there is no major
input of nutrients from outside the ecosystem. Nutrients are used over and over again
which would mean that the carbon, nitrogen, etc. atoms in our body have been used over
and over again in ecosystems. Nutrients move through ecosystems by way of
biogeochemical cycles which by name indicate that these cycles include biological,
geological and chemical processes. Major cycles are Nitrogen, Carbon and Phosphorous
cycle.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
“Ecological Succession” is the observed process of change in the structure of species of an
ecological community over a period of time. Within any community some species may
become less abundant over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the
ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the
community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the
community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over a period of time in
what is living in a particular ecosystem is “ecological succession”.

REASON FOR THE OCCURRENCE OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

It occurs because ecosystems are not static in nature and is triggered by changes in the
environment. The original environment may have been optimal for the first species of
plant or animal, but the newly altered environment is often optimal for some other
species of plant or animal. Under the changed conditions of the environment, the
previously dominant species may fail and another species may become ascendant. In
ecological succession there is the concept of the “Climax” community which represents a
stable end product of the successional sequence. Structure of the species and composition
will not change much over observable time. To this degree, we could say that ecological
succession has “stopped”. But the structure of the species and composition will change
subject to massive external disruptive forces (like fires and storms) that could re-set and
re-trigger the successional process. As long as these random and potentially catastrophic
events are possible, it is not absolutely accurate to say that succession has stopped. Also,
over long periods of time (“geological time”) the climate conditions and other
fundamental aspects of an ecosystem change. Thus Ecological Succession can be
elaborately defined as an orderly process of change in the community structure and
function with the passage of time, mediated through modifications in the physical
environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as Climax.

PROCESS OF SUCCESSION
Nudation:
 It is the development of a bare area without any Life Form.
  The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruptions, drought,
glaciers, frost, overgrazing, outbreak of diseases, agricultural, industrial activities,
etc.
Invasion:
 It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through
dispersal by wind, water, birds, etc. followed by ecesis.
 As growth and reproduction start, these species increase in number and form
groups.
Competition & Coactions:
 As the number of individuals grows, there is interspecific (between species) and
intraspecific (within species) competition for space water and nutrition. This
influence on each other in a number of ways is called coaction.
Reaction:
 The cause of ecosystem change, is the impact that established species have upon
their own environments. This modification of the environment by established
species is called reaction.
 The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the existing
species and favour some new species which replace them.
Stabilization:
 The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called
climax which is in equilibrium with the environment owing to full adjustment with
the environment, maximum biomass and mutually beneficial linkages with other
organism.

MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

I. Forest Ecosystem
II. Grassland Ecosystem
III. Desert Ecosystem
IV. Aquatic Ecosystem
 Ponds Ecosystem
 Streams Ecosystem
 Lakes Ecosystem
 Rivers Ecosystem
  Oceans Ecosystem
 Estuaries Ecosystem

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
1. Forest ecosystems tend to be stable climax community of various strata of trees
shrubs, herbs climbers and a variety of animals and birds, or they are always moving
towards maturity called a Climax Forest.
2. This maturing, also called forest succession, of the ecosystem increases diversity.
3. Management of forests for sustainability is desirable when forest diversity is
threatened by overuse, resource exploitation and poor management.
Depending on the climatic conditions, forests can be of various types:
a. Tropical Rain Forests
b. Tropical Deciduous Forests
c. Tropical Scrub Forests
d. Temperate Rain Forests
e. Temperate Deciduous Forests
f. Evergreen Coniferous Forests
VARIOUS TYPES OF FORESTS
A. Tropical Rain Forests
These are considered as the store house of Biodiversity and found the equator having
high temperature, humidity and rainfall favouring broad leafed evergreen tree growth
which forms a dense canopy which prevents sunlight from reaching in. Therefore, mostly
shade loving smaller trees and shrubs exist as understory. On the tree trunks some woody
climbers are found to grow which are known as Lianus. Epiphytes like orchids attach to
the branches of big trees and their special leaves capture and hold the water falling from
above. Termites, mushroom and fungi grown on the ground layer which receives almost
no sunlight. The silent valley in Kerala is the only tropical rainforest lying in India.
OTHER EXAMPLES OF TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
• Amazon rainforest in South America.
• Central American Countries Such as Panama.
• The Kilum-Ijim Forest (West Africa)
• Madagascar Lowland forest in Africa.
• Amazon Rain Forest
 • The Amazon rainforest, covering much of northwestern Brazil and extending into
Colombia, Peru and other South American countries, is the world’s largest tropical
rainforest, famed for its biodiversity. It’s crisscrossed by thousands of rivers,
including the powerful Amazon. River towns, with 19th-century architecture from
rubber-boom days, include Brazil’s Manaus and Belém and Peru’s Iquitos and
Puerto Maldonado.
• Metropolitan Natural Park - Metropolitan Natural Park is a park in Panama City,
Panama. It is the only wildlife refuge in the city. Wildlife found in the park include
bird species and Geoffroy's tamarin. The park was first proposed in 1974 and was
inaugurated on June 5, 1988.
• Kilum-Ijim Forest - The Kilum-Ijim Forest is an area of mountain rainforest in
Cameroon's North-West Region. It is found on Mount Oku and the nearby Ijim
Ridge in the Cameroon mountains, with Lake Oku lying in a crater in its center. It
is the largest area of Afromontane forest left in West Africa.
• Madagascar lowland forests - The Madagascar lowland forests or Madagascar
humid forests are a tropical moist broad leaf forest eco-region found on the
eastern coast of the island of Madagascar, home to a plant and animal mix that is
80 to 90% endemic, with the forests of the eastern plain being a particularly
important location of this endemism.
B. Tropical Deciduous Forests:
Found a little away from equator, having warm climate, rainfall occurs only during
monsoon. A large part of the year remaining dry and so favouring deciduous trees which
loose their leaves in autumn.
C. TROPICAL SCRUB FORESTS:
Found in areas where the dry season is very long favouring small deciduous trees and
shrubs.
D. TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS:
Found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall dominated by coniferous trees like
pines, firs, redwood and also some evergreen broad leaved trees owing to the plentiful
rain.
E. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS
Found in areas with marked seasonality but moderate temperature and abundant rainfall
throughout the year favouring broad leaf deciduous trees like Oak, Hickory, Poplar, etc.
F. EVERGREEN CONIFEROUS FORESTS
Found south of arctic tundra having long cold and dry winters, sunlight being available
for few hours only and summer season being mild and short favouring coniferous trees
like fir, cedar, pines, spruce,etc. having tiny needle shaped leaves with wax coating to
withstand the cold. The soil gets frozen in winter where only few species can survive.
Species diversity is rather low in these forests.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are open areas where grasses or grass-like plants are the dominant
vegetation and where there are few trees. Grasses came to dominate over other species,
such as trees, because they are better able to thrive in hot, dry climates where spring and
summer rain is sparse. Grasses take advantage of moisture in the soil during spring and
have many long, fine roots to search for water at, and just below, the surface of the soil.
The blades of grass plants curve inward to capture rain drops and direct them into the
center of the plant, where they are absorbed by the roots. A layer of mulch and a crust of
mosses, lichens, liverworts and other organisms on the ground between grasses help to
shade the ground from summer heat and from wind, thus preventing evaporation of
precious water from the root zone below. Grass Pollen is distributed by the winds that
blows constantly in these dry, open areas. The rolling landscape of grasslands includes
hills, river valleys, cliff. These features alter the amount of sun and precipitation a specific
part of the landscape receives. Elevation also influences temperature and precipitation:
at higher elevations days are cooler and shorter, precipitation is higher and snow stays
longer. Flowering plants become more abundant with elevation. Many flowering plants
have adapted to the hot, dry climate, completing their cycle of flowering, seed formation
and drying out before the hottest part of the summer. Shrubs are also an important
component of grass lands. Water runs over the landscape in the form of rivers, streams,
collecting in low areas to form lakes, ponds.

TYPES OF GRASSLANDS
 TROPICAL GRASSLANDS – In Africa these are knows as savannas, which have tall
grasses, scattered shrubs, stunted trees. Animal diversity is high including zebras,
giraffes, etc.
 Temperate Grasslands – Soil are very fertile and often cleared for agriculture.
 Polar Grasslands – These grasslands are found in Arctic Tundra where the climate is
too cold and harsh for trees to grow. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the
surface of soil throughout the year. Only in summers when sun shine round the clock
some annual plants grow.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Deserts are defined as regions wherein the average annual precipitation seldom exceeds
more than 10 inches per year. Deserts are basically of two types that is, hot and cold
deserts. Hot deserts such as the Sahara in Africa (tropical desert) and Mojave in Southern
California (temperate desert). Cold deserts, like Gobi desert in China and the best example
being Antarctica. In India we have a hot desert, the Thar desert in Rajasthan. One of the
prominent differences between the two types of desert is the form of precipitation, which
is snowfall in cold deserts and rainfall in hot deserts which have a chilling temperature at
night. Though a desert may seem like a barren land devoid of forms of life, life thus exist
in this harsh environment. Numerous plants and animals species have adapted to these
seemingly unsuitable conditions. In the desert ecosystem, climate is a deciding factor for
the existence of forms of life. In deserts, temperatures can reach up to 115 Degree
Fahrenheit during the day and come down to 32 degree Fahrenheit at night. Many plants
and animals have adapted themselves over the years, and have become an important part
of the desert ecosystem today.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic systems are those that contain plants and animals that predominantly depends
on a significant amount of water to be present for at least part of the year. They are either
fresh water or marine.

POND ECOSYSTEM
• A pond ecosystem refers to the freshwater ecosystem where there are communities
of organism dependent on each other with the prevailing water environment for their
nutrients and survival. Ponds are often shallow water bodies and seasonal. Like in a
forest, the top, middle and bottom of a pond can be vastly different from each other,
and even the layers in between.
• Under different temperature or light conditions the water in a pond can vary greatly
in oxygen, clarity and other factors that effect where plants and animals might live.
• The air above the pond and the land below the pond are important as well, as those
provide space for animals to live, plants to root, and predators and prey to interact.
• Diversity – A pond is not just a small lake with frogs and fishes, rather there are
thousands of different species of plants, algae, insects fishes and animals living
together in a natural pond. The more diverse a pond is (more species that it has) the
stronger and healthier it is.
• Micro-organisms – Some of the most important plants and animals in a pond are micro
organisms and while a few may cause disease, almost all are very beneficial and
important to a pond ecosystem. While bigger animals may fly, walk, or swim away to
other ponds, micro-organisms are always present in large numbers.
• Macro-organisms – Larger plants and animals that are easy to see on a pond are called
“macro-organisms (macro=large). They are the plants and animals that we often
notice first, and can more easily spread from pond to pond, for example water birds
such as sea birds such as penguins, ducks, swan and gulls

LAKE ECOSYSTEM
• A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well
as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. Lake ecosystems are a prime
example of lentic ecosystems. Lentic refers to stationary or relatively still water, from
the Latin lentus, which means sluggish.
• These are usually big water bodies having shallow water zone called littoral zone,
open water zone where effective penetration of sunlight takes place called limnetic
zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible called profundal
zone.
• Organisms – Several types of organisms occur like Planktons (that floats on water
surface), nektons (that swim like fishes), neustons (water insects), benthos (like
snails).
• Dal lake of Srinagar, Naini lake of Nainital, Loktak lake in Manipur are some famous
lakes of the Country.
STREAM ECOSYSTEM
• Streams are shallow flowing water.
• Stream organisms have to face extremes of temperature and current but constant
movement and shallow waters provides abundant oxygen.

RIVERS ECOSYSTEM
• River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic
interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic physical
and chemical interactions of its many parts.
• Rivers are large streams flowing through plains and falling into the sea.
• Large rivers are relatively deep and wide and rich in organic matter but also contain
a lot of inorganic sediment produced by erosion and runoff into the upland waters.

MARINE ECOSYSTEM
 Marine waters cover two thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered
as ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa.
 Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and
terrestrial environments.
 According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for
approximately 1/3 of all marine biological productivity and estuarine ecosystems
(i.e., salt, marshes, sea grasses, mangrove forests) are among the most productive
regions on the planet.

ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM
• An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more
rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries
form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments.
• The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both
the water column and sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural
habitats in the world.
• Estuary mudflats seem an unlikely setting for some of the most productive habitats in
the world.
• Certain plants, seaweeds and photosynthetic micro-organisms (phytoplankton)
absorb nutrients at a fast rate, grow rapidly and produce lots of food.
• The estuary is the hostile environment for most plants because salt dominates. A few
grow further back on the shore, where they live in a fluctuating environment of sea
water and fresh water. These plants must cope with:
• Varying salinity levels.
• Strong currents and storm waves.
• Varying exposure to sunlight and wind.
• Low oxygen levels in muddy soils.
 Estuaries are termed ‘Open’ ecosystems because they are vitally linked to the wider
environment. Nutrients are carried in from the land via rivers, and from the sea by the
tides.
 Some of these nutrients are then taken out again when animals such as fish and birds
leave the estuary. Some are also flushed out to sea on outgoing tides.
Module 3 – Natural Resources

LAND RESOURCES
All human settlements subsist on land, so it is land, which constitutes the single most
important component of the total environment upon which we also depend for our food,
fibre and fuel wood, etc. Every environmental advantage or disadvantage arises out of the
way in which we use our land resources. Environmentally compatible planning requires
evaluating the land and keeping its use as close to what nature intended.
Example; Land which can be cultivated should not be given in to the Industries and only
land which is a wasteland should be used for industrial use. The land use pattern of
agricultural communities is environmentally the most compatible. As the agriculture cycle
has to follow nature like keeping it fallow in between cropping to retain its fertility such land
use is by and large harmony with the overall environment and causes the least conflict
between what nature had intended and what man disposes. Inappropriate use of land is
environmentally and economically costly.
Example: In Delhi, barren land is converted into gardens at immense cost while fertile land
is smothered under concrete and asphalt. Thus understanding Land resources is the first
step to proper planning and assigning its use. Zoning is the present system of Land use
planning but exclusive zoning like into residential area, commercial area, institutional area,
industrial area can increase their inter destination distances like from home to work and so
require wider roads and more transportation needs. Proper planning should anticipate city
growth and provide space for poorer sections who cannot afford to compete in market, to
reside closer to work places.

