z

6
D

A (x, y, z)
k
Unit iOj B
y

THREE DIMENSIONAL
GEOMETRY AND VECTORS IN
S P A CE
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:



know methods and procedures for setting up coordinate systems in space.



know basic facts about coordinates and their use in determining geometric
concepts in space.



apply facts and principles about coordinates in space to solve related
problems.



know specific facts about vectors in space.

Main Contents
6.1 COORDINATE AXES AND COORDINATE PLANES IN SPACE
6.2 COORDINATES OF A POINT IN SPACE
6.3 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN SPACE
6.4 MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT IN SPACE
6.5 EQUATION OF SPHERE
6.6 VECTORS IN SPACE
Key terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 12

INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be introduced to the coordinate system in space which is an extension
of the coordinate system on the plane that you are already familiar with. Thus, the unit
begins with a short revision of the coordinate plane and then introduces the three
dimensional coordinate system. You will learn how the three dimensional coordinates are
used to find distance between two points, the midpoint of a line segment in space and also
how they are used to derive the equation of a sphere. Finally, you will see how three
dimensional coordinates can be applied to the study of vectors in space.
Each topic in this unit is preceded by a few activities and you are expected to attempt every
activity. Attempting all the exercises at the end of each section will also help you progress
with confidence.

 O PPEEN
NIIN
NGG P
PRRO
OBBLLE
EMM
Two airplanes took off from the same airport at the same time. One was heading north
with a ground speed of 600km/hr and the second heading east with a ground speed of
700km/hr. If the flight level of the one heading north is 10km and that of heading east
is 12km,what is the direct distance between the two airplanes exactly one hour after
takeoff?

6.1 COORDINATE AXES AND COORDINATE

PLANES IN SPACE
Recall that you set up a rectangular coordinate system on a plane by using two straight lines
that are perpendicular to each other at a point O. One of the lines, called the x-axis, is made
horizontal and the second line, called the y-axis is made vertical. Then using these two axes
you associate each point P of the plane with a unique ordered pair of real numbers written
as (x, y).
y

P(x, y)

x
O
Figure 6.1

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

ACTIVITY6.1
1 Plot each of the following points on the xy-coordinate plane.
a P(2, 3) b Q( –3, 3) c R(0, –4)
 3 1 3 5
d S(–2, –3) e T− ,  f U ,− 
 4 2 2 2
2 By naming the vertical axis on the plane z, and the horizontal axis y, plot the
following points.
a A(2, 4) b B(–2, 3) c C(–3, –4)
This association of the points of the plane and ordered pairs of real numbers is a one- to-
one correspondence.
The rectangular coordinate system is extended to three dimensional spaces as follows.
Consider a fixed point O in space and three lines that are mutually perpendicular at the
point O. The point O is called the origin; the three lines are now called the x-axis, the
y-axis and the z-axis. It is common to have the x and the y-axes on a horizontal plane
and the z-axis vertical or perpendicular to the plane containing the x and the y-axes at
the point O as shown in Figure 6.2a below. The directions of the axes are based on the
right hand rule shown in Figure 6.2b below.
z

x
a b
Figure 6.2
The plane determined by the x and the y-axes is called the xy-plane, the plane determined
by the x and the z-axes is called the xz-plane and the plane determined by the y and the z-
axes is called the yz-plane. These three coordinate planes, which intersect at the origin,
may be visualized as the floor of a room and two adjacent walls of that room, where the
floor represents the xy-plane, the two walls corresponding to xz and yz-planes that
intersect on the z-axis and the corner of the room corresponding to the origin.
Commonly, the positive direction of the x-axis is coming out of the page towards the
reader; the positive y direction is to the right and the positive z direction is upwards.
(Opposite directions to these are negative).

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Mathematics Grade 12

Notice that the coordinate planes partition the space into eight parts known as octants.
Octant 1 is the part of the space whose bounding edges are the three positive axes,
namely, the positive x-axis, the positive y-axis and the positive z-axis. Then octants 2, 3
and 4 are those which lie above the xy-plane in the counter clockwise order about the
z-axis. Octants 5, 6, 7 and 8 are those which lie below the xy-plane, where octant 5 is just
below octant 1 and the rest being in the counter clockwise order about the z-axis again.

