CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

CHAPTER III. LIMIT STATE DESIGN

3.0 Introduction
Limit state design of an engineering structure must ensure that
(1) under the worst loadings the structure is safe
(2) during normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance,
durability or performance of the structure.
Three methods have been developed for design of structures.

a) The permissible stress method.

The ultimate strengths of the materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide permissible design stresses
which are usually within the elastic range (It can also be called Elastic design method or the modular ratio
method).
Limitation;
i) It is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material such as concrete since it is based on an elastic stress
distribution.
ii) It is not suitable when displacement are not proportional to the loads such as in slender columns.

b) The Load factor Method.

The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety.
Limitations;
i) It does not apply a factor of safety to material stresses. Therefore it does not consider variability of
materials.
ii) It cannot be used to calculate the deflection and cracking at service loads.
(In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in the calculations. As this method
does not apply factors of safety to the material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the
materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections or cracking at working loads. Again, this is a
design method that has now been effectively superseded by modern limit state design methods.)

c) Limit State Method

(The limit state method of design, now widely adopted across Europe and many other parts of the world,
overcomes many of the disadvantages of the previous two methods.)
It multiplies the service loads by partial factor of safety and also divides the materials’ ultimate strengths by
further partial factors of safety.

3.1 Limit states

A limit state is a situation beyond which the structure becomes unfit for its intended use.
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become unfit for its intended
use – that is, that it will not reach a limit state. Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to be fit for use will
constitute a limit state and the design aim is to avoid any condition being reached during the expected life of the
structure.
There are two limit states.
i) The ultimate limit state.
ii) The serviceability limit state.

(a) The Ultimate Limit State.

(This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety against collapse, the
loads for which it is designed to ensure the safety of the building occupants and/or the safety of the structure itself.
The possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility of accidental
damage as caused, for example, by an internal explosion.)
The structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle, or become unfit for use due to accidental
damage.
The Ultimate Limit State considers;
i) Robustness.
ii) Stability.
iii) Strength.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

i) Robustness
To be robust means that the layout of the structure should be such that damage to a small area or failure of a single
element will not lead to progressive collapse.
To achieve robustness;
i) The structure must be able to resist a minimum horizontal load.
ii) The elements of the structure must be provided with ties.

Minimum Horizontal Load

(Clause 2.5.1.3) and figure 3.1
The minimum horizontal load is given by
a) The design horizontal load assumed to act at any floor level should not be less than H min .
Horizontal loads are as a result of wind, earthquake and traffic where H min is given by
H min  Vin
where Vi  total design vertical load above the level considered.
  notational (assumed) out of plumbed angle in radians given by
1 1
 
(100 L ) 200
where L is the overall height of the structure in meters.
 n is an allowance for causes where n vertically continuous elements act together.
1  1/ n
n 
2
b) In a braced structure, the horizontal elements connecting the vertical elements to the bracing structure should be
designed to carry an additional horizontal load H fd
v
H fd  ( N ba  N bc )
2
where N ba  design vertical load in the vertical elements above the horizontal member considered.
N bc  design vertical load in the vertical elements below the horizontal member considered.
Details of N ba and N bc are given in figure 2.1 of the code.
Vc1 Vc2 Vcn Vc1 Vc2 Vcn
a) c b) c) c
Hc Hc
Vb1 Vbn Vb1 Vb2 Vbn
b Nbc lcol b
Hb H fd Hb
Va1 Van Va1 Va2 Van
l floor a l floor a
v Ha v/2 Nba lcol Ha
v v v

n
H j = Vji v H fd = ( Nbc + Nba ) v/2 H j as in fig. a)
Fig.3.1 Application of the effective geometrical imperfections

Design of Ties
 Detailed design information for ties is not given in Euro code II.
 NAD-National Application Document recommends that the design method for BS8110 should be used.
 The design of ties is given in clause 3.12.3 of BS8110.

The general stability and robustness of a building structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acting as
ties. These ties should act both vertically between roof and foundations, and horizontally around and across each
floor (figure 3.2), and all external vertical load-bearing members should be anchored to the floors and beams.
The types of ties are;
 Vertical ties
 Horizontal ties

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Fig.3.2 Tie forces

Vertical ties
Vertical ties are not generally necessary in structures of less than five storeys but in higher buildings should be
provided by reinforcement, effectively continuous from roof to foundation by means of proper laps, running
through all vertical load-bearing members. This steel should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the
maximum design ultimate load carried by the column or wall from any one storey or the roof.