LAND DEGRADATION
Land Degradation is a global problem, where its natural characteristics and aesthetic value
is negatively affected. The major causes of degradation include:
 Land clearance, such as deforestation and clear cutting (in which most or all trees in a
harvest area are cut down).
 Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices.
 Overgrazing – Grasses so heavily that the vegetation is damaged and the ground becomes
liable to erosion.
 Inappropriate irrigation can cause problems like salinization and water logging.
 Overdrafting that is extracting groundwater beyond the safe yield or equilibrium yield of
the aquifer can cause issues like land subsidence.
 Urban Sprawl (Spreading outwards of a City) and commercial development.
 Land Pollution (which occurs when waste is not disposed properly like industrial wastes
which can be toxic).
 Quarrying or open pit mining for stone, sand, ore and minerals.

LANDSLIDES
The term landslide or, less frequently, landslip, refers to several forms of mass wasting that
include a wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep-seated slope failures,
mudflows and debris flows. Landslides are more widespread than any other geographical
event. They are defined as downslope transport of soil and rock resulting from natural
phenomena or man-made actions. Landslides can be secondary effects of heavy storms,
volcanic eruptions and earth quakes. Man-made causes of landslides:
• Intense deforestation and consequent soil erosion.
• Construction of human settlement or other anthropogenic activities related to large
dams, etc. in hilly areas.
• Roads or communication lines in mountain areas.
• Building with weak foundations.
• Burying pipelines weaken an already mountainous area.

SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, one form of soil degradation. This
natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice, snow,
air, plants, animals, and humans.
 Soil erosion is a natural process where the natural top soil cover gets removed.
  It becomes a problem when human activity causes it to occur much faster than under
natural conditions.
 Soil erosion also results in water loss as water percolation gets reduced, induces
frequent flood and drought, and soil nutrient is also lost.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Wind and water are the main physical agents of soil erosion. The amount of soil they can
carry away is influenced by two related factors:
1. Speed – The faster it moves, the more soil it can erode. On farmed slopes, steps like
terracing and contour farming are helpful in cutting the speed of water flow down the
slope.
2. Plant Cover – Plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much
more damage. Therefore conserving soil is all about maintaining adequate vegetation
cover.
Natural Factors causing soil erosion
i. Heavy rains on weak soil: Rain drops loosen soil particles which gets
transported downhill by water.
ii. Steep slopes: Water flows faster; soil creeps, slips or slumps down falls.
iii. Rainfall: Erosion increases with unexpected rapidity with severe rainstorms.
iv. Drought: Water dries up and dry soil is blown off more easily by the winds. A
sudden rain causes enormous damage and especially more when vegetation cover
is depleted due to drought.
v. Changing winds: Areas previously sheltered, become exposed.
Human-Induced factors causing Soil Erosion
1. Deforestation
2. Intensive Farming – Excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land.
3. Housing Development – Soil is bared; massive earthworks are done to landscape
the area and all these leaves soil unprotected.
4. Road Construction – when roads are cut, massive earthworks leave scars behind.
Not enough attention is paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of road sides.
Types of Soil Erosion
1. Sheet Erosion – When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil usually by run off,
from a large surface area, it is called sheet erosion.
2. Rill Erosion – When there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger - shaped
grooves or rills over the area it is called rill erosion.
3. Gully Erosion – When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed
which may be U or V shaped.
4. Slip Erosion – The soil layer slips due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.
5. Stream Bank Erosion – During the rainy season, the fast running streams take a turn in
some other direction cutting the soil and making caves in the banks.
6. Wind Induced Soil Erosion –
 Saltation – Due to the stormy wind the soil particles of 1-1.5 mm diameter move up
in a vertical direction.
 Suspension – The fine Soil Particles less than 1 mm diameter which are suspended
in the air carried in that manner to distant places.
 Surface creep – Here larger particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil surface
along with wind

DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is often considered the greatest threat to the planet. Over one third of the
world’s land surface (38 Percent) is threatened with desertification, according to a new
study published in the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment in 2010. Desertification
is the process in which the productive potential of arid or semiarid land falls by 10% or more
as a result of poor land management, human and climatic factors. Moderate desertification
is 10-25% drop in productivity, severe desertification causes more than 50% drop in
productivity often creating huge gullies and sand dunes. Desertification occurs mainly in
semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less than 600 mm) bordering the deserts. In the
Sahel, (the semi-arid area south of the Sahara Desert), for example, the desert moved 100
km southwards between 1950 and 1975. Also the Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts are
about a million years old, yet they have become more barren during the last 100 years.
Desertification is therefore not the literal invasion of desert into a non-desert area rather it
includes degradation of the ecosystems within as well as outside the natural deserts. It
involves conversion of rangelands and irrigated or even rain-fed croplands to desert like
conditions in which agricultural productivity decreases.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
1. Overgrazing – is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas
are adapted to being eaten by mammals such as dogs, elephant, Tiger, Lions, Guerilla, Bear,
Horse and etc.
2. Destruction of Vegetation
3. Incorrect Irrigation Practices – in arid areas can cause salinization, (that build up of salts
in the soil) which can prevent plant growth.
4. Drought
5. Increasing Human Population and Poverty – As poor people may be forced to overuse
their environment in the short term, without the ability to plan for the long term effects of
their actions. Livestock has a social importance beyond the Food, people might be reluctant
to reduce their stock numbers.
6. Deforestation – Depletion of Ground Water
7. Excessive Mining and Quarrying – activities etc. lead to loss of fertile soil and vegetal
cover in healthy areas within moderate dry lands.
8. Over farming – Overworking the land eventually drains the soil of its nutrients and
leaving it unable to produce crops.

The Effects of Desertification

Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic
animals, agricultural crops and people. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies
desertification leads to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing
approximately 300-400 million tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil
layer are reduced, rain drop impact and run-off increases. Water is lost off the land instead
of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for plants. Even long-lived plants that would
normally survive droughts die.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
1. Increasing Population and Livestock – resulting in increased requirement of timber,
fuel wood, land for grazing, for farms, for habitation, etc.
2. Industrialization – Paper industries, plywood industries based on forest produce,
clearing areas for setting up industries without considerations or assessments, all cause
gradual decline of forests. For example, the finest areas of the great sal belt of north India
(Bihar) were sacrificed to build the industrial township of Rourkela, Durgapur and Bhilai.
• The above case depicts how decisions favouring Short term benefits leads to Long term
Loss. As with the forest gone the climate of the locality became unbearably hot and Bihar
became a prey to alternating floods and droughts.
3. Activities like mining and quarrying are also responsible for large scale deforestation.
4. Big dams and river valley projects are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas
of forests.
5. Other factors in the past have been shifting cultivation, allotting forest land to refugees to
accommodate the waves of refugees over the last 25 years from Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, East
Africa and Pakistan.

MINING
Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from earth. Manganese, tantalum,
cassiterite, copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminum ore), iron ore, gold, silver, and diamonds
are just some examples of what is mined. Mining is a money making business. Not only do
mining companies prosper, but governments also make money from revenues. Workers also
receive income and benefits. Mining is generally very destructive to the environment. It is
one of the main causes of deforestation. In order to mine, trees and vegetation are cleared
and burned. With the ground completely bare, large scale mining operations use huge
bulldozers and excavators to extract the metals and minerals from the soil. In order to
amalgamate the extractions, they use chemicals such as cyanide, mercury, or methyl
mercury. These chemicals go through tailings (pipes) and are often discharged into rivers,
streams, bays, and oceans. This pollution contaminates all living organisms within the body
of water and ultimately the people who depend on the fish for their main source of protein
and their economic livelihood. Small scale mining is equally devastating to the
environment, if not more. Groups of 5-6 men migrate from one mining site to another in
search of precious metals, usually gold. There are two types of small scale mining: land
dredging and river dredging:
Land dredging involves miners using a generator to dig a large hole in the ground. They use
a high pressure hose to expose the gold-bearing layer of sand and clay. The gold bearing
slurry is pumped into a sluice box, which collects gold particles, while mine tailings flow into
either an abandoned mining pit or adjacent forest. When the mining pits fill with water from
the tailings, they become stagnant water pools. These pools create a breeding ground for
mosquitoes and other water-born insects. Malaria and other water-born diseases increase
significantly whenever open pools of water are nearby.
River dredging involves moving along a river on a platform or boat. The miners use a
hydraulic suction hose and suction the gravel and mud as they move along the river. The
gravel, mud, and rocks go through the tailings (pipes) and any gold fragments are collected
on felt mats. The remaining gravel, mud, and rocks go back into the river, but in a different
location than where it was originally suctioned. This creates problems for the river. The
displaced gravel and mud disrupt the natural flow of the river. Fish and other living
organisms often die and fishermen can no longer navigate in the obstructed rivers.

HOW DOES MINING AFFECT THE PEOPLE?

The people who are exposed to the toxic waste from the tailings become sick. They develop
skin rashes, headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, etc. In fact, the symptoms of mercury poisoning
are very similar to the symptoms of malaria. Many people who cannot afford to go to a
doctor, or who live in a village where a doctor is not accessible, are often not treated for their
illnesses. If the water is contaminated, the people cannot use it for bathing, cooking, or
washing their clothes. If the man of the household is a small scale miner, he often leaves his
wife and children in search of work. This means that the wife and children must work and
provide for themselves. They must also protect themselves from thieves. Theft,
drugs/alcohol, prostitution, rape, and sexual abuse are unfortunately some of the effects of
mining. Cultural degradation also occurs in mining villages. For example, mining often
destroys sacred sites and cemeteries. In Guyana, a special fishing event
called Haiari Fishing unfortunately can not take place if the river has been dredged for
gold. Remember, the displacement of the gravel and mud obstruct the natural flow of the
river. As a result, fish and other organisms die.

Dams
A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water or underground streams.
Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities
such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.
USES OF DAMS
Generally, water is stored and used by the people. Water is also stored for irrigation purpose.
• Dams can prevent floods in forest.
• Dams are necessary for irrigation.
• Dams are necessary for hydro-electric power generation.
• Dams are necessary for fishing.
• Dams facilitate tourism.
• Dams facilitate inter basin water transferences.
• Dams facilitate regional and inter regional water – resource schemes.
• Recharge of water is the main factor for the stable water.

The impact of Dam

a) The construction of large dams involves key expenditure.
b) The loss will be more, when the electricity produced in the large dams distributed to
many places.
c) Due to heavy siltation in the large dams, there is a rapid reduction in water capacity.
d) The life time of Tehri Dam is estimated 100 years, but it might be within 30-40 years.
e) The dams are constructed by destroying the environment and many organisms. For Eg.
The Silent Valley Project in Kerala has destroyed very old Flora and Fauna.
f) Soil erosion due to Kali river project in Karnataka produces Waste Land.
g) Construction of dams requires cutting of trees, which affects the climate.
h) The people around the areas have to be evacuated.
I) The stagnation of water causes diseases like malaria and brain fever.
j) The cultivatable lands near the dam are affected by stagnation of water.
k) Dams increase the ground water which dilutes calcium and the people are affected by
Floralysis.
L) Dams are responsible for earthquakes.

DAM BUILDING ON ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECT

Dams are indeed a modern marvel of human
1. Dams are built across a river to store irrigation water and to produce electricity
through Hydropower, dams have proven to be very useful to humanity.
2. Dams have had such an impact on the world that more than half of the world’s major
rivers had dams constructed on them by the end of the 20th Century.
3. However, such alterations of nature have not come without great tolls on the
environment, such as the wiping out of entire species, flooding wetlands, forests, and
farmlands, and displacing millions of people around the world.
1. Flooding and the destruction of surrounding habitat
Dammed rivers create a reservoir upstream from the dam, which spills out into the
surrounding environments and floods ecosystems and habitats that once existed there. Such
flooding can kill or displace many different organisms, including plants, wildlife, and
humans.
2. Dams produce green house gases
1. The flooding of surrounding habitat around dams kills trees and other plant life that
then decomposes and releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere.
2. Because the river is no longer flowing freely, the water becomes stagnant and the
bottom of the reservoir becomes depleted of oxygen.
3. This lack of oxygen creates a situation where methane (a very potent greenhouse gas)
is produced from the decomposition of the plant materials at the bottom of the
reservoir that eventually gets released into the atmosphere, contributing to global
climate change.
3. Sediment builds up behind the dam
Because a dammed river no longer flows freely, the sediment that would have otherwise
been deposited naturally downstream begins to build up behind the dam, forming new
riverbanks, river deltas, alluvial fans, braided rivers, oxbow lakes, levees and coastal shores.
These changes in sedimentation can lead to dramatic alterations in plant life and animal life
and how they are distributed.
4. Downstream sediment erosion
1. Due to the restrictions in the sediment flow above a dam, the lack of sediment that
would have once flowed downstream ultimately leads to a deficiency in sediment
load, and therefore, leads to an increase in downstream erosion.
2. This lack of sediment load causes the riverbed to deepen and narrow over time, a
compromised water table, the homogenization of the river’s flow, reduced wildlife
support, and a reduction in sediment that reaches coasts and deltas.
5. Negative impacts on local fish populations
1. Typically, local fish species will not be adapted to the new environment that is present
after a dam is built and do not survive, leading to the destroy of local populations.
2. Many factors impact their survival, including the blockage of migration routes, a
disconnection from the river’s flood plain, changes in a river’s flow, changes in
temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and changes in local plant life.
3. The construction of dams is one of the major factors that is contributing to the loss of
freshwater fish species worldwide.
6. Production of methyl mercury
1. The stagnant water in reservoirs creates a situation where the decomposition of
organic matter from decaying plants can transform inorganic mercury into methyl
mercury.
2. Unfortunately, methyl mercury tends to bio-accumulate and cause toxic effects in
humans and wildlife that eat the fish in reservoirs.

