In this chapter, we develop methods for the analysis of deflections of statically

determinate structures by using some basic principles of work and energy.

Work–energy methods are more general than the geometric methods considered in the
previous chapter in the sense that they can be applied to various
types of structures, such as trusses, beams, and frames. A disadvantage of
these methods is that with each application, only one deflection component,
or slope, at one point of the structure can be computed.
We begin by reviewing the basic concept of work performed by forces and
couples during a deformation of the structure and then discuss the principle
of virtual work. This principle is used to formulate the method of virtual work
for the deflections of trusses, beams, and frames. We derive the expressions
for strain energy of trusses, beams, and frames and then consider Castigliano’s
second theorem for computing deflections. Finally, we present Betti’s law and
Maxwell’s law of reciprocal deflections.
7.1 Work
The work done by a force acting on a structure is simply defined as the force
times the displacement of its point of application in the direction of the force.
Work is considered to be positive when the force and the displacement in the
direction of the force have the same sense and negative when the force and the
displacement have opposite sense.
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or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203Section 7.1 Work 269
Let us consider the work done by a force P during the deformation of
a structure under the action of a system of forces (which includes P), as
shown in Fig. 7.1(a). The magnitude of P may vary as its point of application
displaces from A in the undeformed position of the structure to A′ in
the final deformed position. The work dW that P performs as its point of
application undergoes an infinitesimal displacement, dD (Fig. 7.1(a)), can
be written as
dW P 5 D ( ) d
The total work W that the force P performs over the entire displacement
D is obtained by integrating the expression of dW as
0
W P 5 D ∫ D d (7.1)
As Eq. (7.1) indicates, the work is equal to the area under the forcedisplacement
diagram as shown in Fig. 7.1(b). In this text, we are focusing
our attention on the analysis of linear elastic structures, so an expression for
work of special interest is for the case when the force varies linearly with
displacement from zero to its final value, as shown in Fig. 7.1(c). The work
for such a case is given by the triangular area under the force-displacement
diagram and is expressed as
W P 5 D 1
2
(7.2)
FIG. 7.1
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Trusses, Beams, and Frames: Work–Energy Methods
Another special case of interest is depicted in Fig. 7.1(d). In this case,
the force remains constant at P while its point of application undergoes a
displacement D caused by some other action independent of P. The work done
by the force P in this case is equal to the rectangular area under the
forcedisplacement diagram and is expressed as
W P 5 D (7.3)
It is important to distinguish between the two expressions for work as
given by Eqs. (7.2) and (7.3). Note that the expression for work for the case
when the force varies linearly with displacement (Eq. 7.2) contains a factor of
1y2, whereas the expression for work for the case of a constant force (Eq. 7.3)
does not contain this factor. These two expressions for work will be used
subsequently in developing different methods for computing deflections of
structures.
The expressions for the work of couples are similar in form to those for
the work of forces. The work done by a couple acting on a structure is defined
as the moment of the couple times the angle through which the couple rotates.
The work dW that a couple of moment M performs through an infinitesimal
rotation du (see Fig. 7.1(a)) is given by
dW M 5 ( ) du
Therefore, the total work W of a couple with variable moment M over the
entire rotationu can be expressed as
0
W M 5∫ u du (7.4)
When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation from zero to its
final value, the work can be expressed as
W M 51 u
2
(7.5)
and, if M remains constant during a rotation u , then the work is given by
W M 5 u (7.6)
7.2 Principle of Virtual Work
The principle of virtual work, which was introduced by John Bernoulli in
1717, provides a powerful analytical tool for many problems of structural
mechanics. In this section, we study two formulations of this principle,
namely, the principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies and the principle
of virtual forces for deformable bodies. The latter formulation is used
in the following sections to develop the method of virtual work, which is
considered to be one of the most general methods for determining deflections
of structures.
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Work 271
Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid Bodies
The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies can be stated as follows:
If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is subjected
to
any small virtual rigid-body displacement, the virtual work done by the external
forces is zero.
The term virtual simply means imaginary, not real. Consider the beam
shown in Fig. 7.2(a). The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in
Fig. 7.2(b), in which Px and Py represent the components of the external load
P in the x and y directions, respectively.
Now, suppose that the beam is given an arbitrary small virtual rigid-body
displacement from its initial equilibrium position ABC to another position
A B ′ ′C′, as shown in Fig. 7.2(c). As shown in this figure, the total virtual
rigid-body displacement of the beam can be decomposed into translations Dvx
and
Dvy in the x and y directions, respectively, and a rotation uv about point A.