Horizontal ties
Horizontal ties should be provided for all buildings, irrespective of height, in three ways:
1. Peripheral ties.
2. Internal ties.
3. Column and Wall ties.

a) Peripheral ties.
 Peripheral tie must be provided by reinforcement at each floor or roof level.
 Peripheral tie must be continuous.
 This reinforcement must lie within 1.2m from the edge of building or within the perimeter wall.
 It should be capable of resisting a force of at least Ft .
Ft  (20  4no ) Or 60 KN whichever is less.
no  Number of storeys in structure.
b) Internal Ties
 Internal ties should be provided at each floor in two perpendicular directions.
 They should be continuous throughout their length.
 They should be anchored at each end, either to the peripheral tie or to the continuous column or wall ties.
 They may be located as follows;
a) Spread evenly in slabs
b) Grouped in beams
c) Grouped in walls. Where walls are used, the tie reinforcement must be within 0.5m of the top or bottom of
the floor slab.
Internal ties should be able to resist a tensile force T.
 F (G  Qk )  Lr
T  t k  Or 1.0 Ft whichever is greater.
 7.5  5
Where (Gk  Qk )  the characteristic load per m 2 of the floor considered.
Lr  The greatest horizontal distance in the direction of the tie between the centers of vertical load-
bearing members.

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If the ties are grouped in walls or beams, their maximum spacing should be limited to 1.5Lr .
Spacing  1.5Lr

c) Column and Wall Ties

 Column and Wall Ties must be able to resist a force of 3% of the total vertical ultimate load carried by columns
or walls.
 Ls 
 The resistance provided must not be less than the smaller of 2 Ft or   Ft kN where L s is the floor to
 2.5 
ceiling height in members.
 Wall ties are assessed on the basis of the above forces acting per metre length of the wall.
 Column ties are concentrated within 1m of either side of the column center line.

Example 3.1 Stability ties

Calculate the stability ties required in an eight-storey building of plan area shown in figure 3.3:
Clear storey height under beams  2.9m
Floor to ceiling height (l s )  3.4m
Characteristic permanent load ( g k )  6KN / m 2
Characteristic variable load (qk )  3KN / m 2
Characteristic steel strength ( f yk )  500 N / mm 2

Precast floor slab Longitudinal beam

7m
Transverse beams

4 bays @ 6.5m=26m

Fig.3.3 Structure layout

Ft  (20  4  Number of storeys)
 20  4  8  52 KN  60 KN

(a) Peripheral ties

Force to be resisted  Ft  52 KN
52  10 3
Bar area required   104 mm 2
500
This could be provided by one H12 bar.

(b) Internal ties

Ft ( g k  q k ) l r
Force to be resisted   kN per meter
7.5 5
(1) Transverse direction
52(6  3) 7
Force    87.4KN / m  Ft
7.5 5
Force per bay  87.4  6.5  568.1KN
Therefore, bar area required in each transverse interior beam is
568.1  10 3
 1136 mm2
500
This could be provided by 4 H20 bars.
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

(2) Longitudinal direction

52(6  3) 6.5
Force    81.1KN / m  Ft
7.5 5
Therefore force along length of building  81.1 7  567.7 KN , hence bar area required in each longitudinal beam
567.7  10 3
is  567 mm 2
2  500
This could be provided by 2 H20 bars.

(3) Column ties

Force to be designed for is
 ls   3.4 
  Ft   52  70.7 KN  2 Ft
 2.5   2.5 
Or 3 per cent of ultimate floor load on a column is
 3 7
8 (1.35  6  1.5  3)  6.5    69 KN at ground floor level
100 2
To allow for 3 per cent of column self-weight, take design force to be 72KN, say, at ground level.
72  10 3
Area of ties required   144 mm 2
500
This would be provided by 1 H20 bar and incorporated with the internal ties. At higher floor levels a design force
of 70.7KN would be used giving a similar practical reinforcement requirement.

(c) Vertical ties

Assume quasi-permanent loading with 2  0.6 .
Thus the ultimate design load  1.0  6  0.6  3  7.8KN / m 2 .
Maximum column load from one storey is approximately equal to
7.8  3.5  6.5  177.5KN
Therefore bar area required throughout each column is equal to
177.5  10 3
 355 mm 2
500
This would be provided by 4 H12 bars.

ii) Stability
Building structures are classified into two types.
a) Braced, and
b) Unbraced
A braced structure is one that resists lateral loads by means of bracing. Lateral loads include;
 Wind loads, and
 Seismic loads (earthquake loads)
Bracing in RC structures include;
 Shear walls
 RC lift shafts
 RC stair wells
The bracing must be able to transmit the horizontal loads down to foundation.

* Unbraced structures don’t have bracing elements.

Lateral loads are resisted by action of rigidly connected columns, beams and slabs.

Structures can also be describes as sway or non sway structures.

Non sway structures are those where there is less than 10% increase in the normal design moment due to the
displacement of the structure.
Sway structures are those where the secondary moment due to displacement are greater than 10% of the normal
design moment.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