Forest Resources
Forest Products, are generally, useful to the socio-economic life of the people, and also for
their livelihood. Forest resources help moderating rapid climatic changes. Besides,
maintaining ecological balance and preventing soil erosion, the forests affect the climate,
particularly rain, wind, heat, cold and moisture. The plants and animals (including birds and
reptiles) get their food from forests.
Forest resources are useful for the economic development of the country through their
utilization. The forests provide timber, fuel, animals, birds, reptiles, medicinal herbs and
plants, orchids, etc. The forest affects wind, rain, cold, vegetation, climate industries, income
and employment of the state. The forests enriches soil, helping in maintaining geographical,
geological and climatic conditions. Forest resources provide multiple and basic needs of the
community and maintain the ecological stability. The preservation and protection of forests
is essential to the national interest. When they are not protected, soil erodes, flood enhance,
agricultural production declines, leading to serious ecological imbalance. We get food,
medicines, household equipments and building materials, raw materials, materials for
agricultural and other production equipment, from the forests. Forests and trees are also
socially and culturally considered as cultural symbols , social gathering places and a host of
other aesthetic purposes., Forests also provide raw materials used for making agricultural
implements, harvest and market transportation equipment, crop storage containers, crop
dryers as well as fuel used for crop processing. Forests occupy, nearly 30% of the world’s
ice-free land surface, and comprises between 3,000 million hectare – an area equal to the
size of North and South America. The temperate forests cover approximately 1,430 million
hectare in the industrialized countries and 210 million hectare in non-tropical developing
countries. Tropical forests, both moist and dry, cover an estimated 1,760 million hectare.

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity, a contraction of "biological diversity," generally refers to the variety and
variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the
variability within species, between species, and between ecosystems. It is a measure of the
variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation,
ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or
planet. Biodiversity is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human
species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The
richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region. All species
of plants taken together are known as flora and animals known as fauna. Biodiversity is not
evenly distributed; rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among
other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation,
altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other species. Biodiversity provides critical
support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A significant
proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50%
of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals, and
micro-organisms, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from
nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare

Biodiversity of India
• The India is rich in biodiversity due to diversified climatic conditions that vary from
the humid tropical Western Ghats and the hot desert of Rajasthan to diversified north
east regions of the country, from the cold desert of Ladakh and the icy mountains of
Himalaya to the warm coasts of Peninsular India, and the central fertile plains
providing innumerous microhabitats.
• It is second largest country in the world in respect of population and 7th largest
country in the world in area & 2nd largest in Asia.
• Occupied 7th ranks in the world in contribution of agricultural plants, 10th largest
mega diversity country in the world and 4th largest country in Asia.
• It constitutes 2.4% land area in the world, containing 17.5% human population and
15% biodiversity. It has 18% Livestock population, 50% Tiger population, 60%
Elephants population, 62% Amphibian species, 50% Lizards, 10% Bamboo, 50%
Aquatic flowering plants and 7% Mangroves of the world occur in India.
• Biodiversity of India
• India harbors more than 47515 plant species including lower plants. Out of which
18043 (38.01%) are flowering plants which represent more than 7 % of the known
flowering plants of the world.
• Of these 5725 (33%) plants are endemic, confined to a restricted Indian boundary.
• About 1800 (10%) species of flowering plants are threatened. There are 2560 tree
species (15%) occur in India.
• Out of 34 hotspots of the world, two hotspots viz. Western Ghats and Eastern
Himalaya are found in India.
• It has been the centre of origin of cultivated plants.
 • Meaning of Tribe
• a social division in a traditional society consisting of families or communities linked
by social, economic, religious, or blood ties, with a common culture and dialect,
typically having a recognized leader.

Tribal Population
India in South East Asian subcontinent is an abode of nearly 2000 ethnic groups of people
that includes some 550 tribal communities found inhabited with their language and culture
in 30 different States and Union Territories (except Punjab, Haryana, Delhi NCT, Chandigarh
UT and Pondicherry UT). As per the census 2011, the tribal population of India is 10, 42, 81,
034 (i.e. 8.2% of country population. As per the census 2011, the tribal population of India is
10, 42, 81, 034 (i.e. 8.2% of country population. The states and Union territories with tribal
population in the descending order can be arranged as follow:
• Lakshadweep Islands UT (94.8%),
• Mizoram (94.4%),
• Nagaland (86.5%),
• Meghalaya (86.1%),
• Arunachal Pradesh (68.8%),
• Dadra Nagar Haveli UT (52.0%),
• Manipur (35.1%),
• Sikkim (33.8%),
• Tripura (31.8%),
• Chhattisgarh (30.6%),
• Jharkhand (26.2%),
• Odisha (22.8%),
• Madhya Pradesh (21.1%),
• Gujarat (14.8%),
• Rajasthan (13.5%),
• Assam (12.4%),
• Jammu & Kashmir ( 11.9%),
• Goa (10.2%),
 • Maharashtra (9.4%),
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands UT (7.5%),
• Andhra Pradesh (7%),
• Karnataka (7%),
• Daman & Diu UT (6.3%),
• West Bengal (5.8%),
• Himachal Pradesh (5.7%),
• Uttarakhand (2.9%),
• Kerala (1.5%),
• Bihar (1.3%),
• Tamil Nadu (1.1%) and
• Uttar Pradesh (0.6).

WATER RESOURCES
Water resources are sources of water that are useful to humans. Uses of water include
agriculture, industrial, constructions, household, recreational and environmental activities.
All of these, human uses fresh water. 97% of water on the earth is salt water and only 3% is
fresh water. Freshwater is a renewable resource, yet the world’s supply of clean, fresh water
is steadily decreasing. Because, demand for water exceeds supply in many parts of the world
and as the world population continues to rise. With the growth of human population, there
is an increasing need for larger amounts of water to fulfill a variety of basic needs. Today in
many areas, it cannot be met. The over-utilization of water occurs at various levels. Most
people use water than they really need. Most of us waste water during a bath by using a
shower or while washing clothes. The per capita use of water in a family of four members in
the USA is 1000 Cubic Metres which is = 1000000 Litres per year many times more than in
the developing countries. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to grow crops.
There are many ways in which farmers can use less water with out reducing yields such as
the use of drip irrigation systems. It is important to realize what the long term effects of
overutilization of water are and to understand how we could prevent major damages.
Ground Water: is the portion of the Earth’s water cycle that flows underground.
Groundwater originates from precipitation that percolates into the ground. Percolation is
the flow of water through soil and porous rock.
Sustainable Development: According to The World Commission on Environment and
Developmental Act, 1987) is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater

 Water is among the most precious of natural resources.
 The water coming through precipitation when does not percolate down into the
ground will be in the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands, etc. which is known as
surface water.
 This surface water is largely used for public water supply, irrigation, industrial use,
river water and sea water are also used for transportation and often unfortunately
for the purpose of disposal of wastes which may be industrial and human waste.
 In many regions of the world, the pressures of economic development and
overpopulation are producing a surface-water scarcity which is both in terms of
quantity and quality.
 In most places, groundwater can be found within a relatively short distance below the
ground surface.
 The seemingly abundant supply of groundwater has led to its indiscriminate and
sometimes excessive use. However, this use can have diverse and often wide ranging
effects on the local and regional hydrology and ecology as ground water often
supports the water supply to streams, wetlands, etc., and so their depletion creates
further water scarcity in connected areas.
 These interdisciplinary aspects of groundwater utilization have brought into
question the concept of safe yield, defined as the maintenance of a long-term balance
between the rate of withdrawal and the rate at which groundwater can be naturally
recharged by the precipitation and percolation which is specific to each area.
 A region’s ground water should be exploited without unduly compromising the
principle of sustainable development.
FLOODS:
Basically flood is when the water level in an area rises where there was normally little of
none before. Floods can be dramatic and quick or slow and creeping. Floods are natural
phenomena common in many places around the world where either there is river nearby or
the local weather can dump large amounts of rain.

Causes of floods:
 Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low lying coastal areas.
 Prolonged downpour can also cause the over flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into
floods.
 Deforestation of catchments of rivers leads to heavy run off of soil which settles down
at the bottom of the rivers raising the river bed and causing more frequent floods.
 Human activities have contributed largely to the sharp rise in the incidence of floods,
which otherwise is a natural disaster. For mining activities, a land has to be cleared
of all vegetation and then dug up. This causes the possibilities of flooding.
 Researchers have found that if global temperatures increase by 2 degrees Celsius (3.6
Degrees Farenheit), then large floods that occurred about once every 100 years could
occur up to 5 times more in mountainous regions as here run off rates is supposed to
be significantly affected by temperature.
 Unplanned urbanization leads to land surface covered by the construction with very
little open space to allow for percolation of water. The result is that even moderate
rainfall can cause floods.
 Dams are a reason for floods when excess water pressure on dams during rains has
to be eased by opening the flood gates.

DROUGHT:
i. Drought is a meteorological phenomenon, basically arising when annual rainfall is
below normal and less than evaporation.
ii. In recent times, many regions have been added or the frequency of droughts in some
areas has increased beyond usual.
 iii. In some cases, drought prone areas have become desertified ones. The causes here
can be easily understood as anthropogenic.
The major reason behind every problem is usually overpopulation leading to poor land use,
unplanned urbanization and over utilization of water resources.
• Population needs, coupled with industrialization, mining and quarrying needs leads
to clearing of forested areas, erosion, etc. which adversely impact the ability of the
land to capture and hold water which in turn effects the hydrological cycle drastically,
reducing ground water and also water available in atmosphere due to reduced
transpiration from lack of tree cover.
• Increasing cattle population leads to overgrazing which exceeds the rate of
regeneration of grasslands or under growth of forests or even the establishment of
saplings of trees preventing forest regeneration. Eventually the cattle move on to
other areas and so more and more land is denuded of vegetation which definitely
effects the hydrological cycle and could lead to eventual desertification.
• Erroneous cropping practices also lead to drought For example, in Maharashtra
there has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over absorption
of water by Sugarcane crop. Intensive cropping patterns and increased utilization of
scarce water resources to get high productivity has converted drought prone areas
into desertified ones.
• Lack of proper understanding awareness or necessary research can also become
a cause of drought like in the case of Social Forestry with eucalyptus (having high
water needs) in Kolar district of Karnataka led to droughts in those regions.
• Drought mitigation strategies
I. Drought Monitoring – Continuous observation of rainfall levels and comparisons with
current usage levels can help prevent man-made drought.
II. Land use – Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow
farmers to plant less water –dependent crops in drier years.
III. Rainwater harvesting – Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or other
suitable catchments.
VI. Recycled water – Waste water (Sewage) is treated and purified for reuse.
VII. Cloud seeding – an artificial technique to induce rainfall is done in some drought prone
areas.
VIII. Education to avoid overgrazing and over cropping

Conflicts over water

i. Water Conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries , states, or groups in
order to gain access to water resources.
ii. Water is a basic requirement for life, sanitation, agricultural commercial and
industrial needs.
iii. Water crisis may put pressure on affected parties to obtain more of shared water
resource.
iv. Because of this, Third World War would be fought over water.
• Numerous types of parties can become implicated in a water dispute.
• As a resource, some consider water to be as valuable oil, needed by nearly every
industry, and needed every nearly every day.
• As many as 1.1 billion people are without adequate drinking water and so the
potential for water disputes is correspondingly large.
• Water’s viability as a commercial resource, which includes fishing, agriculture,
manufacturing, recreation and tourism, among other possibilities, can create dispute
even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue.
• Corporate entities may pollute water resources shared by a community, or
governments may argue over who gets access to a river used as an international or
inter-state boundary.
• Fisheries can also become sources of conflict, as nations expand and claim portions
of oceans and seas as territory for ‘domestic’ commercial fishing.
• The broad spectrum of water disputes makes them difficult to address.
• Local and International Law, commercial interests, environmental concerns, and
human rights questions make water disputes complicated to solve – combined with
the sheer number of potential parties, a single dispute can leave a large list of
demands to be met by courts and lawmakers.
• Water conflicts can occur at intrastate and interstate levels.
 • Interstate conflicts occur between two or more neighboring countries that share a
trans boundary water source, such as a river, sea, or groundwater basin.
• For Example, the Middle East has only 1% of the World’s freshwater shared between
5% of the world’s population and this has led to conflicts between the Middle East
countries like Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Turkey for the three river basins of Jordan, the
Tigris-Euphratus and the Nile.
• Intrastate Conflicts take place between two or more parties in the same country.
• For Example, conflict among different Indian States as out of 18 major rivers, 17 are
shared among different states.
• For Example, conflicts between farmers and industry (agricultural vs. industrial use
of water)

Water Disputes in India

As per the Inter-State River Water Dispute Act, 1956 (ISRWD Act, 1956) when the water
dispute arises among two or more State Governments, the Central Government receives a
request under Section 3 of the Act from any of the basis States with regard to existence of
water dispute. In accordance with the said Act, the Central Government is required to refer
a dispute to a Tribunal after it is satisfied that the dispute cannot be settled through
negotiations.