Note that the subscript v is used here to identify the displacements as virtual
quantities. As the beam undergoes the virtual displacement from position ABC
to position A B ′ ′C′, the forces acting on it perform work, which is called
virtual
FIG. 7.2
v
v v
v
v
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Trusses, Beams, and Frames: Work–Energy Methods
which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual displacements
for rigid bodies.
Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies
The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies can be stated as follows:
If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system of forces (and
couples) and if it is subjected to any small real deformation consistent with the
support and continuity conditions of the structure, then the virtual external work
done by the virtual external forces (and couples) acting through the real external
displacements (and rotations) is equal to the virtual internal work done by the
virtual internal forces (and couples) acting through the real internal
displacements
(and rotations).
In this statement, the term virtual is associated with the forces to indicate
that the force system is arbitrary and does not depend on the action causing
the real deformation.
To demonstrate the validity of this principle, consider the two-member
truss shown in Fig. 7.3(a). The truss is in equilibrium under the action of a
virtual external force P
v as shown. The free-body diagram of joint C of the truss
is shown in Fig. 7.3(b). Since joint C is in equilibrium, the virtual external
work. The total virtual work, Wve, performed by the external forces acting on
the beam can be expressed as the sum of the virtual work Wvx and Wvy done
during translations in the x and y directions, respectively, and the virtual work
W
vr, done during the rotation; that is,
W W W W
ve vx 5 1 vy 1 vr (7.7)
During the virtual translations Dvx and Dvy of the beam, the virtual work
done by the forces is given by
W A vx 5 D x vx x 2 D P A vx 5 2 ( ) x x P F D 5 vx ( ) ∑ x v D x (7.8)
and
W A vy 5 D y vy y 2 D P C vy 1 D y vy y 5 2 ( ) A Py y 1 D C F vy 5 D ( ) ∑ y vy
(7.9)
(see Fig. 7.2(c)). The virtual work done by the forces during the small virtual
rotation
uv can be expressed as
W P vr 52 y v ( ) a C u u 1 5 y v ( ) L a ( ) 2 1 P L y y C M u u v A 5 ( ) ∑ v
(7.10)
By substituting Eqs. (7.8) through (7.10) into Eq. (7.7), we write the total
virtual work done as
W F ve 5 D ( ) ∑ ∑ x vx y 1 D ( ) F M vy 1 ( ) ∑ A v u (7.11)
Because the beam is in equilibrium, ∑Fx 50, ∑Fy 50, and ∑ M A 50; therefore, Eq.
(7.11) becomes
W
ve 50 (7.12)
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or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203Section 7.2 Principle of Virtual
Work 273
and internal forces acting on it must satisfy the following two equilibrium
equations:
∑∑
0 cos cos 0
0 sin sin 0
1 2
1 2
F P F F
F F F
x v vAC vBC
y vAC vBC
u u
u u
5 2 2 5
5 2 1 5
(7.13)
in which F
vAC and FvBC represent the virtual internal forces in members AC and
BC, respectively, and u1 and u2 denote, respectively, the angles of inclination
of these members with respect to the horizontal (Fig. 7.3(a)).
Now, let us assume that joint C of the truss is given a small real displacement, D,
to the right from its equilibrium position, as shown in Fig. 7.3(a).
Note that the deformation is consistent with the support conditions of the
truss; that is, joints A and B, which are attached to supports, are not displaced.
Because the virtual forces acting at joints A and B do not perform any work,
the total virtual work for the truss ( ) Wv is equal to the algebraic sum of the
work of the virtual forces acting at joint C; that is,
W P v v 5 D 2 D 2 D F F vAC v ( cosu u 1 2 ) ( BC cos )
or
W P v v 5 2 ( c F F vAC v osu u 1 2 2 D BC cos ) (7.14)
As indicated by Eq. (7.13), the term in the parentheses on the right-hand
side of Eq. (7.14) is zero; therefore, the total virtual work is Wv 50. Thus,
Eq. (7.14) can be expressed as
P F v v D 5 AC( c D 1 osu u 1 2 ) ( FvBC D cos ) (7.15)
in which the quantity on the left-hand side represents the virtual external work
( ) Wve done by the virtual external force, Pv, acting through the real external
displacement, D. Also, realizing that the terms D cosu1 and D cosu2 are equal to
the real internal displacements (elongations) of members AC and BC, respectively,
we can conclude that the right-hand side of Eq. (7.15) represents the
virtual internal work ( ) Wvi done by the virtual internal forces acting through
the real internal displacements; that is
FIG. 7.3
v
v v
v
W W
ve vi 5 (7.16)
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Trusses, Beams, and Frames: Work–Energy Methods
or, more specifically, as
which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual forces for
deformable bodies.
