THERMODYNAMICS-II LAB

Submitted To:

Sir Hafiz Zahid Nabi

Submitted By:
M. Haris Khalil
2020-ME-180
Section D

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

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 Lab Session 01

1.1 Objective
To determine the brake power, fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption and brake thermal
efficiency of Stuart Diesel Engine.

1.2 Apparatus
 Stuart Diesel Engine
 Tachometer
 DC Electric Dynamometer
 Stopwatch

1.3 Consumables

Diesel Fuel

1.4 Diagram

Figure 1.1 Stuart Diesel Engine

1.5 Theory

CI Engine
The CI Engine is a diesel-fueled internal combustion engine that runs on the diesel cycle.

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 Figure 1.2 CI Engine P-V and T-S Diagram

SI Engine
The Si engine is an internal combustion engine that works on the spark ignition concept. It runs on
gasoline and employs the Otto cycle.

Figure 1.3 SI engine P-V and T-S Diagram

Comparison between SI Engine and CI Engine

In CI Engine the compression ratio is from 12 to 25. Engine has generally low speed as compared to S.I.
engine. High maintenance cost but low running cost. These are known as compression ignition engines,
(C.I) as the ignition is accomplished by heat of compression.

But In SI Engine the compression ratio is kept 5 to 10.5. Engine has generally high speed as compared to
C.I. engine. Low maintenance cost but high running cost. These engines are also called spark ignition
engines or simply S.I. Engine.

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4-Stroke Diesel Engine
A four-stroke (also known as four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which
the piston completes four independent strokes while the crankshaft is turned. The whole journey of
the piston along the cylinder in each direction is referred to as a stroke.

It consists of 4 separate Stocks as in figure.

Figure 1.4

2-Stroke Diesel Engine

A two-stroke diesel engine is a compression-ignition internal combustion engine having a two-stroke
combustion cycle.

Figure 1.5

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1.6 Procedure
 Firstly, Start the engine using D.C. Electric Dynamometer which acts as a starting motor.
 Verify that air and water circuits are running.
 Determine the engine speed with the help of tachometer.
 Take time for 25 ml fuel from fuel metering system with the help of stopwatch to measure
the mass flow rate of fuel ṁf.
 Gradually, increase the engine’s speed and observe the output voltage and current in
each case from control panel using voltmeter and ammeter.
 Using the values observed, we can measure all the required factors.

1.7 Observation and Calculations

Break Power

 Ng = 85 % (Given)
 Vs = 250 CC
 Pf = 778 kg/m3
 d = 38.07 mm
 D = 5.7 cm
 L = 10 cm
Fuel Consumption
 n = 02
 Stroke = 02
 BHP = 12 hp
 Configuration = Vertical Type
 N = 2000 rpm

1.8 Sample Calculations

Break power

BP=VI/ηg

BP= 50*7/0.85

BP = 0.411 kW

Torque

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Ƭ = (BP*60)/(2π*N)

Ƭ = (0.411*60) (1000)/(2π*900)

Ƭ = 4.37 Nm

Specific Fuel Consumption

SFC= fuel consumption/BP

SFC= 0.000237 * 3600 /0.411

SFC= 2.34 kJ/kWh

Mass Flow rate

ṁf =ρf*Vf/t

ṁf = 778*0.25 /72.5

ṁf = 2.68 kg/s

Break Thermal Efficiency

ηth = (BP/ṁ*C.V)*100

ηth = (0.411/2.68*44200*10^-4) *100

ηth = 3.38 %

1.9 Table and Graph

Table

No Torque Time for mf

of N V I BP Ƭ 25 ml fuel FC SFC ƞth
Obs. t X 10-4
Rpm (V) (A) kW Nm sec kg/sec kg/kWh %

1 900 50 7 0.412 4.37 72.5 2.68 2.34 3.38

2 950 130 14 2.141 21.52 68 2.86 0.48 16.45
3 1000 220 18 4.66 44.5 58 3.35 0.26 30.6
4 1050 270 22 6.99 63.57 49 3.97 0.204 38.7

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Graph

1. Graph between RPM and Torque

Torque
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060

Figure 1.1 RPM vs Torque

2. Graph between RPM and Brake Power

BP
8

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060

Figure 1.2 RPM vs Break power

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3. Graph between RPM and Specific Fuel Consumption

SFC
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060

Figure 1.3 RPM vs Specific Fuel Consumption

4. Graph between RPM and Efficiency

Efficiency
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060

Figure 1.4 RPM vs Efficiency

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1.9 Discussion

Torque output of engine depend on increasing rpm. As speed of vehicle increase up to a certain point
torque increase, but after that certain point torque begin to decrease. For our diesel fuel engine torque
and brake power are in increasing order with the rpm in the beginning but at the engine speed of
1050 rpm the torque is maximum and afterward it started to decrease. However, the specific fuel
consumption (SFC) propagates in opposite manner.
After the maximum point of torque at 1050 rpm the break power and efficiency is still in ascending
manner with rpm but the rate of increase of brake power and efficiency is decreased.
On the other hand the SFC decreases with an increasing slope (rate) up to 1050 rpm.
Thus, the efficiency and brake power of engine increase and SFC decreases with the increasing rpm,
but the rate of progression for all the properties.

1.10 Reference

 http://www.differencebetween.net/object/auto-object/difference-between-si-and-ci-
engine/#:~:text=Difference%20Between%20Si%20engine%20and%20Ci%20engine&text=Si
%20engine%20is%20internal%20combustion,and%20operates%20on%20diesel%20cycle.

 https://byjus.com/physics/difference-between-two-stroke-and-four-stroke/

 https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/10/compression-ignition-engine.html

 http://www.mechanicalwalkins.com/si-engine-parts-working-advantages-disadvantages-and-
applications/

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 Lab Session 02

2.1 Objective
To draw the heat balance sheet of Ruston Diesel Engine.

2.2 Apparatus
 Ruston Diesel Engine
 Tachometer
 DC Electric Dynamometer
 Stopwatch
 Diesel Fuel

2.3 Engine Specifications

 No. of stokes = 4
 No. of cylinders = 4
 Engine Configuration = Vertical Type
 Max. Speed = 2000 rpm
 Break Horsepower = 40 hp
 Stroke Length = L = 15 cm
 Diameter =D =8 cm

2.4 Diagram

Figure 2.1 Ruston Diesel Engine

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2.5 Theory

2.5.1 Heat balance sheet of an engine

The Heat Balance Sheet is a record of the heat that is provided and used in various ways in the IC
engine. The heat balance sheet is used to obtain important data about the performance of the IC
Engine. Heat balance sheets can be created on a second, minute, or hour basis. Because the heat
balance sheet accounts for the heat delivered and used by the engine. As a result, we should keep
track of how much heat is provided to the engine and how much heat is used by the engine.
The heat supplied to engine is only by combustion of fuel and is equal to: - Qs
= mf X CV
Where,
mf = mass of fuel used in kg/min
CV = Calorific value of fuel in KJ/kg

List of heat which are utilized by the engines are: -

1. Heat equivalent to brake power of engine.
2. Heat carried away by cooling water.
3. Heat exhausted with the exhaust gases
4. Unaccounted heat loss.