iii) Strength
The structure should be adequately strong to carry all applied loads without collapse.
(b) Serviceability Limit State
Generally the most important serviceability limit states are:
i) Deflection- the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be adversely affected by
deflections nor should the comfort of the building users be adversely affected.
ii) Cracking- local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of
structure.
iii) Durability-This must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure and its conditions of exposure.
This is the resistance to wear, tear and environmental effects with time. Any reinforced concrete
structure must be designed to protect the embedded steel. Thus the durability of concrete is influenced
by;
a) Exposure conditions
b) Concrete quality and workmanship
c) Cover to reinforcement
d) Width of any crack
If durability is neglected, it will lead to increased expenditures on;
i) Inspection
ii) maintenance
iii) repair
Durability in R.C concerns the selection of the appropriate concrete grade and cover, for the conditions of;
a) Environmental exposure
b) Protection of reinforcement against a rapid rise in temperature and resultant loss of strength.
Exposure conditions are given in table 4.1 of the code and Minimum cover requirements for exposure conditions
are given in table 4.2.
Table 3-1 (Table 4.1 of Euro code II) Exposure classes related to environmental conditions
Exposure class Example of environmental conditions
1
dry environment interior of buildings for normal habitation or offices a
2 a - interior of buildings where humidity is high (e.g. laundries)
without - exterior components
humid frost - components in non-aggressive soil and/or water
environment b - exterior components exposed to frost
With frost - components in non-aggressive soil and/or water and exposed to frost
- interior components when the humidity is high and exposed to frost
3
humid environment with frost and Interior and exterior components to frost and de-icing agents
de-icing salts
4 a - components completely or partially submerged in seawater, or in the
without splash
frost - components in saturated salt air (coastal area)
seawater environment b - components partially submerged in seawater or in the splash zone and
With frost exposed to frost
- components in saturated salt air and exposed to frost
The following classes may occur alone or in combination with the above classes:
5 a - slightly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
aggressive chemical - aggressive industrial atmosphere
environment b b moderately aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
c highly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)
a
This exposure class is valid only as long as during construction the structure or some of its components is not
exposed to more severe conditions over a prolonged period of time.
b
Chemically aggressive environments are classified in ISO/DP 9690. The following equivalent exposure
conditions may be assumed:
Exposure class 5a: ISO classification A1G,A1L,A1S
Exposure class 5b: ISO classification A2G,A2L,A2S
Exposure class 5c: ISO classification A3G,A3L,A3S
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Table 3-2 (Table 4.2 of Euro code II) Minimum cover requirement for normal weight concrete 1)
Exposure class, according to Table 4.1
1 2a 2b 3 4a 4b 5a 5b 5c
2)
Reinforcement 15 20 25 40 40 40 25 30 40
Minimum cover (mm)
Prestressing steel 25 30 35 50 50 50 35 40 50
NOTES
1. In order to satisfy the provisions of 4.1.3.3 P(3), these minimum values for cover should be associated with
particular concrete qualities, to be determined from Table 3 in ENV 206.
2. For slab elements, a reduction of 5mm may be made for exposure classes 2-5.
3. A reduction of 5mm may be made where concrete of strength class C40/50 and above is used for reinforced
concrete in exposure classes 2a-5b, and for pre-stressed concrete in exposure classes 1-5b. However, the minimum
cover should be less than that for Exposure Class 1 in Table 4.2.
4. For exposure class 5c, the use of a protective barrier, to prevent direct contact with the aggressive media, should
be provided.

Concrete cover (clause 4.1.3.3)

The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement (including links and stirrups) and
the nearest concrete surface.
cover

cover

bundle

A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure;

i) the safe transmission of bond forces;
ii) that spalling will not occur;
iii) an adequate fire resistance;
iv) the protection of the steel against corrosion;
The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends upon the continuing presence of a surrounding alkaline
environment provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-cured concrete.
The thickness of cover required depends both upon;
 The exposure conditions as shown in table 4.2
 The concrete quality.

 Minimum Concrete Cover

  5mm 
i) cover min   if d g  32mm
n  5mm
 
ii) cover min   d  32mm
n  g
Where   the diameter of the bar
n  The equivalent diameter for a bundle
d g  The largest nominal maximum aggregate size.
The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement including links and stirrups should not be less than the
appropriate values of given in Table 4.2, for the relevant exposure class defined in Table 4.1.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

 Nominal Cover
This is the cover used in design and specify on drawing and nominal cover is given by nominal cover which is
equal to minimum cover + h .
Where h is Tolerance on cover to reinforcement and given by; 5mm  h  10mm .
h Depends on;
i) Type and size of structural element/member.
ii) Type of construction.
iii) Standards of workmanship.
iv) Quality control
v) Detailing practice.

Other limit states that may be reached include:

iv) Excessive vibration- which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as damage.
v) Fatigue- must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.
vi) Fire resistance-this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse, flame penetration and heat transfer.
Fire resistance depends on;
 amount of cover
 member thickness
 type and quality of materials
 workmanship
vii) Special circumstance-any special requirements of the structure which are not covered by any of the more
common limit states, such as earthquake resistance, must be taken into account.