6.2 COORDINATES OF A POINT IN SPACE

As indicated at the beginning of this unit, a point P on a plane is associated with a
unique ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) using two perpendicular lines known as the
x-axis and the y-axis. You also remember that x represents the directed distance of P
from the y-axis and y represents the directed distance of P from the x-axis. For example,
if the coordinates of P are ( − 3, 2), it means that P is 3 units to the left of the y-axis and
2 units above the x-axis. Similarly, a point Q(4, − 5) is found 4 units to the right of the
y-axis and 5 units below the x-axis.

ACTIVITY6.2
Plot each of the following points using the three axes introduced above.
a A(3,4,0) b B(0,3,4) c C(3,0,4)
Now a point P in space is located by specifying its directed distances from the three
coordinate planes. Its directed distance from the yz-plane measured along or parallel to
the x-axis is its x-coordinate. Its directed distance from the xz-plane measured along or
in the direction of the y-axis is its y-coordinate and its directed distance measured along
or in the direction of the z-axis from the xy-plane is its z-coordinate.
The coordinates of P are therefore written as an ordered triple (x, y, z) as shown in
Figure 6.3 below.
z

P(x, y, z)

y
O
x
y
x
Figure 6.3

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Example 1Locate the point A(2, 4, 3) in space using the reference axes x, y and z.
z z
5
5
4
4
C F 3
3
2
2
A (2,4, 3) B (3, -3, 3) 1
1
3 y y
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 1
2 2
3 4
4
D 3
4
x x
Figure 6.4 (Example 1) Figure 6.5 (Example 2)
Example 2 Locate the point B(3, −3, 3) in space using the reference axes x, y and z.
The process of locating the point B may be described as follows: Start from the
origin O and move 3 units in the direction of the positive x-axis. Then move 3 units
in the direction of the negative y-axis and finally move 3 units up in the direction of
the positive z-axis to get point B.
On the same coordinate system of Example 2 above, notice that the coordinates of
point C are (0, -3, 3), the coordinates of point D are (3, −3, 0), coordinates of point F
are (0, 0, 3) and the coordinates of point O (or the origin) are (0, 0, 0).
Locating a given point in space as observed from the different examples above can be
considered as corresponding or matching a given ordered triple of real numbers (x, y, z)
with some point P in space.(See Problems 3, 4 and 5 of Exercise 6.1.)
Using this fact, it is possible to describe some geometric figures in space by means of
equations. For example, the x-axis is the set of all points in space whose y and z
coordinates are zero. Thus we express it as follows:
x-axis = {(x, y, z): x, y, z R and y = z = 0}

Exercise 6.1
1 Locate each of the following points in space using reference axes x, y and z. You
may use the same or different coordinate systems in each case.
a P (3, 2, 3) b Q (–2, 4, 3) c R (3, – 3, 4)
1
d T(–2, –3,3) e M(0,0, –4) f N(2.5, − ,–3)
2
g Q(0,–3,0)
2 Give the equations of
a the y-axis b the z-axis c the xy-plane
d the xz-plane e the yz-plane

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3 Given any point P in space, draw a coordinate system and

drop a perpendicular line to the xy-plane.

mark the intersection point of the perpendicular line and the xy-plane by Q.

measure the distance from P to Q with a ruler and mark the same value on
the z- axis. Call it z.

drop perpendicular lines to each of the x-and the y-axes from point Q and
mark the intersection points on the axes, say x and y.

the triple (x, y, z) you found in the above steps uniquely corresponds to the
point. Verify! Thus (x, y, z) are the coordinate of P in space.
4 Given any ordered triple (a, b, c):

draw a coordinate space and label each axis.

mark a on the x-axis, b on the y-axis and c on the z-axis.