2.5.2 Methods to maximize efficiency of an engine by reducing heat loss:

 Run the engine fuel-lean, that is, use excess air. It is well known that fuel-lean running improves the
efficiency.
 Higher compression ratio.
 We need new cycles put into practical use.
 Run the engine at optimum conditions, meaning low friction (modest engine speed) and low pumping work
(air throttle more open).

2.5.3 Top Dead Centre and Bottom Dead Centre

TDC - Top Dead Center is customarily the place of a gas-powered motor's cylinder when it is at the
actual top of its stroke. BDC - Bottom Dead Center is the inverse when the cylinder is at the actual
lower part of its stroke.

Figure 2.2 TDC and BDC

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2.5.4 Stroke length
“The maximum distance that the pistons travel while moving in a single direction is called stroke length and
obviously it is equal to the distance between the top dead center and the bottom dead center.”

2.5.5 Bore
“The inner diameter of cylinder is called bore.”

2.5.6 Maximum or total volume of cylinder

“The volume of the cylinder measured when the piston is at bottom dead center is called the total volume of
cylinder.”

2.5.7 Clearance Volume

“The (minimum) volume of the cylinder when the piston is present at the top dead center is called
clearance volume.”

2.5.8 Swept Volume

“The volume swept by the piston when it moves from bottom dead center to top dead center is called
swept volume.”
Swept volume = Total Volume – Clearance Volume

2.5.9 Compression Ratio

“The ratio of the maximum volume of cylinder to its clearance volume is called compression ratio.

Its value ranges from 8 to 12 for SI engines and 12 to 24 for CI engine

Figure 2.3

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2.6 Procedure
 Firstly, Start the engine manually by rotating crankshaft.
 Verify that air and water circuits are running.
 Determine the engine speed with the help of tachometer.
 Take time for 50 ml fuel from fuel metering system with the help of stopwatch to
measure the mass flow rate of fuel ṁf.
 Similarly, Calculate T for 2.25L of H2O.
 Observe the output Voltage and current also note down the temperature of exhaust gases.

2.7 Observations and Calculations

H.S = H.E in B.P + H.E to C.E + H.E in exhaust + H.E to unaccounted loses
Firstly H.S
H.S = ṁf x L.C.V
ṁf = pf x 𝑣̇f
𝑣̇f = vf / t
pf = 778 kg/m3

Heat supplied to the cooling water = Qw = ṁw x Cw x ∆T

Vw = 2.25 L
ρw = 1000 kg / m3
Mass flow rate of water = ṁw = V̇w x ρw
Volume flow rate of water = V̇w = Vw /t
Cw = Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 kJ/kg.K
∆T = Temp. of coolant leaving the engine – Temp. of coolant entering the engine

Exhaust gases = QEG = ṁEG x CEG x ∆TEG

Mass flow rate of exhaust gases = mass flow rate of fuel + mass flow rate of air
ṁEG = ṁf + ṁa
Mass flow rate of air = ṁa = V̇a x ρa (ρa = 1.2 kg/m3)

N × A × L× n
Volume flow rate of air = V̇a =
120
π
A = Area of piston = d2
4
L = Length of stroke
N = Speed
n = no. of cylinders
CEG = 0.88 kJ/kg.K

The total heat supplied is distributed as;

Heat supplied = Heat energy converted into brake power + Heat energy to cooling water + Heat energy in
exhaust gases + unaccounted losses

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 2.9 Sample Calculations:
Heat supplied =?
Heat supplied = ṁf x L.C.V
Heat supplied = 8.841*441997
Heat supplied = 390770 kW

Brake power =?
VI
Brake power =
η
320∗25
Brake power =
81
Brake power = 99 kW

Heat supplied to the cooling water = Qw =?

Qw = ṁw *Cw * ∆T
Qw = 3.2143*0.718*11
Qw = 162 kW

Exhaust gases = QEG = ?

QEG = ṁEG x CEG x ∆TEG
QEG = 0.00005652*1.4*149
QEG = 1166.4 kW

2.9 Table and Heat Balance Diagram

N0 N V I Time ṁ f ×10 Time

−4
ṁ w ×10Coolin ṁ a ×10 Exhaust
−2 −2 HS BP QW QEG
of rpm (V) (I) For For g gases kW kW kW kW
(kg/s) ) (kg/s)
obs 25ml 2.25L Water Tavg
Outlet (ͦC)
Fuel Wate
(s) r Temp
(s) (ͦC)

1 900 50 7 72.5 2.683 77 2.913 16 2.712 49 11.86 0.438 133.7 26.33

2 950 130 14 68 2.86 77 2.913 19 2.87 65.5 12.64 2.275 685 142.8
3 1000 220 18 58 3.353 77 2.913 26 3.02 87.8 14.82 4.95 1430 314.1
4 1050 270 22 49 3.97 77 2.913 30 3.17 104.4 17.55 7.425 1985 458.3

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Heat Balance Diagram

1. Heat balance sheet at 900 rpm:

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

HS
BP
46% Qw
50%
QFG
Quri

1%
1%
2%

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

14

12

10

0
HS BP Qw QFG Quri

Figure 2.1 Heat Balance Sheet at 900 RPM

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2. Heat balance sheet at 950 rpm:

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

36% HS
50% BP
Qw
QFG
2%
3% Quri
9%

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

14

12

10

0
HS BP Qw QFG Quri

Figure 2.2 Heat Balance Sheet at 950 RPM

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3. Heat balance sheet at 1000 rpm:

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

26% HS
BP
Qw
50%
2% QFG
5% Quri

17%

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

16

14

12

10

0
HS BP Qw QFG Quri

Figure 1.3 Heat Balance Sheet at 1000 RPM

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4. Heat balance sheet at 1050 rpm:

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

21%
HS
BP
2% Qw
6% 50%
QFG
Quri

21%

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

18

16

14

12

10

0
HS BP Qw QFG Quri

Figure 1.4 Heat Balance Sheet at 1050 RPM

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 2.10 Discussion
In our experimental case the trend is different from the above online results. The change in results is
can be due to old and faulty apparatus, or due to some leakage or can be human or gauge error. The
major heat loss is still unidentified losses due to various reasons, same for the heat losses due to
exhaust air still holds 2nd place in losses. The difference lies in percentage efficiency as the brake
power varies greatly with the change in rpm.
An interesting thing that was founded is that the loss of heat in cooling water varies greatly with
brake power and have inverse relation, but heat loss in exhaust gasses increases with the increasing
brake power.
Thus, according to our observations as rpm increases up till its maximum efficiency point, brake
power also increases with respective decrease of heat lost in water cooling system, but the
unidentified heat losses and heat losses in exhaust gasses are directly proportional to rpm. But after
the maximum efficiency point brake power and unidentified losses started to decrease.