3.2 Characteristic material strength

The strengths of materials upon which a design is based, normally, those strengths below which results are unlikely
to fall. These are called ‘characteristic’ strength. It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength
will be approximately ‘normal’, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of sample results would be
of the form shown in figure 3-4. The characteristic strength is taken as that value below which it is unlikely that
more than 5 per cent of the results will fall.
This is given by
f k  f m  1.64
Where f k  characteristic strength

f m  Mean strength, f m 
f
n
f =values of cube strength
n = number of cubes tested.
  Standard deviation,  is a measure of quality control
  ( f  fm )2 
1/ 2

  
 n 
The relationship between characteristic and mean values accounts for variations in results of test specimens and
will, therefore, reflect the method and control of manufacture, quality of constructions, and nature of the material.
Mean strength ( fm )
Characteristic
strength ( f k )
number of
test specimens

1.64

strength
Fig.3-4 Normal frequency distribution of strengths
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

 Concrete (Cl. 3.1, EC 2)

Compressive strength of concrete
Unlike BS 8110, the design rules in EC 2 are based on the characteristic (5 per cent) compressive cylinder strength
of concrete at 28 days ( f ck ). Equivalent cube strengths ( f ck ,cube ) are included in EC 2 but they are only regarded as
an alternative method to prove compliance. Generally, the cylinder strength is approximately 0.8 × the cube
strength of concrete i.e. f ck  0.8  f ck ,cube .
Tensile strength of concrete
The tensile strength of concrete is the maximum stress the concrete can withstand when subjected to uniaxial
tension (tensile force applies in one axis).
The mean tensile strength f ct.k of concrete may be derived from equations 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3.

f ctm  0.3  f ck( 2 / 3) Nmm2 (3.1)

f ctk 0.05  0.7  f ctm Nmm2 (3.2)
f ctk 0.95  1.3  f ctm Nmm2 (3.3)

Where f ck is the characteristic compressive strength?

f ctm Is the mean tensile strength.
f ctk 0.05 Is the lower characteristic compressive strength at 5% fractile.
f ctk 0.95 Is the upper characteristic compressive strength where 95% fractile.

Table 3-3 shows the actual strength classes commonly used in reinforced concrete design.

Table 3-3 Concrete strength classes, characteristic compressive strength f ck (cylinders), mean tensile strength f ctm ,
and characteristic tensile strength f ctk of the concrete (in N / mm2 ) (based Table 3.1, EC 2)
Strength Class of
C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Concrete
f ck 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
f ck ,cube 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60
f ctm 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
f ctk 0.05 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9
f ctk 0.95 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.3

 Reinforcement of steel. (Cl. 3.2, EC 2)

(According to Annex C, the design rules in EC 2 are applicable to steel reinforcement with characteristic yield
strength in the range 400–600 N mm−2. Details of the actual yield strength of steel available in the UK for the
reinforcement of concrete can be found in BS 4449: 2005. This document indicates that steel reinforcement will
now be manufactured in three grades, all of 500 N mm−2 characteristic yield strength, but with differing ductility
(Table 8.3). Plain round bars of characteristic yield strength 250 N mm−2 are not covered in this standard, and this
will presumably cease to be produced in the UK. Present indication would suggest that ductility classes B and C
will be the most widely available and specified steel in the UK. Ductility class A, in sizes 12 mm and below, in coil
form is widely used by reinforcement fabricators for use on automatic link bending machines (see CARES
information sheet on ‘Design, manufacture and supply of reinforcement steel’).)

It is classified according to;

2
a) Grade, denoting the value of the specified characteristic yield stress f yk ( N / mm ) .
b) Class, indicating the ductility characteristics.
c) Size.
d) Surface characteristics.
e) Weld ability.
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BS 8110 recommends that design should be based on the characteristic strength of the reinforcement ( f y ) and
gives typical values for mild steel and high yield steel reinforcement, the two reinforcement types available in the
UK, of 250 Nmm2 and 500 Nmm2 respectively. High-yield reinforcement is mostly used in practice nowadays.
In Euro Code II, Grade 500 ( 500 N / mm2 characteristic strength) has replaced Grade 250 and Grade 460
reinforcing steel throughout Europe.
Grade 250 bars are hot-rolled mild-steel bars which usually have a smooth surface so that the bond with concrete
is by adhesion only. This type of bar can be more readily bent, so they have in the past been used where small
radius bends are necessary, such as links in narrow beams or columns, but plain bars are not now recognized in the
European Union and they are no longer available for general use in the UK.
High-yield bars are manufactured with a ribbed surface or in the form of a twisted square surface. Square twisted
bars have inferior bond characteristics and have been used in the past, although they are now obsolete. Deformed
bars have a mechanical bond with the concrete. The bending of high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to
cause tension cracking of the steel, and to avoid this the radius of the bend should not be less than two times the
nominal bar size for small bars(  16mm ). Ribbed high yield bars may be classified as:
Class A- which is normally associated with small diameter (  12mm ) cold-worked bars used in mesh and fabric.
This is the lowest ductility category and will include limits on moment redistribution which can be
applied and higher quantities for fire resistance.
Class B- which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars.
Class C- high ductility which may be used in earthquake design or similar situation.

Table 3-4 Strength of reinforcement (Table 3.1, BS 8110)

Grade Reinforcement type Characteristic strength, f y ( Nmm2 )
250 Hot rolled mild steel 250
460 High-yield steel (hot rolled or cold worked) 500

Table 3-5(Table 5, Eurocode II): Differences between current British Standards and EN10080
Property BS4449 and BS4483 EN10080
2
Grade 460 N / mm 500 N / mm2
Specific characteristic yield strength
Grade 250 N / mm2 Not included
Bond strength for;
i) Ribbed bars/wires Deformed type 2 High bond
ii) Twisted bars Deformed type 1 Not included
iii) Plain bars Round plain bars Not included

Table 3-6
CP110 BS8110 EC2
High yield 460 Ribbed –T
410  High bond 500
425  Y 460 Twisted Y

460 
485 
Mild steel 460-R 250-R N/A
However in the UK, they still design using EC 2 but use T and Y bars.