ENERGY RESOURCES
The first form of energy technology probably was fire, which produced heat and the early
man used it for cooking and heating. The burning of wood for fire was then replaced by coal.
Coal fueled the industrial revolution in the 18th and 19th Century. The twentieth century saw
a rapid twentyfold increase in the use of fossil fuels. With the advent of the automobile,
airplanes and the spreading use of electricity, oil became the dominant fuel during the 20th
century. But after the oil shocks of 1973 (Arab oil embargo when the oil supplying nations
refused to supply oil to the US) and 1979 (Iranian revolution leading to strikes resulting in
reduction of oil extraction), during which the price of oil increased from 5 to 45 US Dollars
per barrel, there was a shift away from oil dependency. This led to increased exploration and
 use of several alternate sources of energy. There was effort to increase energy efficiency.
Example, Japan made improvements and now has the highest energy efficiency in the world.
Despite advances in efficiency and sustainability, of all the energy created since the industrial
revolution, more than half has been consumed in the last two decades. In 2009, world energy
consumption decreased for the first time in 30 years as a result of the financial and economic
crisis. But overall the energy needs are only expanding and the sources of energy are getting
exhausted at a very fast rate.

GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

All development activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. Agriculture,
industry, mining, transportation, lighting, cooling and heating in buildings all need energy.
Developed countries constitute 5% of the world’s population but consume 1/4th of global
energy resources. A person in rich country consumes almost as much as energy in a single
day as one person does in a whole year in a poor Country. Thus, improved standard of living,
change in lifestyle apart from population growth is putting stress on our conventional
sources of energy like fossil fuels which are not going to last for many more years. And so we
have been looking at alternate sources of energy to take the stress off the conventional
sources and to supply the ever increasing energy demands without running out. For this we
require renewable sources of energy, i.e. which can be generated continuously in nature and
are inexhaustible as compared to non-renewable resources like fossil fuels which are
accumulated in nature over a long span of time and cannot be quickly replenished when
exhausted.

SOURCES OF ENERGY
I. Renewable Energy Sources –
1. Solar Energy –
Energy derived from the Sun’s radiation is Solar Energy. Passive solar energy can be
exploited through architectural design, as by positioning windows to allow sunlight to enter
and help heat a space.
Active solar energy involves the convertion of sunlight to electrical energy, especially in
solar cells.
With the sun being one of our few freely available, infinite resources, it will be vital to our
future survival to produce the power of the sun.
Current usage of solar energy is Solar cooker, Solar water heater, Solar heat collectors, etc.
Descriptions of some important usages are as follows:
A. Solar cells – used in calculators, electronic watches, street lighting, traffic signals, water
pumps, in artificial satellites for electricity generation, for running radio, television.
B. Solar power plant – Solar energy is produced on a large scale by using concave reflectors
which cause boiling water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a generator to
produce electricity . A solar power plant (50K Watt capacity) has been installed at Gurgaon,
Haryana. The largest solar power plant in India is located in Madhapur near Bhuj.
C. Solar Furnace – A Solar Furnace is a structure that captures sunlight to produce high
temperatures, usually for industry. This is done with a curved mirror that acts as a parabolic
reflector , concentrating light on to a focal point. The temperature at the focal point may
reach as high or higher than 3000 degree Celsius, and this heat can be used to generate
electricity, melt steel, make hydrogen fuel or nanomaterials.
2. Wind Energy –
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind
turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping
water or drainage or sails to propel ships. Wind energy, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and produces no green house gas emissions
during operation. Today, India has one of the highest potentials for the effective use of
renewable energy. India is the world’s fifth largest producer of wind power after Denmark,
Germany, Spain and the USA. As of 31st October 2009 the installed capacity of wind power in
India was 11,806.69 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal and
other states. It was estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be
installed in India by 2012. Wind power accounts for 6% of India’s total installed power
capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the Country’s Power.
3. Tidal Energy
Tidal power is a means of electricity generation achieved by capturing the energy contained
in moving water mass due to tides. The rise and fall of water in the oceans is referred to as
the high and low tide and this force of moving water is produced as tidal energy to move
turbines and generate electricity. Two types of tidal energy can be extracted: Kinetic energy
of currents due the tides and potential energy from the difference in height between high
and low tides. The tidal energy can be produced by constructing a tidal barrage. During high
tide the sea water flows into the reservoir and rotates the turbines during low tide the water
flows out of reservoir and again turns the turbine. A major drawback of tidal power stations
is that they can only generate when the tide is flowing in or out – in other words, only for 10
hours each day. Another disadvantage is that a barrage across an estuary is very expensive
to build , and affects a very wide area – the environment is changed for many miles upstream
and down stream. Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed.
Fish can’t migrate, unless “Fish Ladders” are installed. Russia, France and the Gulf of Kutch
in India have huge tidal mill farms. In India, the gulf of cambay and the sundarbans are also
the tidal power sites.

4. Biomass energy –
Biomass energy or Bioenergy is the energy from organic matter. It has been used for
thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook food or to keep warm.
Today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resource. But many other sources of biomass
can now be used, including plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, and the organic
component of municipal and industrial wastes. The use of biomass energy has the potential
to greatly reduce our greenhouse gas emissions and also help increase profits in agriculture.
Biomass generates about the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a
new plant grows, carbon dioxide is actually removed from the atmosphere.
There are three major biomass energy technology applications:
1. Bio products – are obtained by converting biomass into chemicals for making products
that are typically made from petroleum. Whatever products we can make from fossil
fuels, we can make using biomass. These bio products are not only made from renewable
sources, they also often require less energy to produce than petroleum-based products.
2. Bio power – is from the burning of biomass directly, or converting it into a gaseous fuel
or oil, to generate electricity. The Bio Power Plants could involve burning bio energy feed
stocks directly to produce steam. Methane generated from landfills can be used as bio power
by obtaining it from drilling wells in land fills. It can be used as an energy source in many
ways. Most facilities burn it in the boiler to produce steam for electricity generation or for
industrial processes.
3. Bio fuels –
 are obtained by converting biomass into liquid fuels for transportation.
 It is an alternate source of energy involving cultivation of crops, the non-edible oil of
which can be used as a bio-fuel, which can replace fossil fuels.
5. Biogas energy –
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter
in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel.
It is produced by fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure,
sewage, municipal waste, green waste, food waste, plant material and energy crops. It is
very useful for rural areas where lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available.
Biogas can be used as a low-cost fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as
cooking. It can also be used in modern waste management facilities where it can be used
in to run any type of heat engine, to generate either mechanical or electrical power.
Biogas can be compressed much like natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles and
in the UK for example is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle
fuel. Biogas is a renewable fuel, is clean, non polluting and cheap. The use of biogas for
electricity generation in India is more recent. It is estimated that India can produce power
of about 17,000 MW using biogas. This is over 10% of the total electricity installed
capacity in India.
6. Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the heat from the Earth. It is clean and
sustainable. Resources of Geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water
and hot rock found the few miles beneath the Earth’s surface, and down even deeper to the
extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma. In India hot water surface
sources called natural geysers are found in Manikaran, Kullu and Sohana, Haryana.
7. Hydropower –
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity. This is called
hydroelectric power or hydropower. The most common type of hydroelectric power plant
uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir. Some important hydel power stations in
India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunasagar and Damodar Valley Projects. Water
released from the reservoirs flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates the
generator to produce the electricity. But Hydroelectric Power does not necessarily require a
large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to channel the river water
through on to a turbine. These are called small hydro power projects. Small projects creates
less environmental damage compared to large dams. India has an estimated Small-Hydro
Power (SHP) potential of about 15000 MW.
Hydrogen Fuel –
 Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen produces almost
no pollution.
 NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 1970s to propel the space shuttle and other
rockets into orbits.
 Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle’s electrical systems, producing a clean
byproduct – pure water, which crew drinks.
 Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the application of heat – a
process known as “Reforming”.
 An electrical current can also be used to separate water into its components of
oxygen and hydrogen. This process is known as “Electrolysis”.
 Some algae and bacteria, using sunlight as their energy source.
 Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature. Also it is difficult to store
and transport.
 In use as vehicle fuel, car manufacturers still need a fuel cell that is strong, durable
and cheap, as well as a way to store sufficient hydrogen on board to allow for long -
distance travel.
II. Non Renewable Energy Sources:
1. Coal:
o Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world formed millions of years ago in the
carboniferous age when the forests were buried by nature and the action of heat and
pressure gradually converted it into peat which was converted with time to different
types of coal.
 o There are mainly three types of coal anthracite (90% carbon), bituminous (80%
carbon) and lignite (70% Carbon), Peat is only 60% in carbon content.
o The Indian coal industry is the fourth largest in terms of coal reserves and third
largest in terms of coal production in the world.
o The coal producing areas of India are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in
Jharkhand.
2. Petroleum:
 Along coastal areas and continental shelves where marine life and sediment supplies
from rivers are plentiful rock particles accumulate into layers, they pile up
microscopic plant and animal remains, trapping them in the sediment.
 It then undergoes tremendous heat and pressure without having undergone bacterial
decomposition.
 This process generates petroleum or crude oil.
 It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and
other liquid organic compounds.
 Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling.
 It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point differences (in its
constituents), into a large number of consumer products, like petrol, kerosene,
chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals.
 The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the
deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.
 The combinations of rising oil consumption and relatively flat production has left
India increasingly dependent on imports to meet its petroleum demand.
3. Natural Gas –
 Nuclear Gas is mainly composed of Methane (95%) with small amounts of propane
and ethane.
 Natural gas deposits mostly accompany oil deposits although natural gas will almost
certainly be one or two miles lower in the ground than oil as it requires greater
pressure for its formation.
 It is the cleanest fossil fuel and can be easily transported through pipelines.
 Its burns without any smoke.
  It is used as a domestic and industrial fuel and in thermal power plants to generate
electricity.
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is being used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for
transport of vehicles.
 Delhi public transport is totally switched to CNG and it has greatly reduced vehicular
population in the city.
 In India, Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari Delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in
Mumbai have Natural Gas Resources.
4. Nuclear Fuel –
 Nuclear energy is the energy from nuclear reactions of fission and fusion which can
be harnessed for providing commercial energy.
 There are now 439 nuclear reactors in operation around the world in over 30
countries, providing almost 16% of the world’s electricity.
 These are based on fission reactions where one neutron is made to bombard certain
isotope like uranium nucleus which releases a lot of energy which boils water to
steam to run a turbine and generate electricity.
 In fusion reaction, two nuclei of light element like Hydrogen-2 are fused at high
temperatures to form a heavier nucleus (Helium-3) releasing enormous energy,
higher than that of fission reactions.
 The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe. In India, Rajasthan and
Jharkhand have large deposits of uranium.
 Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala.
 For a large developing country like India with large population density, nuclear
power will play an important role for sustainable supply of energy.
 Nuclear Power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydro
and renewable sources of electricity.
 As of 2010, India has 20 nuclear power plants in six nuclear power plants, generating
4,780 MW, while 7 others are under construction and are expected to generate an
additional 5,300 MW.
 India’s nuclear power industry is undergoing rapid expansion with plans to increase
nuclear power output to 63,000 MW by 2032.
 India stands 9th in the world in terms of number of operational nuclear power
reactors.
 Reactors in India include Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu), Narora (U.P.), Tarapur
(Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka).
 Only Nuclear Energy offers Emission free energy on the massive and expanding scale
the world so urgently requires.
Module 4 - BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through the broad scale
of ecosystems. The term was coined as the compact form of “Biological Diversity” in 1985. It
has developed a broad meaning and also refers to the interrelatedness of genes, species and
ecosystems and in turn, their interactions with the environment
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
There are three levels of Biodiversity:
i. Genetic Diversity: is all the different genes contained in all the living species
including individual plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms.
ii. Species Diversity: is all the different species as well as the differences within and
between different species. Roughly 1.4 million species are known to science, but
because many species are not described, an estimated 10-30 million species likely
exist at present.
iii. Ecosystem Diversity: is all the different habitats, biological communities and
ecological processes, as well as variation within individual ecosystems.