2.11 Reference

 https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/704109722996871676/

 https://www.bindt.org/What-is-NDT/Index-of-acronyms/T/tdc- bdc/#:~:text=Top%20Dead%20Centre
%2FBottom%20Dead,very%20bottom%20of%20its% 20stroke

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 Lab Session 03

3.1 Objective
To visualize the combustion behavior of E20 fueled transparent SI engine at various speeds.

3.2 Apparatus
 Transparent engine
 Test bed with dynamometer
 String
 Compressor for air cooling

3.3 Consumables
 E20 Fuel

3.4 Theory
3.4.1 Fuel
“A fuel is a substance that releases thermal energy on burning. This thermal energy can be
used to do work for many purposes.”

3.4.2 Natural Gas

The fuel used in almost all the heating systems today is natural gas. It is used in our homes
for cooking purposes, stove top, to heat water and in dryers etc. The main property that
makes natural gas highly useful is that it releases enormous amount of energy on heating
that can be utilized for various purposes. The main constituent of natural gas is methane
CH4, but rare amount of other gases are also present like nitrogen, water vapors, ethane
etc. It is produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. In vehicles it is used in
two forms, compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified natural gas (LNG).

3.4.3 Combustion
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off
heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of oxygen is called the oxidizer. The
fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas, although for airplane propulsion the fuel is usually a liquid.
Hydrocarbon + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Heat energy

Figure 3.1 Combustion

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There are following types of combustion:
 Complete Combustion
 Incomplete Combustion
 Rapid combustion
 Spontaneous Combustion
 Explosive Combustion
3.4.4 Complete Combustion

Complete combustion occurs when there is enough oxygen to completely use up all the reactants.
Incomplete combustion occurs when there is not enough oxygen resulting in the production of
smoke, and less energy is produced when compared with complete combustion.

Figure 3.2 Complete Combustion

3.4.5 Incomplete combustion

Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air or oxygen is poor. Water is still produced, but
carbon monoxide and carbon are produced instead of carbon dioxide. In general for incomplete
combustion: hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water. The carbon is released as
soot.

Figure 3.3 Complete and incomplete combustion

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 3.4.6 Rapid combustion

Rapid combustion is a form of combustion, otherwise known as a fire, in which large amounts of
heat and light energy are released, which often results in a flame. This is used in a form of machinery
such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons.

Figure 3.4 Rapid Combustion

3.4.7 Spontaneous combustion

Spontaneous combustion, the outbreak of fire without application of heat from an external
source. Spontaneous combustion may occur when combustible matter, such as hay or
coal, is stored in bulk.

Figure 3.5 Spontaneous

Combustion

3.4.8 Explosive combustion

The transition from combustion to explosion is caused by an acceleration of the reaction, induced
either by a rise in temperature or by increasing lengths of the reaction chain. The first is called
thermal explosion, and the second is called chain explosion.

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 Figure 3.6 Explosive Combustion

3.5 Procedure
 First of all, before starting the experiment make sure that the engine is working properly by
starting the generator.
 Turn on the air flow from cooling apparatus.
 Fill the fuel tank with E20 fuel.
 Set appropriate value of load on engine test bed.
 Start the engine by pulling the string.
 Adjust the air fuel mixture by adjusting the adjustment valves.
 Visualize the combustion flame.
 Repeat the experiment at different values of rpm.

3.6 Table

Engine’s speed
Sr. No. Observed color of Combustion Flame
(rpm)
1. 1100 Orange
2. 1300 Yellow
3. 1400 Yellow
4. 1500 Yellow
5. 1700 Yellow
6. 1800 Blue

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3.7 Discussion

In the experiment, the combustion behavior of working fuel was observed in the engine at different
engine’s speed. Initially, at comparatively low rpm the color of combustion flame is almost orange.
As the speed increases, the color changes to yellow or a color consisting of yellow and orange. With
further increase in rpm, the color of the combustion flame becomes blue.
The color of the flame basically depends upon the nature of combustion taking place in the
combustion chamber. For incomplete combustion, the color of flame is yellow or orange. Similarly,
for complete combustion, the color of flame is blue. Thus, at low engine’s speed, the combustion
taking place in the chamber is incomplete combustion and therefore, the observed colors of
combustion flames are yellow and orange. But as the rpm reaches to a particular value, complete
combustion started taking place in the chamber and the color of flame becomes blue.

3.8 Reference

 https://www.google.com/search?q=complete+combustion&rlz=1C1BNSD_enPK96
8PK968&oq=Complete+Combustion&aqs=chrome.0.0i512l10.288j0j9&sourceid=chrome
&ie=UTF-8
 https://www.google.com/search?q=incomplete+combustion&rlz=1C1BNSD_enPK
968PK968&oq=Incomplete+combustion&aqs=chrome.0.0i512l10.1349j0j9&sourc
eid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
 https://prezi.com/onboqgr7eqya/complete-and-incomplete-combustion/
 https://www.google.com/search?q=rapid+combustion&rlz=1C1BNSD_enPK968PK
968&oq=Rapid+combustion&aqs=chrome.0.0i512l2j0i20i263i512j0i512l6j0i20i26
3i512.331j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

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 Lab Session 04
4.1 Objective
To draw the valve timing diagram of Matchless Diesel Engine.

4.2 Apparatus
 Matchless Diesel Engine
 Marker
 Meter Tape

4.3 Diagram

Figure 4.1 Matchless Diesel Engine

4.4 Theory
4.4.1 Valves in Engine:
 The entry and exit of fuel and gases in the motor is managed by motor valves. Every
motor has essentially on one admission and exhaust valve.
 Since the valves are in touch with the high temperature liquid, in this way, the determination
of the material from which the valves are made assumes a vital part in their plan. For
example; the channel valve ordinarily interacts with low temperature fuel so it is made of
chrome, nickel or tungsten steel and so on while the exhaust valve is in touch with high
temperature gases so it is made of nickel-chromium and so forth.

Figure 4.2 Valves

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4.4.2 Explanation of Valve Timing Diagram:
It is a graphical portrayal of opening and shutting of admission and fumes motor valves. Then, at that
point, opening of valves and their end relies on then place of cylinder at TDC or BDC. This
connection is really plotted as the valve timing outline of a motor. It is a 360o figure where
development of cylinder is estimated in degrees and opening and shutting of valves is controlled
appropriately.
Motors total around 0.1 million cycles each moment and keeping in mind that each cycle has a
progression of cycles included their synchronization likewise becomes vital. From a valve timing
chart, the circumstance of cylinder development and valves can be checked and made as near ideal as
workable for causing smooth running of motor and forestalling any risk since 0.1 million cycles to
happen in a moment.
4.4.3 Valve Timing Diagram of a 4-stroke Engine:

Theoretical:
 The motor cycle turns over with attractions stroke and gulf valve opens at TDC. Cylinder
then, at that point, begins to move towards BDC and air-fuel combination or air (diesel
motor) is attracted the chamber.
 In pressure stroke the cylinder moves from BDC to TDC however the gulf valve closes at
this activity.
 In development stroke the cylinder abruptly moves from TDC to BDC. Burning happens
and result is gotten. The cam position doesn't permit any valve to open.
 The exhaust stroke begins with development of cylinder from BDC to TDC. The exhaust
valve opens and influenza gases get delivered.