Table 3-7 Tensile and other properties of steel for the reinforcement of concrete
Ductility Class
Property
A B C
2
Characteristic yield strength, f yk ( Nmm ) 500
Young’s modulus KNmm2 200
Characteristic strain at ultimate force,  uk (%)  2.5  5.0  7.5
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3.3 Partial factors of safety

Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial factors of safety applied to the
strength of the materials and to the actions. It should theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a
mathematical assessment of the probability of reaching each state. Lack of adequate data, however, makes this
unrealistic and, in practice, the values adopted are based on experience and simplified calculation.
 Partial factors of safety for materials (  m )

characteriatic strength f
Design strength   k
partial factor of safety  m

Table 3-8 Partial factor of Safety applied to materials;  m for concrete

Limit State EU 2 BS8110(1985-1995) BS8110(1995-today)
Flexure/Bend 1.5 1.5 1.5
Ultimate Limit State Shear 1.5 1.25 1.25
Bond 1.5 1.40 1.40
Serviceability Limit State 1.00 1.00 1.00

Table 3-9 Partial factor of Safety applied to materials;  m for steel

Limit State EU 2 BS8110(1985-1995) BS8110(1995-today)
Flexure 1.15 1.15 1.05
Ultimate Limit State
Shear 1.15 1.15 1.05
Serviceability Limit State 1.00 1.00 1.00

The factors  m accounts for;

i) Difference between actual and specified strength
ii) Uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict behavior of the members
iii) Variation in member sizes and building dimensions.

 Partial factors of safety for actions (  f )

Action is the Euro code terminology for load. EC 2 defines an action as a set of forces, deformations (e.g.
differential settlement and temperature effects) or accelerations acting on the structure.
Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
i) Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;
ii) Possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;
iii) Unforeseen stress redistributions;
iv) Constructional inaccuracies.
These cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of safety (  f ) on the characteristic
actions, so that
Design value of action = characteristic action  partial factor of safety (  f )
Recommended values of partial factors of safety are given in tables 3-10 and 3-11 according to the different
categorizations of actions shown in the tables.
Actions may be ‘permanent’ ( G k ), e.g. self-weight of structure, fittings and fixed equipment, or ‘variable’ ( Qk ),
e.g. weight of occupants, wind and snow loads.
 The characteristic permanent load Gk is computed from the self-weight of the structure, weight of finishes,
ceilings, services and partitions.
 The self-weight is estimated from assumed member sizes.
 The weight of materials is obtained from BS648 schedule of materials for building construction.
 The characteristic variable load Qk is caused by movable objects such as people, furniture and equipment.
These are given in BS6399 part 1.
 The characteristic wind load Wk depends on location, shape and dimensions of the building. The design of
buildings for wind loads can be based on any of the following;
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

i) CP3 chapter 5 part 2

ii) BS6399 part II
Variable actions are also categorized as leading (the predominant variable action on the structure such as an
imposed crowd load- Qk .1 ) and accompanying (secondary variable action such as the effect of wind loading Qk ,i ;
where the subscript I indicates the i th action).
Table 3-10 Partial safety factors at the ultimate limit states
Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable
Persistent or transient Gk Q k .1 actions Qk .i
design situation
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
(a) For checking the
static equilibrium of a 1.1 0.9 1.5 0 1.5 0
building structure
(b) For the design of
structural members
1.35 1.0 1.5 0 1.5 0
(excluding geotechnical
actions)
(c) As an alternative to
(a) and (b) above to
design for both situations 1.35 1.15 1.5 0 1.5 0
with one set of
calculations

Table 3-11 Partial safety factors at the serviceability limit states

Design situation Permanent actions variable actions
All 1.0 1.0

Example 3.2 Simple design of a cable at ultimate limit state

Determine the cross-sectional area of steel required for a cable which supports a total characteristic permanent
action of 3.0KN and a characteristic variable action of 2.0KN.
Solution;
The characteristic yield stress of the steel is 500 N / mm2 . Carry out the calculation using limit state design with the
following factors of safety:
 G  1.35 For the permanent action,
 Q  1.5 For the variable action,
 m  1.15 For the steel strength.
Design value   G  permanent action   Q  variable action
 1.35  3.0  1.5  2.0
 7.05 KN
characteristic yield sress
Design stress 
m
500

1.15
 434 N / mm 2
design value
Required cross-sectional area 
design stress
7.05  10 3