Bio-geographical Zones of India

Bio-geography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. Communities
of plants and animals in different geographical areas of the world differ widely from each
other.
Biogeography is divided into two branches:
i. Phyto-geography (Plant geography) and
ii. Zoo-geography (Animal geography)
Bio-geographical Zones of India
i. Phyto-geography (plant geography) - deals with origin, distribution and
environmental interrelationships of plants.
ii. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.
 iii. From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity”
nation. There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished clearly in India.
They are as follows:
Bio-geographical Zones of India
1. Trans Himalayan Zone
2. Himalayan Zone
3. Desert Zone
4. Semiarid Zone
5. Western ghat Zone
6. Deccan Plateau Zone
7. Gangetic Plain Zone
8. North east zone
9. Islands present near the shore line
10. Coastal zone
Bio-geographical Zones of India
1. Trans Himalayan Zone:
This is the northern most area of the Country around Himalayas. This zone is not related to
mountains but it is the area present surrounding the mountains. This region shows:
1. Irregular vegetation,
2. It has the richest wild sheep producing quality wool and also a goat community which
is qualitatively and quantitatively superior in this world.
3. Snow leopard is a special animal observable in this zone.
4. Migratory birds like black neck crane are seen here.
The great Indian bustard which is an endangered variety is also seen in the grasslands west
to this zone. It comprises 5.7% of the country’s landmass.
2. Himalayan Zone:
This is a hilly region with good flora and fauna, exhibiting maximum biodiversity. There are
national parks in this zone. It comprises 7.2% of the country’s landmass.
3. Desert Zone:
This is a part of Rajasthan State, from where, the great desert of western India namely ‘Thar
Desert’ begins. It also comprises the salty desert of Gujarat apart from the sand desert of
Rajasthan, 6.9% of the country’s landmass. Desert zone has areas like Jaisalmir surrounded
by sand dunes.
4. Semi-arid Zone:
It begins in Rajasthan and extends up to some parts in the state of Punjab and Haryana. This
zone exists between the desert and the Deccan Plateau, including the Aravalli hill range and
comprises 15.6% of the country’s landmass. In this area, ground water and surface water is
much less. Dry xerophytic vegetation is predominant, fauna is also minimum.
5. Western Ghats:
It represents the mountainous western zone of south peninsular India having rich flora and
fauna with tropical rain forests extending from Konkan Region of Maharashtra up to the
western part of Kerala generally called Malabar Coast of Arabian Sea. It occupies 5.8% of the
landmass. Wild relatives of cultivated plants like banana, mango, citrus, black pepper are
found abundantly in this part.
6. Deccan Plateau Zone:
This is the central table land of South India with rich flora and fauna. But some areas
represent semiarid type of vegetation. Rainfall occurs mainly by the South West monsoon
and so limited number of dense forests are present in Deccan. Deccan plateau is represented
in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka and Kerala and occupies 42% of the landmass.
7. Gangetic Plain:
Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homogenous. It occupies 11%
of the country’s landmass.
8. North-East India:
These are the plains and non-Himalayan hill ranges of northeastern part of India with a wide
variation of vegetation. It occupies 5.2% of the country’s landmass.
9. Islands: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse set
of biomes constitute 0.03% of the country’s landmass.
10. Coasts: A large coastline distributed both to the west and east, with distinct differences
between the two; Lakshadweep islands are included in this with the percent area being
negligible.
India as a Mega Bio-Diversity Nation
Biodiversity rich countries are called Mega Bio-Diversity Countries. In Biodiversity, this
concept emphasis more on regions with species richness, threatened species and endemic
species. It is mainly located in the afro-tropical, Eurasian and the Indo-Malayan bio-
geographic fields. Mega Bio-Diversity nations are Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil,
Zaire, Madagascar, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia and India. This India is among the
twelve biodiverse nations of the world and this is due to many factors. India has different
types of regions and climates and ecosystems which favours its positioning as a
Megadiversity Nation. The main features that allot India this status are:
a. Endemism-India shows a good number of endemic species, that is, the species
restricted to only a particular area. Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism.
About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic.
b. Centre of Origin – A Large number of species are known to have originated in India.
Around 5000 species of flowering plants, 166 species of crop plants, 320 species of
wild relatives of cultivated crops have originated from India.
• India as a Mega Bio-Diversity Nation
c. Marine Diversity – More than 340 species of corols of the world are found here. There
is a rich diversity of mollusks crustaceans, mangroves and sea grasses in the various
marine ecosystems across the 7,500 km long coastline of the country.

Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels:

Global Biodiversity – It can be studied basically under two heads of Terrestrial Biodiversity
and Marine (or Aquatic) Biodiversity.
Terrestrial Biodiversity
This can be described as biomes which are the largest ecological units present in different
geographic areas and are named based on dominant vegetation. E.g. tall grass, tropical
rainforests, desert, etc. Among all the biomes, the tropical rainforests are richest and cures
diseases like malaria, cancer, AIDS. But hardly around 3% of the species is known. Extinction
is an irreversible process and we become poorer in diversity by around 0.1% every year (1,
00,000 Species), where natural extinction rate is only 1 species per year.
Marine Biodiversity
Sea is the cradle of every known animal phylum. Out of the 35 existing phyla of multicellular
animals, 34 are marine and 16 of these are exclusively marine.
National Biodiversity
Compared to Global diversity, India ranks 10th among the countries that are rich in flora and
6th among the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops. Since India has a variety
of climates, it houses an immense variety of species too becoming one of the 12 mega
diversity nations. Apart from the wild diversity, the domesticated diversity is also important.
India has among the world’s largest diversity of domesticated animals, with some 26 breeds
of cattle, 40 of sheep and 20 of goats.
Regional or Local Biodiversity
At local level the habitat is more or less homogeneous and so species diversity is low and as
the region considered increases, more heterogeneous habitats are considered and the
diversity of the species increases. Therefore, regional diversity needs to be considered on
four counts:
1. Point richness – The number of species that can be found at a single point in a given space.
2. Alpha richness – The number of species found in a small homogenous area.
3. Beta richness – The rate of change in species composition across different habitats.
4. Gamma richness – The rate of change across large landscape gradients.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity is not distributed uniformly over the earth. Some areas, particularly among the
tropics are rich in species. Many species in these areas are threatened with extinction.
However, the fund for conservation is rather limited and hence it is important to fix priority
areas of conservation. In 1988 British ecologists, Norman Myres forwarded a concept called
hotspots to identify the most major criteria for designating an area as hotspot.
These are:
i. Richness in endemic species, and
ii. Impact by human activities.
• Endemic species are those restricted to certain localized areas of the earth and rarely
found outside of it.
Plant diversity is the biological basis for hotspot designation. To qualify as a hotspot, a region
must support 1,500 endemic plant species, 0.5% of the global total. To qualify as a hotspot,
a region must also have lost more than 70% of its original habitat, i.e., it retains only 30% or
less of its original primary vegetation. According to the classification of Norman Myres’ there
are 25 hotspots scattered in different parts of the world. Even though the 25 biodiversity
hotspots together represent only 1.4% of the earth’s land area, they contain 44% of all plant
species and 35% of all terrestrial vertebrate species in the world. Each of these hotspots is
under severe pressure due to anthropogenic interventions and has already lost at least 70%
of its original natural vegetation. The potential anthropogenic activities in hotspots place the
natural values at risk, and it is likely this risk will increase in future in the absence of active
conservation and management. Eight of the hottest hot-spots recognized currently are
Madagascar, Philippines, sundaland, Brazil Atlantic Coast, Caribbean Basin, Indo Burma,
Western Ghats, Eastern Arc and coastal forests of Tanzania/Kenya.
India is a Part of two hotspots – Indo-Burma (Earlier Eastern Himalayas) and Western Ghats
and Srilanka.

The Western Ghats:

These are also known as Sahyadri Hills. It is a mountain chain running from the north to the
south and is isolated by the Arabian sea to the west, the arid deccan plateau to the East and
the Vindhya-Satpura ranges to the North. The vegetation types are: Scrub Jungles and
grasslands at low altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests. Complex topography and high
rainfall have helped the region retain its biodiversity. Of the 15,000 flowering plants species
in India, there are an estimated 4,780 species in the Western Ghats Region. There is also a
great diversity of traditional crop plants and an equal diversity of animal life. A large number
of amphibians, freshwater fishes and invertebrate groups are endemic to Western Ghats.
Eastern Himalayas:
The Indo-Burma hotspot encompasses 2,3,73,000 square km of tropical Asia east of the
Ganges-Brahmaputra low lands. Indo-Burma has immense Biological Treasure. This hotspot
holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species most of which are threatened with
extinction due to over harvesting and habitat loss. Bird life is also very diverse, having almost
1300 different bird species.
Endemism in India
The Indian Subcontinent is home to 49,219 species of plants, 350 species of mammals, 1,330
species of birds, 275 species of snakes, 408 other reptile species, 197 species of amphibians,
2,456 species of fishes, 700 species of ants, 1,442 species of spiders. Endemic animals and
birds are species that are found only locally and are found no where else in the world. The
endemism of Indian biodiversity is highly determined primarily in the North-East, North-
West Himalaya, Western Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Of the 49,219 plant
species, 5,150 are endemic and distributed into 141 genera under 47 families corresponding
to about 30% of the world’s recorded flora, which means 30% of the world’s recorded flora
is endemic to India. Of these endemic species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas and adjoining
regions and 1,600 in the Western Ghats alone. About 62% of the known amphibian species
is endemic with the majority occurring in the Western Ghats. Nearly 50% of the lizards of
India is endemic with a high degree of endemicity in the Western Ghats. There are 42 species
of endemic birds in India out of which 35 are found in Western Ghats. Some Endemic
mammals are Lion-tailed , Nilgiri Langur.

Endangered Species of India

The International Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes
the Red Data Book of threatened species which includes the list of endangered species of
plants and animals of all countries. It is done to understand the species at risk of extinction,
provide awareness of the degree of threat, and plan conservation strategies. There are
47,677 species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species of 2009 of which 17,291 are at a
serious risk, which is more than 1/3rd of the assessed species.
As per the IUCN report 2009, the total endangered species in India are 687, of which
mammals are 96, birds 75, reptiles 25, amphibians 65, fish 64, mollusk 2, other invertebrates
113, plants 247. In India, recently Karnataka Forest Department prepared its own list of
endangered species to identify which species of Karnataka are reduced to a critical level.
This is important to make conservation priorities and plan specific conservation methods
suited to endangered species of the region. Red list was initiated in 1963 and has eight
categories of species. The basic four are as follows:
• A specie is said to be in vulnerable category, if its population is facing continuous decline
due to overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such species are still abundant, but under
a serious threat of becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
• A specie is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and
conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
• Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are
categorized as rare species. They are usually endemic.
• A Specie is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch. E.g.
Dodo, Passenger Pigeon.

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
• Jenkin’s Shrew - The Jenkins' shrew is a critically endangered species of mammal in the
family Soricidae. It is endemic to South Andaman Island, India.
• The Malabar large-spotted civet, also known as the Malabar civet, is a viverrid endemic
to the Western Ghats of India. It is listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN as its
population size is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with no
subpopulation greater than 50 individuals.
• The Himalayan wolf is a canine of debated taxonomy. It is distinguished by its genetic
markers, with mitochondrial DNA indicating that it is genetically basal to the Holarctic
grey wolf, genetically the same wolf as the Tibetan wolf, and has an association with the
African golden wolf.
• The Namdapha flying squirrel is an arboreal, nocturnal flying squirrel endemic to
northeastern India, where it is known from a single specimen collected in Namdapha
National Park in 1981. It was the sole member in the genus Biswamoyopterus until the
description of the Laotian giant flying squirrel in 2013.

Main Causes of Biodiversity Loss

There are many threats and challenges to our natural world and as a consequence of these
multiple forces, many scientists fear that by the end of next century, perhaps 25% of existing
species will be lost. These threats include:
1. Habitat loss and destruction – This is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. Habitat
loss is directly linked to human induced pressures on land. If a house in bulldozed, the
members are killed or wounded and those surviving have to look for new habitation in which
they may or may not succeed. That is the damage happening in the wild as forest lands are
taken over by man and is therefore the greatest threat to biodiversity.
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition - Variety of species and their interactions with
their ecosystems is critical for not only saving the species, but also for their successful future
evolution. In the event of alterations, either within species groups, or within the
environment, entire ecosystems can begin to change. Alterations to ecosystems are a critical
factors contributing to species and habitat loss.
3. Invasive alien species – The introduction of exotic species that replace local and native
species is cited as the second largest cause of biodiversity loss. Alien invasive species replace,
and often result in the extinction of native species. The spread of non-native species
threatens many local species with extinction, and pushes the world’s biota toward a more
homogeneous and widely distributed sub-set of survivors. The annual economic damage
caused by invasive plant and animal species is estimated to be in region of US$1.4 trillion.
4. Over – exploitation - Over – hunting, over – fishing or over – collecting of a species can
quickly lead to its decline. Changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as the
key reason for this unsustainable exploration of natural resources. E.g. Box turtles in the US
illegally collected and exported as pets are very slow to reproduce and poaching has resulted
in their decline.
5. Pollution and contamination – Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their
surrounding environment and so pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to
species and varieties as species cannot immediately adapt. High level of DDT in birds affects
their ability to reproduce as its leads to thinning of egg shells.
6. Global climate change – Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity
loss. Species and populations may be lost permanently, if they are not provided with enough
time to adapt to changing climatic conditions. For example, Monarch butterfly could lose
their wintering habitats in the mountains of Mexico. Climate change threatens to force
species and ecosystems to migrate towards higher latitudes, with no guarantee of suitable
habitat or access routes.
Solution to conservation of wildlife
In Situ Conservation Methods
In-Situ conservation, is the conservation of species in their natural habitats and is considered
the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. It involves conserving the areas where
populations of species exist naturally and is an underlying condition for the conservation of
biodiversity. That’s why protected areas form a Central element of any national strategy is
to conserve biodiversity. These methods include the following:
Biosphere reserves – These conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole. In India
there are 17 biosphere reserves.
E.g. Nanda Devi (U.P) and Manas (Assam)
National Park – It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It is also open to tourists. Within a Biosphere reserve there may be one or more
national parks. E.g. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (covering areas of Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamilnadu) has two national parks viz. Bandipur and Nagerhole National Park.
Wildlife Sanctuaries – These are protected areas for wildlife where hunting and capturing
of wildlife is prohibited but unlike National Parks, private ownership rights and forestry
operations are permitted to an extent that they do not affect the wildlife adversely. There are
523 wildlife sanctuaries in the country e.g. Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Rajasthan (for 300 species
of birds), Hazaribagh sanctuary in Bihar for Tiger and Leopard. There are also gene
sanctuaries for plants, like for pitcher plant in Northern India.
Projects – For the protection and conservation of certain animals there have been specific
projects, like in India there have been, project tiger, Gir Lion Project, Crocodile Breeding
Project, Project Elephant, Snow Leopard Project, etc. The Global Tiger Recovery Programme,
a worldwide plan to bring the species back from the brink of extinction which was forged in
November 2010 at an international tiger conservation meeting in St.Petersburg, Russia
organized by Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin. It marks the first formalized
international initiative to save the tiger from extinction. Key NGOS and global partners in the
GTRP (The Global Tiger Recovery Programme), include the world Bank’s Global Tiger
Initiative, the Global Tiger Forum, WWF (World Wildlife Fund), WCS (Wildlife Conservation
Society), the smithsonian Institute, the Wildlife Trade Network TRAFFIC, CITIES
(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) and the International Fund for
Animal Welfare (IFAW)
Project Tiger – Numbering more than 1, 00,000 at the turn of the last century, tigers have
lost more than 97% of their population. Various pressures in the later part of the last century
led to the progressive decline of wilderness, resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger
habitats. At the IUCN General Assembly meeting in Delhi, in 1969, serious concern was
voiced about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in the
country. In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed. Subsequently, the first ever
all India tiger census was conducted in 1972 which revealed the existence of only 1827
tigers. In the same year wildlife protection came into force. A “Task Force” was then set up
to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an ecological approach. The project was
launched in 1973, and various tiger reserves were created in the country on a “core-buffer”
strategy. The core areas were freed from all sorts of human activities and the buffer areas
were subjected to “conservation oriented land use”. The project aims at tiger conservation
in specially constituted “tiger reserves”, which are representative of various bio-graphical
regions falling within our country. It strives to maintain a viable tiger population in the
natural environment. Initially, 9 tiger reserves were established in different States during
the period 1973-74, by pooling the resources available with the Central and State
Governments. Now there are 39 tiger reserves.