It should be realized that the principle of virtual forces as described here
is applicable regardless of the cause of real deformations; that is, deformations
due to loads, temperature changes, or any other effect can be determined by the
application of the principle. However, the deformations must be small enough
so that the virtual forces remain constant in magnitude and direction while
performing the virtual work. Also, although the application of this principle
in this text is limited to elastic structures, the principle is valid regardless of
whether the structure is elastic or not.
The method of virtual work is based on the principle of virtual forces
for deformable bodies as expressed by Eq. (7.16), which can be rewritten as
virtual external work v 5 irtual internal work (7.17)
Virtual system
Real system
# # ######################
# # ######################
virtual external force
real external displacement
virtual internal force
real internal displacement
3
5
3
∑ ∑ ( ) ( )
(7.18)
in which the terms forces and displacements are used in a general sense and
include moments and rotations, respectively. Note that because the virtual
forces are independent of the actions causing the real deformation and remain
constant during the real deformation, the expressions of the external and internal
virtual work in Eq. (7.18) do not contain the factor 1 2 y .
As Eq. (7.18) indicates, the method of virtual work employs two separate
systems: a virtual force system and the real system of loads (or other effects)
that cause the deformation to be determined. To determine the deflection (or
slope) at any point of a structure, a virtual force system is selected so that
the desired deflection (or rotation) will be the only unknown in Eq. (7.18).
The explicit expressions of the virtual work method to be used for computing
deflections of trusses, beams, and frames are developed in the following
three sections.
7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method
To develop the expression of the virtual work method that can be used to determine
the deflections of trusses, consider an arbitrary statically determinate
truss, as shown in Fig. 7.4(a). Let us assume that we want to determine the
vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the truss due to the given external loads P1
and
P2
. The truss is statically determinate, so the axial forces in its members can
be determined from the method of joints described previously in Chapter 4.
If F represents the axial force in an arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in
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or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203Section 7.3 Deflections of
Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 275
When the deformations are caused by external loads, Eq. (7.19) can be
substituted into Eq. (7.22) to obtain
Fig. 7.4(a)) of the truss, then (from mechanics of materials) the axial
deformation, d, of this member is given by
d 5 FL
AE
(7.19)
in which L, A, and E denote, respectively, the length, cross-sectional area, and
modulus of elasticity of member j.
To determine the vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the truss, we select a
virtual system consisting of a unit load acting at the joint and in the direction
of the
desired deflection, as shown in Fig. 7.4(b). Note that the (downward) sense of the
unit load in Fig. 7.4(b) is the same as the assumed sense of the desired deflection
D in Fig. 7.4(a). The forces in the truss members due to the virtual unit load can
be
determined from the method of joints. Let Fv denote the virtual force in member j.
Next, we subject the truss with the virtual unit load acting on it (Fig. 7.4(b)) to
the
deformations of the real loads (Fig. 7.4(a)). The virtual external work performed
by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real deflection D is equal to
Wve 5 D 1( ) (7.20)
To determine the virtual internal work, let us focus our attention on member j
(member CD in Fig. 7.4). The virtual internal work done on member j by
the virtual axial force F
v, acting through the real axial deformation d, is equal
to F
vd. Therefore, the total virtual internal work done on all the members of
the truss can be written as
W F vi 5∑ v( ) d (7.21)
By equating the virtual external work (Eq. (7.20)) to the virtual internal
work (Eq. (7.21)) in accordance with the principle of virtual forces for deformable
bodies, we obtain the following expression for the method of virtual work
for truss deflections:
1(D 5 ) ( ∑ Fv d) (7.22)
1(D 5 ) ∑ Fv   FL AE   (7.23)
Because the desired deflection, D, is the only unknown in Eq. (7.23), its value
can be determined by solving this equation.
Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors
The expression of the virtual work method as given by Eq. (7.22) is quite general
in the sense that it can be used to determine truss deflections due to temperature
changes, fabrication errors, and any other effect for which the member
axial deformations, d, are either known or can be evaluated beforehand.
FIG. 7.4
v
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Trusses, Beams, and Frames: Work–Energy Methods
which can be used to compute truss deflections due to the changes in
temperature.
Truss deflections due to fabrication errors can be determined by simply
substituting changes in member lengths due to fabrication errors for d in
Eq. (7.22).
Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the deflections
of trusses by the virtual work method.
1. Real System If the deflection of the truss to be determined is caused
by external loads, then apply the method of joints andyor the method
of sections to compute the (real) axial forces ( ) F in all the members
of the truss. In the examples given at the end of this section, tensile
member forces are considered to be positive and vice versa. Similarly,
increases in temperature and increases in member lengths due to fabrication errors
are considered to be positive and vice versa.