Figure 4.3 Valve Timing Diagram of a 4-Stroke Engine

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Actual:

 In attractions stroke the channel valve opens around 10-20 degrees advance from
TDC development for the legitimate admission of air-fuel combination.
 At the point when the pressure stroke happens, the delta valve closes around 25-30
degrees past the BDC development which gives total capture of burning chamber
for pressure of air-fuel combination.
 In power stroke, the cylinder moves around 30 degrees ahead of time as expressed in
pressure stroke.
 In exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens around 30-50 degrees ahead which thusly
begins the exhaust stroke. The gases are depleted and this go on around 10-20 after
the cylinder arrives at TDC.

Figure 4.4 Valve Timing Diagram of a 4-Stroke Engine

4.4.4 Valve Timing Diagram of a 2-storke Engine:

Theoretical:
 Toward the start of development stroke the cylinder at TDC begins to move towards
BDC because of ignition of packed air-fuel blend.
 The air-fuel combination enters through the delta port during development and
cylinder moves from TDC to BDC and extension go on until cylinder arrives at BDC.
 Toward the finish of development stroke, the cylinder at BDC starts to moves towards
TDC and pressure of air-fuel blend happens alongside the exhaust of influenza gases
through exhaust port because of development of cylinder from BDC to TDC.
 The cylinder then, at that point, closes both bay and outlet ports because of its
development from BDC to TDC. Toward the end the cylinder arrives at TDC and fuel
gets touched off making development of cylinder from TDC BDC and cycle rehashes.

Page | 27
 Figure 4.5 Valve Timing Diagram of a 2-Stroke Engine

Actual:

 Before the extension stroke, the channel port opens 10-20 degrees before the cylinder
arrives at the TDC what begins development and cylinder moves to BDC.
 The gulf port closes 10-20 degrees after TDC during development stroke. Because of
development of cylinder from TDC to BDC the exhaust port moves advance around
35-60 degrees before cylinder arrives at BDC what begins the exhaust of leftover
gases.
 During the development of cylinder from BDC to TDC at last the exhaust valve closes
35-60 degrees after BDC which holds onto the burning chamber and ignition cycle
begins once more
4.4.5 Valve Overlap:
Obviously the exhaust valve is opened before base right on target and is shut after top flawlessly
focused. The delta valve was likewise opened before the cylinder arrives at the top right on. Hence,
right now both channel and exhaust valves are opened and the interaction is alluded to as valve
cross-over.
4.4.6 Importance of Valve Timing Diagram:
The valve turning chart helps in working on the effectiveness of motor and to concentrate on motor
conduct. After the perception of valve turning chart the motor proficiency can be moved along.
Valve timing assuming inappropriately set might bring about power misfortunes produced by
exhaust gases (known as exhaust blow down).
4.4.7 Valve Operating Mechanism:
For smooth activity of responding motor, the valves should open and close at legitimate time. In
reality, the two valves open simultaneously i.e; end of exhaust stroke and beginning of admission
stroke. The valve lift and valve still up in the air by state of cam flaps. The piece of cam that begins
the launch of admission valve is named as incline or step. The slam is machined on each side of cam
flap to permit rocker arm to handily contact the valve tip forestalls shock load. The cam adherent
pushes the push bar and ball-attachment, activates the rocker arm and opens the valve. Springs are
available that nearby every valve and push valve developments in inverse bearing.

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4.4.8 Types of Valves:
These are of three types.
 Poppet Valve
 Sleeve Valve
 Rotary Valve
Poppet Valve:
It is likewise alluded to as mushroom valve. It is utilized to control timing and amount of gas floe in
a motor. It has all over popping movement and is generally broadly utilized. It has a head and stem
and has a face ground at 30-45 degrees point so it fits completely in its valve seat. The valve has a
spring for return development and is constrained by contact with cam. In exhaust, a distinction of
strain helps seal the valve and in admission valve it helps open it.

Figure 4.6 Poppet Valve

Poppet valve can be classified into four times on the basis of the head shape:
 Flat head valve
 Semi-Tulip head valve
 Mushroom head valve
 Tulip head valve

Figure 4.7 Classification of poppet valve

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Sleeve Valve:
As the name shows it is a sleeve or cylinder that fits among cylinder and chamber mass of an IC
motor where it slides. There are ports on side of sleeves that come into arrangement with gulf and
exhaust at suitable timings. The inward sleeve surface structures the internal chamber barrel in which
cylinder moves. The sleeve moves ceaselessly, permits and drives out gases by intermittent
happenstance of its port cuts with chamber projecting ports.
These valves are simple in structure and easier to make. They have silent operation.

Figure 4.8 Sleeve valve

Rotary Valve:
They have many sorts yet the most well-known one is plate type rotating valve. It has a turning circle
with a port. While it turns it speaks with channel and ventilation systems.
They are straightforward in fabricate and have less expensive expenses. They are appropriate for
rapid motors. They perform without a hitch and give commotion free activity.

Figure 4.9 Rotary valve

Page | 30
4.5 Procedure
1- First of all, measure the circumference C of the flywheel of the matchless diesel engine.
2- Start the engine and check the condition of crankshaft.
3- First of all, mark the position of inner dead center IDC and outer dead center ODC on
the flywheel corresponding to the position when the connecting rod is at its maximum and
minimum position respectively.
4- Then start marking the inlet valve open position and close position on flywheel
depending upon the position of the camshaft i.e. when it fully tightened and fully loosed.
5- Similarly, mark the exhaust valve open and close position.
6- Find the distance between these positions.
7- From the distances marked, the central angles can be determined which will be used to
draw the valve timing diagram.

4.6 Observation and Calculations

IDC-IVO = 7 in
IVO-IVC = 79 in
IVC-ODC = 14 in
ODC-EVO = 6.8 in
EVO-EVC = 57 in
EVC-ODC = 30 in
Total stroke displacement = C = 188.5 in.

C = 2πr 188.5 = 2*3.14*r

188.5
r=
6.28

r = 30 in
S=rθ
θ = S/r

4.7 Table and Graph

Position of Arc length Crank angle Angle

No. of obs
Valves S θ Θ
Inches Radians Degrees
1 IDC-IVO 7 0.227 13
2 IVO-IVC 79 2.56 146.7
3 IVC-ODC 14 0.454 26
4 ODC-EVO 6.8 0.22 12.6
5 EVO-EVC 57 1.85 106
6 EVC-IVC 30 0.973 55.75

Page | 31
4.8 Discussion
Our study shows the angular displacement covered by a complete engine cycle and its value against
time for different processes. IDC-IVO covers only 9% of the total time and angular displacement. It
is time for start the motion of piston until inlet valve opening. IVO-IVC covers 36% of the total time
and angular displacement. It is the process which consumes largest period of time among all other
processes. This can be referred as intake stroke. IVC-ODC covers only 9% of the total time and
angular displacement. This is also the overlapping time period (when both inlet and outlet valves are
open). ODC-EVO covers 23% of the total time and angular displacement. This is time when exhaust
stroke starts. EVO-EVC covers only 8% of the total time and angular displacement. This is referred
as the exhaust stroke of the cycle. EVC-ODC covers 15% of the total time and angular displacement.
It is the completion of cycle.