2. Ex Situ Conservation Methods:

Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their
natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and
cultivated species. Some of these includes:
1. Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks.
2. In Vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
3. Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible
reintroduction into the wild; and
4. Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria and botanical gardens for research and
public awareness.
Value of Biodiversity
Introduction:
1) Biophilic Value Wilson’s 1984 book “Biophilia” brought the idea that love of nature
may have been implemented into our genes by natural selection.
2) A monotonous environment produces wave patterns contributing to fatigue and so
biotic as well as cultural diversity, from the neurological point of view, may well be
fundamental to the general health.
3) In a nutshell, Wilson’s biophilia hypothesis presents love of nature as a universal
biological adaptation of humans, selected during the course of evolution.
Transformative Value
• Contact with biodiversity can be the occasion to increase consumptive preferences
and make us to adopt values that are objectively better.
• This reflection and realization that proximity to nature brings forth is called
transformative value.
Aesthetic Value
• Biodiversity’s spiritual value is similarly inseparable from its aesthetic value.
• What gives pleasure is beautiful. What makes us feel transcendent we find beautiful.
• The more beautiful we find it, the more it moves spiritually, the more we appreciate
it.
Ecological Value
• Valuing the continued healthy functioning of ecosystems.
• More often, however human benefit from such ecosystem services, like protection
from floods, providing clean water, etc.
• It is folly for us to act in ways that are adversely affecting the ability of ecosystems to
provide these services that we are dependent on.
• Be we are doing that more and more as we pollute and destroy habitats, or alter
habitats in one fashion or another.
• We are changing the environment faster than our ability to understand the
consequences of how we are changing it.
Economic Value
• There are direct and indirect benefits of biodiversity.
 • The indirect benefits include the free ecosystem services provided by biodiversity
which saves us billions of dollars annually.
• The direct benefits the tropics have provided involve basically food, fuel, fibre,
medicine, etc. These include corn, rice, coffee, orchids, tea, chocolate, tobacco, cotton,
bamboo, pepper, honeybees, milk, cinnamon, dates, quinine, rubber, bananas,
pineapples, coconuts, pumpkins, beans, sugarcane, etc.
• Some of these products have consumptive use values where the biodiversity product
can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, etc.
• Productive use values are the commercially usable values where the product is
marketed and sold, like silk, wool.
Economic Value
• If the wild lands are mined for genetic material, the economic benefits could be even
greater, where discovered species could provide medicine, and new raw material for
industries, etc.
Social Value
• These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho
spiritual aspects of the people. E.g. many plants are considered holy and sacred in our
country like Tulsi, Peepal, Lotus, Bael, etc.

Nature Reserve
A nature reserve is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or features of
geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to
provide special opportunities for study or research. One main reason why we have nature
reserves is to protect our biodiversity- the degree of variation of life. A sufficient biodiversity
is required to keep our ecosystem in natural balance. With sufficient biodiversity, the loss of
any part of the food chain will not lead to a serious disruption and effects on the other
organisms as they can obtain nutrients in other ways. If not, any disruption in the food chain
will lead to a stop in the nutrient cycle path and the collapse of the whole ecosystem over
time. A healthy biodiversity is of extreme importance to humanity as it provides a number
of natural services for everyone.
 Firstly, it provides ecosystem regulating services. It maintains our ecosystem. Not only
so, it also contribute to our climate stability, keeping Mother Earth warm enough for us
to live in. They facilitate the nitrogen cycle so that we have fertile soil to grow crops on.
It also helps to keep our water cycle going so that there is water resources for us to drink
and for other purposes.
 Secondly, a healthy biodiversity provides biological resources for us. It provides us with
food our consumption and natural medicinal resources that allow us to recover our body
to the pink of health. They also provides raw materials for businesses to create products
that we use. (Eg. Papers)
 Thirdly, it provides cultural services. With a healthy biodiversity, humans can
study them for research and education so that we can understand our natural heritage
better. It also allows many people to conduct recreation and tourism, to relax in a natural
environment and travel back in time where many habitats have not be destroyed.
Therefore, in order to protect our biodiversity, we requires nature reserves where
rules and regulations are enforced to restrict the types and amount of human activities
that can be carried out in the area. Otherwise, the habitats, fauna, flora and the geology
of the natural area can easily be harmed from neglect, uncontrolled human activities, or
mismanagement by the community around the area.
Nature reserves also gives high priority to protect the wildlife, habitats and natural features
are gradually disappearing on Earth, to ensure that they won’t extinct. Nature reserves also
allows a large gene pool to be conserved and protected so that it can serve as an invaluable
resource for future usage. As the needs of the world’s population are ever-changing, the vast
gene pool that we conserved and using technique such as cross-breeding or even genetic
manipulation, researchers can invent and cultivate new food sources for our consumption.

Human Wild Conflict (HWC)

Human – Wildlife Conflict (HWC) is defined as ‘interaction between humans and wildlife
where negative consequences, whether perceived or real, exist for one or both the parties
when action of one has an adverse effect on the other party. It has been in existence for as
long as wild animals and humans have co-existed and shared the same resources. Growing
human dependency on natural resources and degradation of wild life habitats have resulted
in human wild life conflicts.

Ways to mitigate Human Wildlife Conflict

I. Physical Barriers – Barriers, whether natural (rivers and mountain ranges) or man-made
(stone-walls, chain-fence, electric fencing and hedge) separate wild population. Electronic
fencing has been proved successful in reducing human-elephant conflict in many places in
India. It has been successful in limiting elephant incursions into farm lands in some parts of
Coorg and Anamalai hills in Karnataka.
II. Disrupting Stimuli – Use of electronic devices which produce stimuli such as sounds,
chemicals or light annoying to animals when they approach a protected resource has been
tested but are very expensive and complicated to use. In Tamilnadu, the Forest department
distributed high power search lights to farmers worth INR 1.5 lakh (US$ 3,250) to scare away
the elephants straying into farm lands.
III. Taking out the problem party – translocation of problem animal or human
population resettlement – The process of eliminating problem animal and releasing it to
other site has been practiced in India for few species. In Karnataka, the cost of translocation
of 20 elephants from different regions to Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary was estimated to be
around US$ 3, 75,000, Displacement has been suggested as an alternative to segregate people
and wildlife in order to reduce the conflict. However shifting families to locations livelihood
options new to them. E.g. providing agricultural land to forest dwelling communities.
IV. Buffer of multiple use areas – Addition of multiple use forest as buffer of Nagerhole
National Park in India to reduce conflict with elephant. In Chirang-Ripu Elephant Reserve in
Manas National Park, Assam, experiments are being conducted to study the viability of
cultivating alternate crops such as capsicum, beetle nut, lemon.
V. Compensatory measures – In the absence of tangible economic gains, local communities
are often unable to support conservation – friendly production and consumption practices,
thus programmes are required to offset their loss. Tools for mitigating financial loss of locals
involve direct cash compensation and indirect compensation through insurance schemes,
integrated conservation development programmes and alternative sources of income such
as ecotourism or wildlife tourism.
VI Compensatory measures – Monetary compensation is provided by several state
governments in India to conflict affected people, to balance their economic loss. However,
these payments are often insufficient, delayed and involve time-consuming procedures.
VII Insurance programmes involving locals – The basic idea of compensation scheme in
most of the countries is that forest department is entirely responsible for losses caused to
neighboring human settlements and resultant compensations. However, locals dependent
on forest resources in certain areas are contributing or are ready to contribute a small
amount to safeguard their crops and livestock through protective measures and to reduce
their losses through insurance programmes.
 MODULE 5 - ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution is any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause
harmful effects on various forms of life or property.
Pollutants means the materials or factors that cause adverse effect on the natural quality of
any component of the environment.

Noise Pollution – Meaning

The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. It has been defined as unwanted
sound, a potential hazard to health and communication dumped into the environment with
regard to the adverse effect it may have on unwilling ears.

Definition of Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music for some
can be noise for others.

Measurement
A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the
threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard , at 20 db is whisper, 40
db the noise in a quiet office, 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound
becomes physically painful.

Sources of Noise Pollution

Industrial Sources
 Noise from various industries and machines working at a very high speed and high
noise intensity.
Non-industrial sources
 Transport / vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise
Categories of Noise Pollution
Natural Noise Pollution – thunder, rain, wind, etc.
Man Made Noise Pollution – roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, constructions, celebrations,
industry, noise in buildings, and consumer products.

Sources of Noise Pollution

1. Road Traffic Noise - Motor cycle, trucks, buses
2. Aircraft Noise – Problem of low flying military aircraft, especially in areas near to
defense stations and airports aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas.
3. Noise from rail roads – Locomotive engines, horns and whistles and switching and
shunting operation in rail yards.
4. Construction Noise – Highways construction, city streets and buildings. Construction
noise sources include Pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump
trucks.
5. Noise in Industry – Industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise
problems. Neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as
fans, motors and compressors outside the building’s interior noise can also be
transmitted to the community through open windows and doors, and even through
building walls.
6. Noise in Building
 Internal Building Noise – Plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans,
improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the sound of amplified music,
voices, footballs and noisy activities from neighbouring units.
 External Building Noise – arises from emergency vehicles, traffic, urban residents.
7. Noise from Consumer Products – Certain household equipment, such as vacuum
cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been and continue to be noisemakers.
8. Festivities – Loudspeakers used during functions and celebrations can be a major source
of noise and disturbance.
Harmful effects on humans, animals and property
1. Annoyance
 Sound level fluctuations, irregular occurrences.
2. Physiological effects
 Breathing amplitude, blood pressure, heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood cholesterol.
3. Loss of hearing
 Long exposure to high sound level
 Mechanics, Locomotive drivers, telephone operators, etc. can have impaired hearing
as a result of noise at the place of work.
 Continued exposure to noise level above 80 to 100 decibels is unsafe. Loud noise
causes temporary or permanent deafness.
4. Human Performance
 The working performance of workers/human will be affected as experiments reveal
that noise does lead to reduction in efficiency. In big cities, mostly all the offices are
on main road. The noise traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns divert
the attention of the people working in offices.
5. Fatigue
 Due to the Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have
to give more time for completing the work and they feel fatigue or tiredness.
6. Nervous system
 Causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby affecting the function of
human system.
7. Sleeplessness
 People feel restless and lose concentration and presence of mind during their
activities.
8. Abortion
 Sudden noise causes abortion in females.
9. Poor quality of crops
 Plants are similar to human beings regarding sensitivity. Peaceful environment leads
to better growth in the same control environment.
10. Effect on Animals
 Noise pollution can damage the nervous system of animal. It also become more
dangerous when subjected to excess of noise.
11. Damage of material
 Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments.
 It creates waves which strike the walls and puts the building in danger and
monuments may crack.
 The buildings and materials may collapse.

Noise control at Source:

1. Reducing the noise levels for the domestic sectors:
 The domestic noise coming from radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers,
washing machines, cooking works can be minimized by their selective operations.
 By using of carpet, the noise generated from falling of items in house can be
minimized.
2. Maintenance of automobiles, machines:
 Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the noise levels.
 Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers, etc. will reduce noise levels.
 Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles, etc. will reduce the noise
levels.
3. Control over vibrations
 The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper foundations, rubber
padding, etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
4. Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
 Loud speaker is not allowed after 10.00 P.M.
5. Selection of machinery
 Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces excess noise levels. For
example, selection of chairs or selection of certain machinery/equipment which
generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technology, etc… is also an important
factor in noise minimization strategy.
Air Pollution - Meaning
 When there is a change effected in the composition of air, either by physical or
chemical methods which results in harmful effects on health is called Air Pollution.
 Air pollutions are created by coal and oil combustion refineries, blast furnaces,
fertilizers plants, transportation, solid waste disposal, etc.
The Main pollutants, their sources and Harmful effect on Human Health

Harmful effect on
Pollutants Main Sources
Human Health
Carbon monoxide Burning of coal Decreases oxygen
(CO) Smoke and Dust carrying capacity of blood
Sulphur dioxides Chest troubles, headache,
Burning of petrol
vomiting
Auto exhausts, coal Respiratory ailments, lung
Nitrogen oxides
industries diseases
Refrigerators, Air
Chlorofluorocarbons conditioners causes skin cancer
plants

Major types of pollution

1. Particulate Pollution
 Release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Ex. Diesel Smoke is a
good example of this particulate matter.
 In general, these particles impair plant growth by causing damage to tissues and in
human; it can basically affect lungs which could lead to allergies or even cancer.
 The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about
0.0001 inches.
 The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles can release lead which is harmful to
nervous system.
2. Noxious Gases Pollution –
 Release of noxious gases – sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) – Pollution from Carbon Monoxide occurs primarily from
emissions produced by fossil fuel powered engines. The main issue with Carbon
Monoxide is its ill effect on health. It is capable of binding chemicals in our blood,
called hemoglobin.