2. Virtual System Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss; then
apply a unit load at the joint where the deflection is desired and in the
direction of the desired deflection to form the virtual force system. By
using the method of joints andyor the method of sections, compute the
virtual axial forces ( ) Fv in all the members of the truss. The sign convention
used for the virtual forces must be the same as that adopted
for the real forces in step 1; that is, if real tensile forces, temperature
increases, or member elongations due to fabrication errors were considered as
positive in step 1, then the virtual tensile forces must also
be considered to be positive and vice versa.
3. The desired deflection of the truss can now be determined by applying Eq. (7.23)
if the deflection is due to external loads, Eq. (7.25)
if the deflection is caused by temperature changes, or Eq. (7.22) in
the case of the deflection due to fabrication errors. The application
of these virtual work expressions can be facilitated by arranging the
real and virtual quantities, computed in steps 1 and 2, in a tabular
form, as illustrated in the following examples. A positive answer
for the desired deflection means that the deflection occurs in the
same direction as the unit load, whereas a negative answer indicates
that the deflection occurs in the direction opposite to that of the
unit load.
The axial deformation of a truss member j of length L due to a change in
temperature ( ) DT is given by
d 5 D a( ) T L (7.24)
in which a denotes the coefficient of thermal expansion of member j.
Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq. (7.22), we obtain the following expression:
1(D 5 ) ( ∑ F T va D )L (7.25)
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned,
or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203Section 7.3 Deflections of
Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 277
Determine the horizontal deflection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. 7.5(a) by
the virtual work method.
Solution
Real System. The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown
in Fig. 7.5(b). The member axial forces
due to the real loads ( ) F obtained by using the method of joints are also
depicted in Fig. 7.5(b).
Virtual System. The virtual system consists of a unit (1 kN) load applied in the
horizontal direction at joint C, as shown in
Fig. 7.5(c). The member axial forces due to the 1 kN virtual load ( ) Fv are
determined by applying the method of joints. These
member forces are also shown in Fig. 7.5(c).
Example 7.1
FIG. 7.5
3.6 m
1.2 m 1.5 m
200 kN
A B
C
EA = constant
E = 70 GPa
A = 40 cm2
(a)
A B
C
250 450
312.5
487.5
187.5
200 kN
(b) Real System — F Forces
1 A B
C
3 3
3.75
3.25
1.25
(c) Virtual System — Fv Forces
1 kN
continued
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or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203278 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of
Trusses, Beams, and Frames: Work–Energy Methods
Horizontal Deflection at C, DC. To facilitate the computation of the desired
deflection, the real and virtual member forces are
tabulated along with the member lengths ( ) L , as shown in Table 7.1. As the
values of the cross-sectional area, A, and modulus of
elasticity, E, are the same for all the members, these are not included in the
table. Note that the same sign convention is used for
both real and virtual systems; that is, in both the third and the fourth columns of
the table, tensile forces are entered as positive
numbers and compressive forces as negative numbers. Then, for each member, the
quantity F F v( ) L is computed, and its value
is entered in the fifth column of the table.
The algebraic sum of all of the entries in the fifth column, ∑ F F v( ) L , is then
determined, and its value is recorded at the
bottom of the fifth column, as shown. The total virtual internal work done on all
of the members of the truss is given by
W 1 ∑ ( )
EA
F FL
vi 5 v
The virtual external work done by the 1 kN load acting through the desired
horizontal deflection at C, DC, is
W
ve 5 D (1 kN) C
Finally, we determine the desired deflection DC by equating the virtual external
work to the virtual internal work and solving
the resulting equation for DC as shown in Table 7.1. Note that the positive answer
for DC indicates that joint C deflects to the
right, in the direction of the unit load.
D 5
D 5
D 5
D 5
2
EA
F FL
C v
C C C
1( ) 1 ( )
(1 kN) 11,733.75
70(10 )4000(10 )
kN m
0.042 m
42 mm
6 6
∑
⋅
→ Ans.
TABlE 7.1
Member L (m) F (kN) Fv(kN) F F v ( ) L (kN m 2 ⋅ )
AB 1.2 2187.5 21.25 281.25
AC 4.5 312.5 3.75 5273.44
BC 3.9 2487.5 23.25 6179.06
F FL 5
∑ v ( ) 11,733.75
Determine the horizontal deflection at joint G of the truss shown in Fig. 7.6(a) by
the virtual work method.
Solution
Real System. The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown
in Fig. 7.6(b). The member axial forces
due to the real loads ( ) F obtained by using the method of joints are also shown
in Fig. 7.6(b).
Virtual System. The virtual system consists of a unit (1 kN) load applied in the
horizontal direction at joint G, as shown in
Fig. 7.6(c). The member axial forces due to the 1 kN virtual load ( ) Fv are also
depicted in Fig. 7.6(c).