4.9 Reference

 https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.ingenieriaymecanicaautomotriz.com/valve-timing-
diagram- of-two-stroke-and-four-stroke-engines-theoretical-and-actual/amp/
 https://www.flight-mechanic.com/valve-operating-mechanism-part- one/#:~:text=Valve
%2Doperating%20mechanism%20(radial%20engine).&text=The%20valve% 20mechanism
%20of%20a,other%20operates%20the%20exhaust%20valves.
 https://www.theengineerspost.com/engine-valves-types/

Page | 32
 Lab Session 05

5.1 Objective
To Study the Thermal Efficiency of boiler in steam power plant.

5.2 Apparatus
 Stopwatch
 Boiler (OTGS)

5.3 Consumables
 Water
 Kerosene Oil

5.4 Diagram

Figure 5.1 Boiler

5.5 Theory
5.5.1 Rankine cycle:
The Rankin cycle is a celebrated thermodynamic cycle depicting the communication by which
certain glow engines, for instance, steam turbines or reacting steam engines, grant mechanical work
to be isolated from a fluid as it's everything except a glow source and warmth sink. The Rankin cycle
is named after William John Macquorn Rankin, a Scottish polymath instructor at Glasgow
University. Warmth energy is given to the structure through a pot where the working fluid (routinely
water) is changed over to a high squeezing factor vaporous state (steam) to turn a turbine. Yet again
ensuing to disregarding the turbine the fluid is allowed to merge into a liquid state as waste warmth
energy is excused before being returned to evaporator, completing the cycle. Grinding hardships
generally through the structure are consistently overlooked to chip away at calculations as such
adversities are by and large significantly less enormous than thermodynamic setbacks, especially in
greater systems. The Rankin cycle eagerly depicts the cooperation by which steam engines
consistently found in thermal power age plants harness the atomic force of a fuel or other warmth
source to make power.

Page | 33
5.5.2 Steam turbine power plant:
Since the steam turbine is a turning heat engine, it is particularly fit to be used to drive an electrical
generator. Note that around 90% of all power age in the world is by usage of steam turbines. Steam
turbine was composed in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was related with a dynamo
that made 7.5 kW (10 hp) of force. Steam turbine is an ordinary part of all best in class and besides
future thermal power plants.

5.5.3 Types of Boilers:

Unmistakable kinds of boilers are open watching out, which are made by different makers. The
assorted sorts of boilers find their use in different applications. As the time has slipped by, more
successful kinds of boilers have replaced the old and inefficient ones. This article clarifies on
different sorts of boilers and the evaporator request. Boilers can be broadly named shell chamber and
water tube boilers.
5.5.4 Shell and cylinder boilers:
Shell and chamber boilers are in like manner insinuated as shoot chamber or smoke tube boilers. Fire
tube boilers; contain long steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a warmer pass and around
which the water to be changed over to steam circles. Fire tube boilers, routinely have a lower starting
cost, are eco-more amiable and less complex to work. Their capacities depend on 25tons/hr and 17.5
kg/cm2.

5.5.5 Water tube boilers:

In water tube boilers, water and steam stream inside the chambers and the hot gases stream over the
outer surface. Present day high cutoff boilers are of water tube type. The pot course structure is
worked of chambers, headers, and drums took part in arrangement that give water stream to make
steam.

5.6 Procedure

1- First of all, measure the circumference C of the flywheel of the matchless diesel engine.
2- Start the engine and check the condition of crankshaft.
3- First of all, mark the position of inner dead center IDC and outer dead center ODC on
the flywheel corresponding to the position when the connecting rod is at its maximum and
minimum position respectively.
4- Then start marking the inlet valve open position and close position on flywheel
depending upon the position of the camshaft i.e. when it fully tightened and fully loosed.
5- Similarly, mark the exhaust valve open and close position.
6- Find the distance between these positions.
7- From the distances marked, the central angles can be determined which will be used to
draw the valve timing diagram.

Page | 34
5.7 Observation and Calculations

Density of water = ρw = 1000 kg/m3

Density of kerosene oil = ρf = 820 kg/m3

L.C.V. of kerosene oil = 43070 kJ/kg
T1 = 21.9°C
P2 = 850 kPa
x = 0.942

5.8 Sample Calculations

At T1 = 21.95°C
For saturated liquid; h1= hf

Table: For calculation of h1 for thermal efficiency of Steam Boiler

Temperature hf
(°C) (kJ/kg)
20 83.915
21.9 h1
25 104.83

21.9−20 h1−83.915
=
25−20 104.83−83.915
h1 =0.39× ( 104.83−83.915 )+ 83.915
h1 =91.86 kJ /kg
At P2 = 850 kPa, and x = 0.942:
For h2 at 8.5 bar pressure.

Table: For calculation of h2 for thermal efficiency of Steam Boiler

Pressure hf hfg
(bar) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
8 721.11 2048
8.5 hf hfg
9 742.83 2031.1

hf =?

Page | 35
8.5−8 h f −721.1
=
9−8 742.8−721.1
h f =0.5× ( 21.7 ) +721.1
h f =731.9 kJ / kg

hfg =?
8.5−8 h fg −2048.2
=
9−8 2031−2048.2
h fg =0.5 × (−17.2 ) +2048 .2
h fg =2039.6 kJ /kg
h2 =?
h2 = hf + x.hfg
h2=731.9+0.942(2039.6)
h2 =2652.49 kJ /kg

In time =1800s, Vw = 24.23 liters = 24.23 × 10-3 m3;

ṁs =?
Vw
ṁs =ρw ×
t
−3
24.23 ×10
ṁs =1000×
1800
ṁs =0.0134 kg /s
In time = 1800s, Vf = 2.41 liters = 2.41 × 10-3 m3;
ṁf =?
Vf
ṁf =ρ w ×
t
−3
2.41× 10
ṁf =1000 ×
1800
ṁf =0.00109 kg /s
Now, the thermal efficiency = η =?
ηth = ×100
0.0134 ×(2652.49−91.86)
η th=
0.00134 × 43070

% ηth = 72.55 %

Page | 36
5.9 Table
at boiler inlet

Steam pressure
temperature

at boiler outlet

consumption

consumption
collecting Vw
Boiler outlet

Boiler water

collecting Vf

Steam mass
No. of obs.