 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Is one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere and is
released from engines burning fossils fuels. Major sources of CO2 are therefore fossil
fuels’ burning and deforestation
 Nitrous Oxide – N2O - Is also a natural component of the Earth’s atmosphere as the
other nitrogen gases. It is produced by both natural and human-related sources.
Primary human-related sources of N2O are nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation,
biomass burning, animal manure management, sewage treatment. Nitrous oxide is
produced naturally from a wide variety of biological sources in soil and water.
3. Indoor Pollution
 Inside our homes, offices, schools and colleges as many people spend large portion of
time indoors. – 80-90% of their lives.
 Sources of indoor air pollution – Tobacco smoke, cooking and heating appliances and
vapours from building materials, paints, furniture, etc. cause pollution inside
building.
 Radon is a natural radioactive gas released from the earth, and it can be found
concentrated in basements. Radon can be emitted from building materials like bricks,
concrete, tiles, etc. which are derived from soil containing radium.
4. Outdoor Pollution
 Smog – a type of large-scale outdoor pollution. It is caused by chemical reactions
between pollutants derived from different sources, primarily automobile exhaust and
industrial emissions.
  Acid rain – Major consequence of outdoor air pollution. When a pollutant, such as
sulphuric acid combines with droplets of water in the air, the water (or snow) can
become acidified.
 Green House Effect – Is referred to as global warming, is generally believed to come
up from the buildup of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere.
 Carbon dioxide is produced when fuels are burned.
 Plants convert carbon dioxide back to oxygen, but the release of carbon dioxide from
human activities is higher than that of the world’s vegetation can process.
 Ozone depletion – Chemicals released by our activities affect the stratosphere, one of
the atmospheric layers surrounding earth.
 The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
 Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) from cooling systems and refrigerator
equipment removes some of the ozone, causing “holes”. To open up in this layer and
allowing the radiation to reach the earth.
 Ultraviolet Radiation is known to cause skin cancer and has damaging effects on
plants and wildlife.
Harmful effects of the pollutants in Air
 Suspended particulate – causes damage to lung tissues and diseases like asthma,
cancer.
 Sulphur dioxide – causes constriction of respiratory passage and cause bronchitis.
 Nitrogen oxides – can irritate respiratory ailments and lungs diseases.
 PAN – Peroxylacetyl – nitrate – causes irritation of eye, throat and respiratory tract,
 Acid rains affect aquatic life

Control of Air Pollution

1. Environment impact assessment studies before citing industries thereby assuring
proper pollution control measures and so remove or minimize possible damages.
2. Using low sulphur coal in industries
 3. Chimneys should be high so that pollutants are carried by winds for dispersal and not
trapped at lower levels.
4. Usage of solar power where ever possible is essential.
5. By planting more trees, we provide a natural sink for pollutants like CO2 and make
available more of the life giving oxygen in our surrounding.
6. In order to reduce carbon monoxide, regular servicing of vehicles to be done, ensuring
they are running as efficiently as possible, to reduce in using the cars

Water Pollution - Introduction

1. Comprising over 70% of the Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious
natural resource that exists on our planet without which life on Earth would be non-
existent.
2. Although we recognize this fact, we still disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes and
oceans.
3. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where
organisms are dying at a very alarming rate and our drinking water has become
greatly affected.
4. Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition
of large amounts of materials to the water.

Water Pollution - Introduction

When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered to be polluted. In other words, any
change in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water that has a harmful effect
on living things is water pollution. It is the second most important environmental issue next
to air pollution.
Water Pollution - Meaning
The presence of any toxic substance in water which affects temporarily or permanently its
quality to its usefulness, is known as water pollution.
Toxic Substance – Poisonous – Chemicals like Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin
which can be found at some hazardous waste sites.
Source of Water pollution
 Point Sources of pollution: When harmful substances are emitted directly into a
body of water. In essence, if the pollution comes from a single source, it is called point-
source pollution. Ex. Oil Spill
 Non-Point Source of Pollution: A non-point source delivers pollutants indirectly
through environmental changes. For ex. When fertilizer from a field is carried into a
stream by rain, in the form of run-off which in turn effects aquatic life. Pollution
arising from nonpoint sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams
and lakes. Leaching can be of pesticides, fertilizers, etc. or from leaking septic tanks,
etc.

Causes of Water Pollution

1. Domestic Sewage:
 Domestic sewage is waste water generated from the household activities.
 It contains organic and inorganic materials such as phosphates and nitrates.
 Organic materials are food and vegetable waste, whereas inorganic materials come
from soaps and detergents.
2. Organic Materials:
 Usually people dump the household wastes in the nearby water source.
 Pollution in the form of organic material enters waterways in many different forms
as sewage, as leaves, runoff from livestock feedlots.
 Sewage contain nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
 The amount of organic wastes that can be degraded by the water bodies is measured
in terms of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
3. Inorganic materials:
 Soaps and detergents enrich the water bodies with phosphates.
 These phosphates often leads to algal bloom and eutrophication, which is most
common in stagnant water bodies such as ponds and lakes.
 Algal bloom and eutrophication lead to the suffocation of fish and other organism in
a water body.
4. Industrial Effluents:
 Wastewater from the manufacturing and processing industries causes water
pollution.
 The industrial effluents contain organic pollutants and other toxic chemicals.
 Some of the pollutants from industrial source include lead, mercury, asbestos,
nitrates, phosphates, oils, etc.
 Wastewater from food and chemical processing industries contribute more to water
pollution than the other industries such as distilleries, leather processing industries
and thermal power plants.
 Dye industries generate wastewater which changes the water quality and its colour.
5. Agricultural Waste
 Agricultural waste includes manure, runoff.
 Most of the agricultural farms use chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
 The runoffs from these agricultural fields cause water pollution to the nearby water
sources such as rivers, streams and lakes.
 The seepage of fertilizers and pesticides causes groundwater pollution, which is
commonly known as leaching.
 Although the quantity of agricultural waste is low, the effects are highly significant.
 It causes nutrient and organic pollution to both water and soil.
6. Oil Pollution
 Oil leaked floats over the sea water polluting the water and thereby causing damage
to marine ecosystem.
7. Silting
Pollution is also caused when silt and other suspended solids, such as soil, wash off plowed
fields, construction sites, and urban areas and eroded river banks when it rains. When these
sediments enter various bodies of water, fish respiration becomes impaired, plant
productivity and water depth if become reduced, and aquatic organisms and their
environments become suffocated.
Steps to be taken to prevent the Water Pollution
 Reducing the amount of water use by improving housekeeping turning off the water tap
when not needed, etc. can help to conserve water as well as save money. This is not only
helps prevent water shortages but also reduces the amount of contaminated water that
needs treatment.
 Prevention of water pollution includes using eco-friendly household products such as
non-phosphate or low-phosphate detergents and other toiletries, disposing the
household wastes in proper sites far off from the water sources.
 Taking care not to overuse pesticides and fertilizers. This will prevent runoffs of the
material into nearby water sources.
 Planting more trees can also prevent water pollution by reducing soil erosion and water
runoff.
 Not throwing litter into rivers, lakes or oceans and helping clean up any litter that is seen
on beaches or in rivers and lakes (like plastic bottles) and putting it in a nearby dustbin.
 Educating people about water pollution is an important way of preventing water
pollution.

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution can be described as the contamination of soil of a particular region and results
from the addition and buildup of toxic and harmful chemicals, salts, microorganisms and
radioactive elements to the soil layer.

Causes of soil pollution

Soil pollution is a result of penetration of harmful pesticides and insecticides, which on one
hand serve whatever their main purpose is, but on the other and, bring about deterioration
in the soil quality, thus making it contaminated and unfit for use. Pesticides applied to plants
can also seep into the ground. Heavy metals can arrive in the soil by using polluted water to
irrigate crops and by using mineral fertilizers. Industry is to blame for some of the biggest
soil-pollution disasters. Industrial wastes, such as harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural
pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides are the most important causes of soil pollution. Heavy
metals come from iron, steel, power and chemical manufacturing plants that use the Earth
as a dumping ground. Mining leaves a tremendous impact on the surrounding communities.
The 2001 West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey found that people living near mines
have 70 percent higher risk of kidney disease, 64 percent higher risk for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and a 30 percent higher risk of high blood pressure. Soil pollution can
also result from many seemingly minor activities and experiments done by mankind. The
intensity of all these causes on a local or regional level might appear very small. However
these practices are evident almost everywhere in the world, thinking globally, these are
significant polluters:
1. Improper septic system and management and maintenance of the same.
2. Leakages from sanitary sewage, seepage from landfill, breakage of underground storage
tanks.
3. Acid rains, when fumes released from industries get mixed with rains. Contaminated
water reaches and percolates into the soil affecting it adversely.
4. Fuel leakages from automobiles, that gets washed away due to rain and seep into the
nearby soil.
5. Unhealthy waste management techniques, which are characterized by release of sewage
into the large dumping grounds and nearby streams or rivers.
6. Improper land use allocations and ignorance towards soil management and related
systems.

Effects of Soil Pollution

 Various chemicals like acids, pesticides, insecticides, heavy metals, etc. in the
industrial discharge affect soil fertility by causing change in the physical, chemical
and biological properties of the soil and therefore cause decrease in the soil
productivity.
 The entire ecosystem changes when new materials are added to the soil, as
microorganisms die off or move away from contaminants.
 Increase in salinity of the soil, which therefore makes it unfit for vegetation.
  Generally crops cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil and if some crops manage
to grow, then those would be poisonous enough to cause serious health problems in
people consuming them.
 Creation of toxic dust like of lead is another potential effect of soil pollution.
 Foul smell due to industrial chemicals and gases might result in headaches, fatigue,
nausea, etc. in many people.
 People living near polluted land have higher incidences of migraines, nausea, fatigue
and miscarriage along with skin disorders.
 Long-term health effects of pollution include cancer, leukemia, reproductive
disorders, kidney and liver damage, as well as central nervous system failure.
Children often suffer from developmental problems and weakened immune systems.
 Sewage Sludge has pathogenic bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms which may
cause various types of diseases. Decomposing organic matter in soil also produces
toxic vapours.
 If nothing is done to clean up soil pollution, water supplies could become
contaminated, threatening the human species.

Control of Soil Pollution

 It is suggested to use Bio-Fertilization which is a process in which certain
microorganisms are used to increase the fertility and growth capacity of soil.
 Cropping techniques (mixed cropping, crop rotation) should be improved to prevent
growth of weeds to avoid weedicides. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can also
improve the fertility of the land.
 Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth, etc. can be reused at
domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing soil waste pollution.
 Control of Soil Pollution
 Recycling and recovery is another way to reduce and control soil pollution.
 Recycling paper, plastics, glass and other materials reduces the volume of refuse in
landfills.
 Recovery of one ton of paper can save 17 trees.
  Soil Wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate method.
 Designated pits should be used for the dumping of soil wastes. These wastes should
be treated chemically and biologically to make them less toxic and hazardous.
 Control of land loss and soil erosion
 Can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover thus avoiding wastelands,
soil erosion and floods.
 Enacting tougher legislation to stop illegal dumping, like a larger fine or even
imprisonment as is prevalent already in some states in the United States of America
like Texas (five years in jail and a fine of $1,00,000 for soil pollution)
 Minimizing the use of plastic cover.
 Gardens should be situated away from old painted buildings and roadways to avoid
poisoning by lead. All vegetables should be washed before eating.

Nuclear Hazards
The life of plant and animal kingdom and the ecological equilibrium is seriously affected by
the radiation pollution. The radiation, it is learnt that, generally comes from ultraviolet,
visible light, cosmic rays, gamma rays and micro wave radiation, which produce genetic
mutations in man. The artificial radioactivity, atom bomb, hydrogen bomb and nuclear
energy are all responsible for radioactive pollution. The radio activity will not only affect the
individual but also his future generations. An atom releasing the energy which is known as
radiation. For Example, the radiation releases X-rays, gamma rays, alpha rays, beta rays are
examples for ionizing radiation. The emission and the disintegration of radioactive rays
(alpha, beta and gamma) is called radioactivity.

The cosmic radiations strike the earth continually and penetrate deeply into the surface. It
mainly causes environmental pollution. For example, when heat energy is produced, the
enriched uranium and polonium are disintegrated. This is used to produce electricity.
Similarly, more radioactive elements are released during nuclear fission reaction. They are
called alpha, beta, gamma radioactive radiations. It is learnt that these radioactive materials
are vaporized on earth surface and converted into gases. The minute particles released
during the fission, will spread in the atmosphere and mixed with rain water to pollute water,
plants, food materials, etc. They spoil water resources, plants, animals and human. The heat
produced during nuclear tests completely burns that area and hence no possibility for the
growth and survival of plants. It is learnt that the atom bombs were exploded over Hiroshima
and Nagasaki (Japan) during Second World War. It has affected nearly 1, 00,000 people. The
bomb demolished all structures and buildings in about 15 square Km. area. In Nagasaki,
49,000 civilians were killed, injured and disappeared, while an area of 6 to 7 square km. was
devastated. Considering the gravity of hazards, the Government must ban on atom bomb and
hydrogen bombs and atomic power plants must be properly maintained.

Solid Waste Management - Introduction

Human and animal activities generate different kinds of wastes.
These wastes are generally in solid form, and may cause pollution of land, water and air
unless treated and disposed. The process of collection, transportation, treatment and
disposal can be grouped under solid waste management. The increase in the quantity of solid
waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological advancement is the major issue
regarding solid wastes. If the waste generation is not controlled it would be difficult to
manage the filth. In European and American cities, several graveyards of abandoned
automobiles can be seen. In New York City where 12,000 thousand tons of garbage is
generated every day. India produces 42.0 million tons of municipal solid waste annually at
present. Indian Cities are under a serious threat of being overwhelmed by the garbage
generated everyday by their citizens.