434
 16.2 mm 2

Example 3.3 Design of a foundation to resist uplift

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Figure 3-5 shows a beam supported on foundations at A and B. The loads supported by the beam are its own
uniformly distributed permanent weight of 20 KN / m and a 170KN variable load concentrated at end C.
Determine the weight of foundation required at A in order to resist uplift:
(a) By applying a factor of safety of 2.0 to the reaction calculated for the working loads.
(b) By using an ultimate limit state approach with partial factors of safety of  G  1.10 or 0.9 for the permanent
action and  Q  1.5 for the variable action.
Investigate the effect on these design of a 7 per cent increase in the variable action.
170KN variable load

beam
permanent load 20 KN/m
A B C

foundation
(a) 6m 2m

1.5 variable load

1.1 permanent
0.9 permanent load load
A B C

(b) Loading arrangement for uplift at A at the ultimate limit state

Fig.3-5 Uplift calculation example

(a) Factor of safety on uplift  2.0

Taking moment about B
(170  2  20  8  2)
Uplift RA   3.33 KN
6.0
Weight of foundation required  3.33  safety factor
 3.33  2.0  6.7 KN
With a 7 per cent increase in the variable action
(1.07 170  2  20  8  2)
Uplift RA   7.3 KN
6.0
Thus with a slight increase in the variable action there is a significant increase in the uplift and the structure
becomes unsafe.

(b) Limit state method-ultimate load pattern

As this example includes a cantilever and involves the requirement for static equilibrium at A, partial factors of
safety of 1.10 and 0.9 were chosen for the permanent actions as given in the first row of variable in the table 3.10.
The arrangement of the loads for the maximum uplift at A is shown in figure 3-5b.
Design permanent action over BC   G  20  2  1.10  20  2  44 KN
Design permanent action over AB   G  20  6  0.9  20  6  108 KN
Design variable action   Q 170  1.5 170  255 KN
Taking moment about B for the ultimate actions
(255  2  44 1  108  3)
Uplift RA   38 KN
6.0
Therefore weight of foundation required  38 KN .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

A 7 per cent increase in the variable action will not endanger the structure, since the actual uplift will only be 7.3
KN as calculated previously. In fact in this case it would require an increase of 61 per cent in the load before the
uplift would exceed the weight of a 38 KN foundation.
Parts (a) and (b) of example 3.3 illustrate how the limit state method of design can ensure a safer result when the
stability or strength of a structure is sensitive to a small numerical difference between the effects of two opposing
action of a similar magnitude.

3.4 Combination of actions

Action (Load) arrangements
For building structure, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, part 1-1 allows any of the following sets of load arrangements to
be used for both the ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Qk Qk
Q Q
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
GG k  All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load
Qk
Q Qk
Q  G should be the same throughout.
(see Figure 1). The value of
 Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
GGk permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load (see Figure 2). The value of G should be the
same throughout.
Figure 1 Alternate spans loaded Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
 All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
QQk  All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load
G Gk (see Figure 1). The value of  G should be the same
throughout.
QQk Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the
UK as it requires three load arrangements to be considered,
G Gk while load set 1 will often require more than three
arrangements to be assessed. Alternatively, the UK NA makes
the following provision for slabs.
Qk
Q

Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

GG k The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see
Figure 3), provided the following conditions are satisfied.
Figure 2 Adjacent spans loaded
 In a one way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds
30m 2 (a bay means a strip across the full width of a structure
Q Qk
bounded on the other sides by lines of support).
 The ratio of the variable actions ( Qk ) to the permanent
G Gk
actions ( Gk ) does not exceed 1.25.
 The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions
2
Figure 3 All spans loaded does not exceed 5KN / m .

Combination of actions (Loads)

In general, the design value of an action ( Fd ) is obtained by multiplying the representative value ( Frep ) by the
appropriate partial safety factor for actions (  f ):
Fd   f  Frep (3.1)

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Tables 3.13 and 3.14 show the recommended values of partial safety factor for permanent,  G , and variable
actions,  Q , for the ultimate limit states of equilibrium (EQU) and strength (STR). It can be seen that the maximum
values of  G and  Q are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively. The comparable values in BS 8110 are 1.4 and 1.6. It can also
be seen that the partial safety factors for actions depend on a number of other aspects including the category of
limit state as well as the effect of the action on the design situation under consideration. For example, when
checking for the limit states of equilibrium and strength, the maximum values of  G are 1.1 and 1.35, respectively.
However, when checking for equilibrium alone,  G is taken to be 1.1 if the action increases the risk of instability
(unfavourable action) or 0.9 if the action reduces the risk of instability (favourable action). For a given limit state
several combinations of loading may have to be considered in order to arrive at the value of the design action on
the structure (see Table 3.13).
In equation 3.1, Frep may be the characteristic value of a permanent or leading variable action ( Fk ), or the
accompanying value (Ψ Fk ) of a variable action. In turn, the accompanying value of a variable action may be the
combination value ( o Fk ), the frequent value ( 1 Fk ) or the quasi-permanent value ( 2 Fk ). The frequent
value and the quasi permanent values are used to determine values of accidental actions, e.g. impact and
explosions, and to check serviceability criteria (deflection and cracking). The combination value is given by
Combination value = o Fk (3.2); where o is the combination factor obtained from Table 3.12 and is a function
of the type of variable action.
The factor o has been introduced to take account of the fact that where a structure is subject to, say, two
independent variable actions, it is unlikely that both will reach their maximum value simultaneously. Under these
circumstances, it is assumed that the ‘leading’ variable action (i.e. Qk .1 ) is at its maximum value and any
‘accompanying’ variable actions will attain a reduced value, i.e. oQk ,i , where i > 1. Leading and accompanying
variable actions are assigned by trial and error as discussed below.