Boiler fuel

Fuel mass
Inlet fluid

efficiency
flow rate

flow rate
Time for
enthalpy

enthalpy

Time for
fraction
Dryness
Fluid

Boiler
T1 h1 P2 x h2 Vw t Vf t ṁs ṁf ηth

°C kJ/kg kPa kJ/kg L s L S kg/s kg/s %

1. 21.9 91.86 850 0.942 2652.49 24.23 1800 2.41 1800 0.0134 1.098 72.55

2. 23.5 98.55 890 0.951 2673.03 25.07 1800 2.38 1800 0.0139 1.084 76.64

5.10 Discussion
This experiment is to determine the thermal efficiency of boiler on the bases of difference in pressure
and temperature of steam at inlet and outlet. Steam table is playing important role in the calculations.
Boilers are commonly used in industrial units. According to online studies, efficiency of boiler is
very important that controls the fuel consumption. In industrial boilers, value of thermal energy is
selected to reach the system requirements under all types of conditions. The boiler thermal efficiency
is rarely effected by excess air and load. Thus, in our study we came to realized that the thermal
efficiency is only effected by the specific fuel consumption, amount of cooling substance and lower
calorific value.

5.11 Reference
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccsdualsnap.com%2Ftemper
ature-and-pressure-switches-in-steam-boiler- applications
%2F&psig=AOvVaw1BywJCa2hDGDZu0K4Dblza&ust=1652426745577000&s
ource=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCNjn7L632fcCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/boiler-efficiency
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankine_cycle
Page | 37
 Lab Session 06
6.1 Objective
1. To determine the isentropic efficiency of steam turbine in steam turbine power plant.
2. To Study the Construction and working of various parts of steam turbine power plant.

6.2 Apparatus
 Stopwatch
 Steam Turbine Power Plant

6.3 Consumables
 Water
 kerosene Oil

6.4 Diagram

Figure 6.1 Steam Turbine Power Plant

6.5 Theory
6.5.1 Turbine
A turbine is a gadget that outfits the motor energy of some liquid - like water, steam, air, or burning
gases - and transforms this into the rotational movement of the actual gadget. Turbines are by and
large utilized in electrical age, motors, and impetus frameworks.

Figure 6.2 Turbine

Page | 38
6.5.2 Steam turbine power plant
A steam power plant comprises of a kettle, steam turbine and generator, and different assistants. The
heater creates steam at high strain and high temperature. The steam turbine changes over the hotness
energy of steam into mechanical energy. The generator then, at that point, changes over the
mechanical energy into electric power.

Figure 6.3 Steam Turbine

6.5.3 Rotor blade wind turbine

Rotor sharp edges are the main pieces of a breeze turbine as far as execution and cost of the breeze
power framework. The state of the rotor cutting edges straightforwardly affects execution as this
concludes the transformation of motor energy related with the breeze to mechanical energy (force).

Figure 6.4 Wind Turbine

6.5.4 Flows in wind turbines

The stream field behind a breeze turbine is portrayed by low wind speed, solid breeze shear and a
serious level of choppiness, and consequently an unexpected burst of energy turbine put behind the
first along the breeze heading is probably going to deliver less energy than the undisturbed one, by a
sum that will diminish with speeding up.

Page | 39
 6.6 Procedure
1. First of all, start boiler and set steam pressure to turbine by reducing vales
2. The desire steam condition of turbine is 5 kg/cm2 and 2000
3. Turbine output can be obtained by wearing generator load resistance, but steam pressure does
not increase 8 kg/cm2
4. Note reading of turbine and inlet and outlet pressures and temperatures
5. Then measure voltage and current

6.7 Observations and Calculations

Output power = P = 0.6 kW
Rotational speed = N = 3000 rpm
h1 = Enthalpy of fluid at the inlet of turbine
h2 = Enthalpy of fluid at the exit of turbine
h2s = Isentropic Enthalpy of fluid at the exit of turbine

6.8 Sample Calculations

Sample Calculations for observation 1:

 Calculations for efficiency:

Isentropic efficiency: ηisen = (h1 – h2)/(h1 – h2s)

ηisen = (2873 – 2789)/(2873 – 2764)
% ηisen = 77.06 %

Sample Calculations for observation 2:

 Calculations for efficiency:

Isentropic efficiency: ηisen = (h1 – h2)/(h1 – h2s)

ηisen = (2943 – 2850)/(2943 – 2793)
% ηisen = 62 %

Turbine Turbine Turbine

Turbine Inlet Turbine Inlet Turbine outlet
Inlet Inlet outlet
temperature entropy temperature
No Pressure Enthalpy Pressure
of obs
P1 T1 h1 s1 P2 T2
(bar) (°C) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) (bar) (°C)
1 3.45 205 2873 7.264 2.02 160
2 4.1 240 2943 7.326 2.04 190
6.9
Table Isentropic Turbine outlet
Turbine
Enthalpy at turbine Enthalpy
isentropic
outlet
No of efficiency
obs
h2s (kJ/kg) h2 (kJ/kg)
Page | 40
ηisen %
1 2764 2789 77.06422018
2 2793 2850 62
 Formula for isentropic efficiency: ηisen = (h1 – h2)/(h1 – h2s)
Mean isentropic efficiency = 69.5 %

6.10 Discussion
This online study of experiment helps us understand the structure of turbine and its working on
different fuels. Steam turbine working is based on some characteristic properties for instance inlet
and outlet pressure and temperature, fuel and flow rate. The calculations are done by EES as all the
calculations involves steam table, as they depends on temperature and pressure of steam at inlet and
outlet of turbine.
According to the observations that we collected from our experimentation, isentropic efficiency
decreases as the gap between characteristic properties at inlet and outlet of turbine increases.
For example in table 6.1, in our 1st observation temperature difference and pressure difference are
less than that of in 2nd observations. And same goes for enthalpy and entropy values as other
properties are dependent on temperature and pressure at inlet and outlet of turbine. But efficiency is
greater for 1st observation.

6.11 Reference
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mechanicalbooster.com%2F
2016%2F08%2Fsteam-power-plant.html&psig=AOvVaw2M2lDmZy77g4k-
UcUwhAkt&ust=1652427103069000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCKi
q2Oa42fcCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/types-of-steam-turbine

Page | 41
 Lab Session 07

7.1 Objective
 To study the construction and working of Tangye air compressor.
 To draw the characteristic curve for Tangye air compressor.

7.2 Apparatus
 Tangye air compressor
 Tachometer
 Weights and hangers
 Belt and pulley arrangement
 Manometer pressure gauge
 3-phase electrical motor
 Electrical dynamometer

7.3 Diagram

Figure 7.1 Tangye air compressor

7.4 Theory
7.4.1 Compressor
A blower is a gadget that expands the tension of a substance (typically a gas) by diminishing the
volume of the substance. Blowers are utilized in numerous applications, the vast majority of which
include expanding the tension inside a gas stockpiling holder, for example, Compression of gases in
oil treatment facilities and substance plants.