Landfill is the only way of waste disposal by Indian municipalities and all the waste is
dumped on abandoned land without any treatment or planning. So if cities exhaust a land,
they just find another one to dump garbage on. The Energy Research Institute estimates that
1400sq.km. of land would be required by 2047 for municipal waste. The cities which had the
luxury of a river flowing through them, strangled them by dumping their wastes into them.
Yamuna, flowing through Delhi, has practically no living creatures in it. The World Bank
estimates that India’s per capita waste generated in urban areas will grow from 0.2 – 0.6 kg
to 1 kg per head per day by 2030, when the population would be 600 million.
Causes of Solid Wastes
1. Domestic Wastes: Created by the households, shops, establishments, etc.
 Bottles,
 Pots,
 Plastic bags,
 Polythene,
 Papers,
 Clothes,
 Containers, etc. – mosquitoes, flies, bacteria causing diseases.
 Throwing leaf plates, wrappers, fruit peels or non biodegradable cups on the road or
in a corner.
2. Building Wastes:
 Most of the construction materials are left in the street itself.
 Disposal of construction waste is not done properly.
3. The Hospital Wastes:
 Hospital wastes are very dangerous. As it will affect the human health.
 Most of the hospitals, nursing homes, laboratories and healthcare centres are situated
in the urban areas and to dump these wastes in the streets.
 No safe method is being adopted. As a result of it, hospital wastes are infectitious in
nature and they will affect the health.
4. Industrial Wastes:
 Most of the solid wastes are created by the factories.
 Example, chemical wastes, paint industry, steel plant waste (slags), sand explosives,
etc.
5. Animal Wastes:
 Cattle shed waste, fisheries wastes, frog wastes, etc.
 Dead animal and bird waste
Effects of Waste Pollution
 If solid wastes are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may create
unsanitary conditions.
 Many diseases like cholera, diarrhea, dysentry, plague, jaundice, or gastro-intestinal
diseases may spread and cause loss of human lives.
 In addition, improper handling of the solid wastes is a health hazard for the workers
who come in direct contact with the waste.
 If the solid wastes are not treated properly, decomposition and putrefaction may take
place, causing land and water pollution when the waste products percolate down into
the underground water resources.
 The organic solid waste during decomposition may generate obnoxious odours and
waste across slums, etc. cause unaesthetic, unhygienic and unhealthy surroundings.
 Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which when
spread on land as waste cause changes in chemicals and biological nature thereby
affecting productivity of soils.

Control Measures
The main purpose of solid waste management is to minimize the adverse effects on the
environment. The steps involved in general are:
1. Collection of solid wastes
 Collection of waste includes gathering the waste, transporting it to a centralized
location, and then moving it to the site of disposal.
 The collected waste is then separated into hazardous and non-hazardous materials.
There are a number of waste separation technologies available such as:
 Air Stripping – is the transferring of volatile components of a liquid into an air stream.
It is an environmental engineering technology used for the purification of ground
waters and waste waters containing volatile compounds.
 Steam Stripping – is a distillation process where volatile organic matter is removed
from water. The volatilization of organic matter is greatly determined by the
 temperature. Due to the higher temperature used in steam stripping, as compared to
air stripping, more soluble organic matter will be removed.
 Carbon absorption: Process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of
atmospheric carbon dioxide – accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released
by burning fuels.
 Precipitation – Rainfall, Snowfall, etc.
 Transfer of wastes is very crucial for proper waste collection as it requires a fleet of
vehicles. Only rich countries due to lack of vehicles wastes in many areas go
uncollected.
2. Disposal of solid wastes
Before the final disposal of the solid wastes, it is processed to recover the usable resources
and to improve the efficiency of the solid waste disposal system. The main processing
technologies are Compositing, Incineration, Landfill gas power
 Compositing – In compositing earthworms, insects, bacteria, etc. breakdown the
garbage (Organic Substances like vegetables, plant leaves, human waste, etc.) and
turn it into a healthy soil called compost which is good for restoring organic content
of agricultural soils and also enhances pest resistance of the crops.
 Incineration – is the combustion of organic material such as waste, and it can be done
with energy recovery. It reduces the original waste by 95-96%.
 Landfill gas power – Large municipal or industrial landfills produce gas that can be
tapped to generate electricity. Microorganisms that live in organic materials such as
food wastes or paper cause these materials to decompose. This produces landfill gas,
typically comprised of roughly 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide.
 Landfill gas is collected from landfills by drilling “wells” into the landfills, and
collecting the gases through pipes. Once the landfill gas is processed, it can be
combined with natural gas and used as fuel.
3. Management and Utilization of wastes
 Solid wastes can be managed to make waste disposal more effective, for which the
three R’s are stressed – Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
 Reduction of waste generation can be done by reducing the need to hoard for useless
things which finally end up unused in waste bin.
 Avoid using disposable plastic cups and plates. Reuse can be in short stated as ‘Best
out of Wastes’.
 Making flower vase from old bottles, pen stands from bottles.
 The villagers and poor are best at reusing and are known to make rubber rings from
discarded cycle tubes, etc.
MODULE - 6 - ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING

The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period (not less
than 30 years) is called climate. Global warming due to anthropogenic factors is causing
climate. The Earth’s climate has always been changing, going from ice age to tropical
greenhouse and back again. The Sahara was once a blooming savannah with large lakes,
Antarctica was a tropical paradise, and southern Africa was covered by Glaciers.

Climate Change
Climate change was caused by shifts in the Earth’s angle and orbit around the sun and the
location of the continents, all of which affects the amount of solar energy absorbed on
Earth. Emission from cars, factories and burning forests are changing the Earth’s
atmosphere adding CO2 and other greenhouse gases making the atmosphere more of the
sun’s energy, which leads to rising temperatures.

Causes of Climate Change

Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, like CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide.
The concentrations of CO2 AND Methane have increased 36% and 148% respectively
since 1750. These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 8, 00,000 years,
the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. Fossil fuel burning
has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2, from human activity over the
past 20 years. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use,
particularly deforestation.

Effects of Climate Change

 Sudden climate change due to anthropogenic activities has no precedence in
earth’s climatic history.
 High greenhouse gases is also against earth’s atmospheric nature and so effects
from this manner of climate change can’t be predicted and could be very sudden,
damaging and unpleasant.
  Stable climates have resulted in the current distribution of wildlife and area
specific agriculture and slight changes in climate may disturb agriculture and
hence yields, which leads to food problems and require migration of wildlife to
suitable climates.

Global Warming
When the average temperature increases in the earth, it leads to changes in climate.
The global warming will affect the rainfall patterns and cause a rise in sea level, and a
wide range of impacts on plants, wildlife and humans. The average temperature stays will
be the same and the earth will be very cold in winter and very hot in summer.
The average temperature everywhere on the earth for a whole year, will not change
significantly. The current average global temperature is about 59 degree farenheit.

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared
radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet’s lower atmosphere and surface.
A greenhouse is a glass covered enclosure that provides a warm moist atmosphere to
grow plants. Glass allows the short wave radiations of the sun to come in but the earth
radiates it back in the form of long waves which are not allowed to escape by the glass
and hence the greenhouse is heated up. This effect is called greenhouse effect. The earth’s
atmospheric gases like CO2, methane act like the gas, followed by carbon dioxide and
other trace gases.

Causes of Global Warming

1. Burning large quantities of fossil fuels – (Oil and Gas, Coal, Natural Gas) for
vehicles, machinery, energy, etc. (CO2 and N20). The U.S. transportation sector emits
more CO2 than all but three other countries’ emissions from all sources combined.
2. Agricultural Practices – (CH4 and N2O), Methane release (CH4), is caused by
emissions from landfills, livestock, rice farming (which uses methane emitting
bacteria), septic processes, and fertilizers.
3. Introduction of new chemicals and little foresight – CFCs which is a greenhouse
gas with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2.
4. Deforestation – is also a major cause of global warming. Currently, humans are
emitting around 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere every year.
Around 43% remains in the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed by vegetation and the
oceans. Trees are 50 percent carbon. When they are felled or burned, the co2 they are
store escapes back into the Air. “According to per science News Daily, “Decreasing
forest cover, almost exclusively from deforestation in tropical countries, was
responsible for an estimated 1.5 billion tons of emissions to the atmosphere above
what was gained through new plantings”.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is present in stratosphere. Stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 Km of the earth’s
atmosphere. The ozone in the stratosphere is present in its top end for 24 kms that is it
extends from 16 km to 40 km of the stratosphere above the earth. The ultraviolet rays are
released from the sun, in the form of sunlight, they are extremely harmful and will affect
the health when they originate from sun due to their wavelength. However, when the
ultraviolet rays travel from sun to earth, their intensity decreases. When these rays enter
the earth’s upper atmosphere, a thin layer of ozone gas, acting as a protective shield,
deflects back the harmful rays and allows only the beneficial rays to enter. Unless the
ozone layer is very strong, the ultraviolet rays will easily enter the earth. Hence, the
thickness of the layer is very important. Ozone is a molecule that contains three atoms of
oxygen and thus has the formula O3. The name ozone is derived from a Greek word
meaning "to smell". One can smell a mere 10 parts per billion of ozone. Ozone is
generated in the lower atmosphere when oxygen is impacted by energetic electrons from
high voltage sparks generated by electrical equipment or by lightning.

Ozone is an air pollutant in the lower atmosphere that impairs lung function and is quite
toxic. On the other hand, ozone plays an important beneficial role in the upper
atmosphere. The incidental damages, due to ozone layer depletion, involves reduction of
crop yield, reduces forest growth, damages building, harms people and kills marine plants
and fish. The ozone layer depletion will not change the climate. The main purpose of the
ozone layer is to protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet light that can cause skin
cancer and damage plants and animals. The hole in the ozone layer, created by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), gases which are used in refrigerators, air conditioners and
industrial applications. These gases create warming and the ozone destruction can cause
cooling effect. These warming and cooling influences have approximately balanced.

Causes of ozone depletion

 The main cause of ozone depletion is the release of CFCs, (e.g. CFC-12),
chlorofluorocarbons.
 Other causes being halos (used in fire extinguishers), carbon tetrachloride (used
as a dry cleaning solvent and as a refrigerant) and methyl chloroform (used as an
industrial solvent).
 In the presence of UV Light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine, atoms
which then forms a ozone destruction.
 The breakdown products of anthropogenic chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are turned
into aggressive, ozone destroying substances during exposure to extremely cold
conditions.

Role of Sunlight in Ozone Depletion

During the spring, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions,
and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing the trapped compounds. Global
warming in fact be increasing the ozone depletion increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations retain the Earth’s radiation at lower layers of atmosphere, thus heating
up these layers. Less of the heat radiation reaches the stratosphere, intensifying the
cooling effect there. This cooling takes place in the ozone layer and can contribute to
larger ozone depletion.

Effects of Ultraviolet Rays

Energy from the sun reaches the earth as visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays
 Ultraviolet A (UVA) is made up of wavelengths 320 to 400 (nm) in length.
 Ultraviolet B (UVA) wavelengths are 290 to 320 (nm).
 Ultraviolet C (UVA) wavelengths are 100 to 280 (nm).
 Only UVA and UVB ultraviolet rays reach the earth’s surface. The earth’s
atmosphere absorbs UVC wavelengths. Even minor problems of ozone depletion
can have major effects.
  Every time even a small amount of the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light
from the sun can reach the earth.
 Every time 1% of the ozone layer is depleted, 2% more UV-B (290 to 320 nm) is
able to reach the surface of the planet.
 UV-A increases the damaging effects of UV-B, including skin cancer and cataracts.
 UV-B increase is one of the most harmful consequences of ozone depletion
because it affects DNA and can result in skin cancer.
 UV-B rays cause a much greater risk of skin cancer than UV-A, however, UV-A rays
cause aging, wrinkling, etc.
 UV rays are easily absorbed by lens and cornea of the eye and would result in
increase in incidence of cataracts.
 Increased UV radiation can cause significant damage, particularly to small animals
and plants.
 Phytoplanktons, fish eggs and young plants with developing leaves are
particularly susceptible to damage from overexposure to UV.
 Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts will also be harmed. Ecosystems
degradations could have an effect of increasing infectious diseases like malaria
according to some researches.

ACID RAIN
Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. There are many
forms of acid rain that are seen around the world. In parts of the world where there is
wet weather, there is acid rain, acid snow and acid fog. In parts of the world where there
is dry weather, there is acid gas and acid dust.
Causes of Acid rain
Acid rain is mainly caused by Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen oxides and Sulphur dioxides in
the air resulting in the formation of carbonic acids, nitric acid, sulphuric acid. Damage
from acid rain is widespread in North America, Europe, Japan, China and South-east Asia.
In the US, coal-burning power plants contribute to about 70% of sulphur dioxide. In
Canada, oil refining, metal smelting and other industrial activities account for 61% of the
sulphur dioxide pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the main source of nitrogen
oxides. The acids in acid rain chemically react with any object with which they come into
contact. Industries and automobiles are the main cause of the pollutants that result into
acid rain.

Effects of Acid rain

 Acid rain that flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes arid wetlands causes
the water in them to become acidic.
 This affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.
 Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil, which are needed by
plants.
 It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic substance like aluminium and
mercury , freeing them to pollute water or poison plants.
 Acid rain falling on slopes dissolves metals like aluminium in the soil as it flows
down into the lakes. Aluminium irritates fish gills and suffocates the fish.
 It displaces the calcium in the bodies of birds with aluminium which reduces the
thickness of egg shells and hence causes reproductive failure.
 Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in which
they grow.
 It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the coating of leaves, causing
brown dead spots which affect the plant’s photosynthesis.
 Such trees are also more vulnerable to cold.
 Farm crops are less affected by acid rain than forest.
 The acidified water containing toxic metals are absorbed into fruits, vegetables,
etc.
 Acid, along with other chemicals in the air, produces urban smog, which causes
respiratory problems.
 Calcium crystals and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion due
to acid rain. It could leaving the structure damaged.
 In 1967, the bridge over Ohio collapsed killing 46 people and cause was traced to
corosion by acid rain. Billions of dollars are spent in repairing the damage to
buildings in Europe annually.