Table 3-12 Values of  for different load combinations

Combination Frequent Quasi-permanent
Action
0 1 2
Imposed load in building, category
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight  30 KN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category G: traffic area, 30 KN  vehicle weight  160 KN 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category H: roofs 0.7 0 0

Snow loads on buildings

For sites located at altitude H  1000 m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
For sites located at altitude H  1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
Wind loads on buildings 0.5 0.2 0

Table 3-13 Load combinations and partial safety/combination factors for the ultimate limit state of strength
Load Type
Limit state Permanent, G k Variable, Qk Wind, Wk
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable
Equilibrium 1.10 0.9 1.5 0 1.5 0

Table 3-14 Load combinations and partial safety/combination factors for the ultimate limit state of strength
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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

Load Type
Limit state/Load combination Permanent, G k Variable, Qk Wind,
Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Wk

Strength 1.35/1.35  1.0 1.5 0 -

1. Permanent and variable
2. Permanent and wind 1.35/1.35  1.0 - - 1.5
3. Permanent, imposed and wind
(a) 1.5 0,1 1.5 0, 2
1.35 1.0
(b) 1.35/1.35  1.0 1.5 0 1.5 0
(c)
1.35/1.35  1.0 1.5 0 0 1.5
For continuous beams with cantilevers, the partial safety factor for the favorable effect of the permanent action
should be taken as 1.0 for the span adjacent to the cantilever.
The partial safety factor for earth pressures should be taken as 1.30 when unfavorable and 0.0 when favorable.

Table 3-15 Load Combinations and Partial Safety Factors  f at Serviceability Limit State
Load Combination Permanent Load, Gk Variable Load, Qk Wind Load, Wk
Permanent + Variable 1.0 1.0 -
Permanent + Wind 1.0 - 1.0
Permanent + Variable + Wind 1.0 0.9 0.9

COMBINATION EXPRESSIONS
 The design value of action effects, E d , assuming the structure is subjected to both permanent and a single
variable action (e.g. dead load plus imposed load or dead load plus wind load) can be assessed using the following
expression

Ed   G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1
j 1
(3.3)

Using the partial safety factors given in Table 3.14, the design value of the action effect is given by
E d  1.35Gk  1.5Qk
(Load combinations 1 and 2, Table 3.14)
 The design value of an action effect due to permanent and two (or more) variable actions, e.g. dead plus imposed
and wind load, is obtained from equation 3.4.
j 1

Ed   G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
i 1
(3.4)

Note that this expression yields two (or more) estimates of design actions and the most onerous should be selected
for design. For example, if a structure is subjected to permanent, office and wind loads of Gk , Qk and Wk the
values of the design actions are:
Ed  1.35Gk , j  1.5Qk  1.5  0.5Wk
(Load combinations 3(b), Table 3.14)
And
Ed  1.35Gk , j  1.5  0.7Qk  1.5Wk
(Load combinations 3(c), Table 3.14)
Figure 3.6 illustrates how the factors in table 3-10 and 3-12 can be applied when considering the stability of the
office building shown for overturning about point B. Figure 3-6(a) treats the wind load ( Wk ) as the leading
variable action and the live load ( Qk ) on the roof as the accompanying variable action. Figure 3-6(b) considers the
live load as the leading variable action and the wind as the accompanying variable action.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

0.7 1.5Qk 1.5 Qk

1.5 Wk 0.5 1.5Wk

0.9 Gk 1.1 Gk 0.9 Gk 1.1 Gk

B B

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6 Wind and imposed load acting on an office building-stability check

Equations 3.3 and 3.4 are based on expression 6.10 in EN 1990. This document also includes two alternative
expressions, namely 6.10a and 6.10b (reproduced as equations 3.5 and 3.6 respectively) for calculating the design
values of actions, use of which may improve structural efficiency, particularly for heavier structural materials such
as concrete.

j 1

Ed   G , jGk , j   Q,1 0,1Qk ,1   Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
i 1
(3.5)

Ed    j G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i (3.6)

j 1 i 1
Where
ξ is a reduction factor for unfavorable permanent actions. The value of ξ recommended in the National Annex to
EC 2 is 0.925.
Note that equation 3.5 yields only one estimate of E d (i.e. load combination 3(a) in Table 3.14) whereas equation
3.6 yields two (i.e. load combinations 3(b) and 3(c) in Table 3.14). For UK building structures, designers may use
the output from either equation 3.3 or 3.4 (depending on the number of variable actions present) or the more
onerous output from equations 3.5 and 3.6.
Use of actions determined via equations 3.3 / 3.4 should lead to designs with comparable levels of safety to that
currently achieved using BS 8110. However, use of equations 3.5 and 3.6 may improve structural efficiency, as
illustrated in example 3.3.