Figure 7.2 Compressor

Page | 42
How does a Compressor Works?
The essential working guideline of gas or air blower can be effectively perceived. Fundamentally, it
works by changing the volume of the gas or air. It utilizes a cylinder or diffuser to build the strain of
the functioning liquid.
While the functioning liquid goes into a diffuser, it changes the speed of the liquid into pressure
energy.
Thusly, a blower packs the gas or air. After the pressure cycle, the compacted air is changed into a
capacity tank. Numerous enterprises have utilized blowers to increment creation, which has
prompted the improvement of numerous new ventures.
These days, many organizations production and supply air blowers to various ventures. The
assembling of these machines was at first done utilizing wood, however presently numerous cutting
edge procedures and materials are being utilized to make them.
Numerous nations are utilizing air blowers for their potential benefit. They are utilizing these
machines to save their valuable time, energy, and cash.

7.4.2 Types of Compressor

Figure 7.3 Types of compressor

Page | 43
7.4.3 Positive Displacement Air Compressor

It is a most renowned kind of air blower. The capacity of the positive removal blower is
direct.

These blowers diminish the volume of the pressure chamber by bringing air into the pressure
chamber through the attractions air. It packs the air until the pneumatic stress comes to as
indicated by the necessities. The compacted air is then smothered of the valve at ostensible
strain to give wind current.

One more meaning of a PD blower, a blower that works by drawing a particular measure of
gas or air from the channel of the blower and afterward coercively leave it from the power
source of the blower, is known as a Positive relocation (PD) blower.

7.4.4 Advantage and Disadvantages of Reciprocating Compressors:

7.5 Procedure
1. Before starting the compressor, check the control valve, it should be fully closed,
also check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water.
2. Start the compressor using 3 phase electric motor that drives the compressor with the
help of belt and pulley mechanism.
3. Initially store the air in compressor delivery tank at required pressure of 80psi.
4. Now slightly open the control valve to set the required pressure for next readings.
5. While the compressor is running start adding weights and then observe the spring balance
reading.
6. Determine the engine speed with the help of tachometer.
7. For air discharge, note the pressure difference across the manometer

7.6 Observation and Calculations

Number of Stages = 01
Number of Cylinders = 01
Configuration = Vertical Type
Maximum Speed = 800 rpm
Stroke length = 4 in
Bore = 2.54 in
Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.96
A = Area of venturi meter = 0.416 in2 = 0.000268 m2
R = 12 in = 0.3048 m
n = Polytropic index = 1.3
P1 = 14.696 psi
VC = Clearance volume = 2.08 cc

Formulas:
1. Brake power = (𝟐×𝝅×𝑵×𝑻)/𝟔𝟎
T = Torque = W x R

2. Motor input power = P = √𝟑 × 𝑽 × 𝑰

Page | 44
 n−1
n P2 n
3. Indicated power = IP = × P1 × V̇ × [( ) – 𝟏] (P1 = Air inlet pressure)
n−1 P1

V 1−V 4
V̇ = Effective swept volume per unit time = ( )×𝑁
60
1
V4 = VC × ( P / P ) n
2 1
V1 = VS – VC
π 2
VS = ×d ×L
4
4. Flow rate = Q̇ = A*Cd√𝟐𝒈∆𝒉

5. Mechanical efficiency = ηmech = 𝐈𝐏/𝐁𝐏

6. Overall efficiency = ηoverall = 𝐈𝐏/𝐏

7.8 Sample Calculations

Brake power = BP =?
Brake power = (𝟐×𝝅×𝑵×𝑻)/𝟔𝟎
Brake power = (𝟐×𝝅×520×33.89)/𝟔𝟎
Brake power = 1845.45 W
Motor input power = P =?
Motor input power = P = √𝟑 × 𝑽 × 𝑰
P = √𝟑 × 420 × 2.6
P = 1891.39 W
Indicated power = IP =?
π 2
VS = ×d ×L = 0.02965333 m3
4
V1 = VS – VC = 0.029651 m3
1
V4 = VC × ( P / P ) n
2 1
1
V4 = 0.00000208× (70/14.696) 1.3
V4 = 0.000000495 m3
V 1−V 4
V̇ = Effective swept volume per unit time = ( )×𝑁
60
0.029651−0.00000495
V̇ = ( ) × 520
60
V̇ = 0.2569 m3/s
n−1
n P2
× P1 × V̇ × [( )
n
Indicated power = IP = – 𝟏]
n−1 P1
1.3 70 0.3
IP = × 14.696× 0.2569× [( ) 1.3 – 𝟏]
0.3 14.696
IP = 7.094 kW

Flow rate = Q̇ =?
Flow rate = Q̇ = A*Cd√𝟐𝒈∆𝒉
Page | 45
Q̇ = 0.000268 m2*0.96*√𝟐*3.1415*16
Q̇ = 0.00455 m3/kg
ηmech = ?
Mechanical efficiency = ηmech = 𝐈𝐏/𝐁𝐏
ηmech = 7094/1845.2
ηmech = 3.8 %

ηoverall = ?
Overall efficiency = ηoverall = 𝐈𝐏/𝐏
ηoverall = 7094/1891.39
ηoverall = 3.75 %

Page | 46
 7.9 Table:

Sr
No. Pressure
Motor Mechanic Overall
S V C Load Torque Brake Indicated
at exit ∆h Input al efficieny
power power
(psi) Power Efficiency (%)
(lbf) (N-m) (watt) (kW)
(Volt (Amp m (kW) (%)
(rpm)
s) ere)
ηmech ηov
N V I P2 W T BP IP P

520 420 2.6 70 0.3 5 6.78 29.8 6.3

1 369.2 0.11 1.746
560 420 2.8 50 0.4 10 13.56 41.5 17
2 795.2 0.33 1.89

590 420 2.9 30 0.6 15 20.34 1256

3 0.44 1.98 35 22

600 420 2.9 10 0.8 20 27.12 32.8 27

4 1704 0.56 2.01

Graph:

1. Graph between RPM and Overall Efficiency

Overall Efficiency
30

25

20
Overall Efficiency

15

10

0
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610
Speed (RPM)

Figure 7.1 RPM vs Overall Efficiency

Page | 47
2. Graph between
RPM and
Mechanical Efficiency Mechanical
45 Efficiency
40
35
Mechanical Efficiency

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610
Speed (RPM)

Figure 7.2 RPM vs Mechanical Efficiency

Integrated Power
3. 0.6 Graph
between
0.5 RPM and
Indicated
0.4 Power
Integrated Power

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610
Speed (RPM)

Page | 48
 Figure 7.3 RPM
vs Indicated Power

Page | 49
4. Graph between RPM and Motor Power

Motor Power
2.05
2
1.95
1.9
Motor Power

1.85
1.8
1.75
1.7
1.65
1.6
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610

Speed (RPM)

Figure 7.4 RPM vs Motor Power

5. Graph between RPM and Pressure at Exit

Pressure at Exit
80

70

60
Pressure at Exit

50

40

30

20

10

0
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610
Speed (RPM)

Figure 7.5 RPM vs Pressure at Exit

Page | 50
 6. Graph between RPM and Flow Rate

Break Power
1800
1600
7.9 Discussion
1400
According to 1200 our
experimental
Break Power

1000
observations of air
800
compressors at variable
600
rpm, trend of graphs
400
shows that overall
200
efficiency (ηoverall),
0
motor power 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 (P),
indicated Speed (RPM) power
(IP) and pressure
at compressor exit (P2) are in decreasing manner with respect to increasing rpm. On the other hand
rate of flow is directly proportional to rpm.

The graph of mechanical efficiency (ηmech) is most interesting one, it shows rise at lower rpm and
reached at its maximum value at 560 rpm. After 560 rpm it started to decrease.
At maximum mechanical efficiency (ηmech) point at 560 rpm, other graphs also shows variation in
their rates of increase and decrease. The rate of decrease in decreasing overall efficiency (η overall)
increases after 560 rpm. The decrease rate of motor power (P) and exit pressure (P2) decreases after
560 rpm.

7.10 Reference

 https://mechanicalboost.com/air-compressor-types-and-applications/
 https://kaishanusa.com/blog/what-is-a-positive-displacement-compressor/
 https://www.alup.com/en/know-your-air/piston-vs-screw-compressor

Page | 51
 Lab Session 08
8.1 Objective:
In this experiment we have to investigate the working and usage of planimeter to find the area of
irregular shaped figure.

8.2 Apparatus:
 Planimeter
 Paper sheet containing the figure

8.3 Theory:
Introduction:
There are two methods applied measuring areas of irregular figures: These methods are:
 By measuring ordinates.
 By the use of an instrument called planimeter
The method of measuring area by using planimeter is generally accepted as the most accurate instrument used
in measuring the area of irregular figures.

8.4 Planimeter:
A planimeter can be defined as a measuring instrument which is used to calculate the area of an arbitrary two-
dimensional shape. It needs plain drawn on the sheet to calculate area. When it is very tough to determine the
area of irregular plot we use planimeter.

Diagram:

Figure 8.1 Planimeter

8.5 Parts of Planimeter:

These are the parts of a planimeter:
 Vernier
 Dial
 Tracing arm

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  Tracing point
 Anchor arm
 Weight and needle point
 Clamp
 Hinge
 Wheel
 Dial

8.6 Types of Planimeter:

8.6.1 A linear Planimeter

The end of planimeter is restricted to move along a straight line.

Figure 8.2 Linear Planimeter

8.6.2 Digital Planimeter

Digital planimeter is an advanced form of planimeter and have nickel battery. An electronic
circuit measures beats of turning encoder and area is shown in display screen in digital form.

Figure 9.3 Digital Planimeter

8.7 Procedure:

1. First of all, place record arm on the tracing arm at required scale precisely by utilizing clamp and
movement screw. Also try to avoid wrinkleless of the sheet for accuracy.
2. Then set the anchor point constant on paper inside the boundary for little external keep.

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 3. After this set focus points on external border line of plan and also place tracing arm precisely over it.
4. Then take initial reading of dial, wheel and Vernier.
5. Keep proceeding tracing points along border of plan and terminate at beginning point.
6. During this whole movement of tracing arm note down zero rotations clockwise and anticlockwise way.
7. Also repeat observing readings on dial, wheel and Vernier lastly perusing.

Calculation of Area:

Figure 8.4 Sample for Calculation of area by planimeter

The area calculated from this type of figure was 1.6 inches square which was close to its ideal value which
was 1.8 squared inches.

8.8Results and Discussion:

 It is concluded that while finding the area you must rotate it in boundry.
 There must be a smooth surface below.
 For complex shapes it is convenient to measure the area of of different figures.

8.9REFERENCES
 https://www.hpdconsult.com/what-is-planimeter/
 https://www.google.com/search?q=planimeter+working+principle&oq=planimeter+working&aq
s=chrome.0.0i512j69i57j0i390l3.5574j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

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 Lab Session 09

9.1 Objective

“To determine the cooling tower efficiency”

9.2 Apparatus
 Cooling tower

9.3 Theory

9.3.1 Cooling Tower

“A cooling tower is a device which is used to remove heat from the high temperature water and
is used to reject the heat in the atmosphere.” Two types of mechanism may be used to extract heat
from the working fluid:

(i) Evaporation of the working fluid

(ii) Simple blowing the air from the water to remove heat from it

Power plants, large air conditioning systems and some of the industries dispose the waste heat to
the nearby river or lakes. But in the case of thermal pollution problem, the method is not
recommended. Thus, in this situation cooling towers are used to dispose the waste heat in the
atmosphere by using certain circulating mechanism.

9.3.2 Classification of cooling towers

Cooling towers can be classified in various types on the basis of various factors: On the basis
of their use, there are two types of cooling tower:
i. HVAC cooling towers
ii. Industrial cooling towers

On the basis of their build, there are two types of cooling towers:
i. Package type cooling tower
ii. Field erection type cooling tower
On the basis of heat transfer methods, there are following types of cooling towers:
i. Dry cooling towers
ii. Wet cooling towers
iii. Fluid coolers

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 arting the experiment, make sure that the water channels are working properly.
i.1. Connect the cooling tower with computer to give the output results.
2. After starting the cooling
tower, set a load of 0.5kW.
3. Note down the water inlet
and out temperature.
4. Also, note the wet bulb
ii. temperatures.
5. Calculate the
efficiency of the
cooling tower using the
formula:
T a−T b
η= × 100
T a−T cw
Diagram
6. Repeat the experiment for 1kW and 1.5kW load.
Load 0.5 kW 1.0 kW 1.5 kW 7. P
Air Inlet Dry Bulb l
Temperature 16.8°C 17.3°C 17.2°C o
Air Inlet Wet Bulb t
Temperature 11.0°C 12.8°C 12.1°C
Air Outlet Dry Bulb
Temperature 15.5°C 19.8°C 23.9°C
Air Outlet Wet Bulb
Temperature Tcw 14.3°C 19.3°C 23.6°C
Water Inlet
Temperature Ta 18.5°C 26.2°C 34.1°C
Water Outlet
Temperature Tb 13.8°C 17.8°C 20.2°C
Efficiency η 62.66% 63% 63.34%
Figure 9.1 the graph between load on x-axis and efficiency of y-axis.
Cooling
Tower

9.6 Observations and Calculations

9.5
Procedu
re
B
e
f
o
r
e

s
t

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 Graph:
The graph between the load and efficiency is given as:

Efficiency
63.4

63.2

63
Efficiency

62.8

62.6

62.4

62.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Load

Figure 9.1 Load vs Efficiency

9.7 Discussion
The graph between load and efficiency shows that with the increase in load the efficiency of the
cooling tower also increases. The factors involved in reducing the efficiency of the cooling towers
are improper mixing of air and water, high water inlet temperature, low time for evaporation etc.
Careful considerations can be taken to improve it.

9.8 Reference

 https://5.imimg.com/data5/VL/CF/MY-19144580/bottle-shaped-cooling-tower- 500x500.jpg
 http://www.yolyapi.com.tr/Content/Images/paket-tip-1.png
 https://spxcooling.com/images/prod/l/f400_01_A.jpg
 https://surna.com/content/uploads/2018/01/CoolingTowerDryCooler.jpg

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