Wind Loads
The following factors are considered;
i) The basic wind speed, V which depends on the location in the country.
ii) The design wind speed Vs  VS1 S 2 S 3
S1  Topography factor normally taken as in UK.
S 2  Depends on ground roughness, building size and height above the ground.
S 3  Statistical factor normally taken as 1.
 Ground roughness is given in four categories e.g. category 3 is the location in the suburbs of the city.
 The building size is in three classes e.g. a, b and c.
 The height refers to the height of the building.
 The wind load increases with height.
iii) The Dynamic pressure q  0.613Vs2 N / mm2 is the pressure on the surface normal to the wind. It is
modified by the dimensions of the building and openings in the building.
iv) Pressure coefficient
The pressure coefficients are given as;
 External pressure coefficients denoted by C pe . This depends on the dimensions and roof angle.
 Internal pressure coefficients which accounts for suctions inside the building C pi .

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

v) The wind force on the surface F is given as follow;

F  (C pe  C pi )qA , where A=area
 Wk  (C pe  C pi )q

Example 3.4 Design actions for simply supported beam (EN 1990)
A simply supported beam for an office building has a span of 6 m. Calculate the values of the design bending
moments, M E ,d , assuming
(a) The beam supports uniformly distributed permanent and variable actions of 5 kNm 1 and 6 kNm 1 respectively
(b) In addition to the actions described in (a) the beam also supports an independent variable concentrated load of
20 kN at mid-span.

LOAD CASE A
g k =5KN/m ; q k =6KN/m

L=6m

Since the beam is subjected to only one variable action use equation 3.3 to determine E d where
Ed    G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1
j 1

 FE ,d  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  (6)  94.5 KN

94.5  6
FE ,d L
Hence, M E ,d    70.9 KNm
8 8
An alternative estimate of M E ,d can be obtained using equations 3.5 and 3.6, respectively
Ed    G , jGk , j   Q,1 0,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
j 1 i 1

 FE ,d  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  0.7  (6  6)  0  78.3 KN

Ed    j G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
j 1 i 1

 FE ,d  0.925 1.35  (5  6)  1.5  (6  6)  0  91.5 KN (Critical)

FE ,d L 91.5  6
Hence FE ,d is 91.5 KN and M E ,d    68.6 KNm.
8 8
LOAD CASE B

Qk =20KN
g k =5KN/m ; q k =6KN/m

L=6m

The extra complication here is that it is not clear if q k or Qk is the leading variable action. This can only be
determined by trial and error. This time use equation 3.4 to evaluate E d , since there are two independent variable
actions are present.
Assuming q k is the leading variable action gives
Ed    G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
j 1 i 1

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER III

FE ,d  [1.35  (5  6)  1.5  (6  6)]  1.5  0.7  20

 94.5( FE ,d 1 )  21( FE ,d 2 )  115 .5 KN
FE ,d 1 L FE ,d 2 L 94.5  6 21  6
And M E ,d      102.4 KNm
8 4 8 4

Assuming Qk is the leading variable action gives

FE ,d  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  20  1.5  0.7  (6  6)
 40.5( FE ,d 1 )  30( FE ,d 2 )  37.8( FE ,d 3 )  108 .3 KN
( FE ,d 1  FE ,d 3 ) L
(40.5  37.8)  6 30  6
FE ,d 2 L
And M E ,d      103.7 KNm (maximum moments)
8 4 8 4
Alternatively use equations 3.5 and 3.6 to estimate FE ,d . Assuming q k is the leading variable action and
substituting into 3.5 gives
Ed    G , jGk , j   Q,1 0,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
j 1 i 1

FE ,d  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  0.7  (6  6)  1.5  0.7  20  99.3 KN

FE ,d is unchanged if Qk is taken as the leading variable action and in both cases M E ,d  90.2 KNm .
Repeating this procedure using equation 3.6 and assuming, first, that q k is the leading variable action and Qk is
the accompanying variable action and, second, Qk is the leading variable action and q k is the accompanying
variable action gives, respectively
Ed    j G , jGk , j   Q,1Qk ,1    Q,i 0,i Qk ,i
j 1 i 1

FE ,d  [0.925  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  (6  6)]  [1.5  0.7  20]

 91.5  21  112 .5 KN
FE ,d 1 L FE ,d 2 L 91.5  6 21  6
And M E ,d      100.1 KNm
8 4 8 4
FE ,d  0.925  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  20  1.5  0.7  (6  6)
 37.5  30  37.8  105 .3 KN
( FE ,d 1  FE ,d 3 ) L FE ,d 2 L (37.5  37.8)  6 30  6
And M E ,d      101.5 KNm (maximum moment)
8 4 8 4
Again, the most structurally economical solution is found via equation 3.6, which will normally be the case for
concrete structures provided that permanent actions are not greater than 4.5 times variable actions except for
storage loads. However, this saving has to be weighed against the additional design effort required. Moreover, the
output from equations 3.5 and 3.6 should not be used to perform stability calculations and the reader is referred to
EN1990 for further information on this aspect. Note that the value of 1.35 for  G is conservative and used
throughout.

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