From a, draw a line parallel to the y-axis and, from b, draw a line parallel to
the x-axis; find the intersection of the two lines: mark it as point R.

From point R, draw a line parallel to the z-axis, and from c, draw a line
perpendicular to the z-axis that intersects the line from R. Mark the
intersection of these two lines by point P.

The point P in space corresponds to the ordered triple (a, b, c). Verify that
there is no other point in space describing the ordered triple (a, b, c). Thus,
(a, b, c) are the coordinates of P.
5 Can you conclude from the above two problems, Problems3 and 4, that there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the set of points in space and the set of
ordered triples of real numbers? Why? You may need to use the basic facts in
solid geometry about parallel and perpendicular lines and planes in space.

6.3 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN

SPACE

 O PPEEN
NIIN
NGG P
PRRO
OBBLLE
EMM
Assume that your classroom is a rectangular box where the floor is 8 metres long and 6
metres wide. If the distance from the floor to the ceiling (height of the room) is 3
metres, find the diagonal distance between a corner of the room on the floor and the
opposite corner on the ceiling.
After completing this section, you will see that solving this problem is a matter of
finding distance between two points in space using their coordinates.

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

ACTIVITY6.3
1 On the coordinate plane, consider points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2 ,y2) to
be any two distinct points. Then find the distance between P and
Q or the length of the line segment PQ by using the Pythagoras
theorem.
y

y2 Q (x2, y2)

y1 R (x2, y1)
P (x1, y1)
x
x1 x2

Figure 6.6

2 Find the distance between the following pairs of points.

a A(3,4,0) and B(1,5,0) b C(0,3,4) and D(0,1,2)
c E(4,0,5) and F(1,0,1)
The same principle which you use in two dimensions can be used to find the distance
between two points in space whose coordinates are given.

First, let us consider the distance of a point P ( x, y, z ) from the origin O of the
coordinate system.
From the point P( x, y , z ) , let us drop perpendicular line segments to the three planes
and let us complete the rectangular box whose edges are x, y and z units long as shown
in Figure 6.7. Let its vertices be named O, A,B,C, D, P, Q and R.
Then, to find the distance from O to point P, consider the right angled triangles OAB
and OBP.
Here notice that PB is perpendicular to the xy-plane at B, and hence it is perpendicular
to OB at B.

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Mathematics Grade 12

R Q

D P (x, y, z)
z
O y
C
x

A y B

x
Figure 6.7
Now as OP is the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle OBP, you know by
2 2 2
Pythagoras theorem that ( OP ) = ( OB ) + ( PB )
Once again, as OB is the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle OAB, you have
2 2 2
( OB ) = ( OA ) + ( AB ) .
2
Then substituting ( OB ) by (OA)2 + (AB)2 in (OP)2 = (OB)2 + (PB)2, you obtain
2 2 2
(OP) 2 = (OA) 2 + (AB) 2 + (PB) 2 = x + y + z
or OP = x2 + y2 + z2

Note:
Observe that O P is a diagonal of the rectangular box and x, y and z, in absolute value,
are the lengths of its three concurrent edges. Therefore, the distance from O to P is
now the length of the diagonal of the rectangular box which is the square root of the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the three edges of the box.
Example 1 Find the distance from the origin to the point P(3, 4, 5).
Solution The distance from the origin to the point P is the length of the line
segment OP , which is

OP = x2 + y 2 + z2 = 32 + 42 + 52 = 5 2 units
Example 2 Find the distance from the origin to the point Q ( −2, 0, 3)
2
Solution OQ = ( −2 ) + 0 2 + 32 = 13 units
Now, let P ( x1, y1, z1 ) and Q (x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be any two points in space. To find the distance
between these two given points, you may consider a rectangular box in the coordinate
space so that the given points P and Q are its opposite vertices or PQ is its diagonal as
shown in Figure 6.8.

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Q (x2, y2, z2) y

O

|z2 − z1|

|x2 − x1|
P (x1, y1, z1)
|y2 − y1|

Figure 6.8
Then we see that the lengths of the three concurrent edges of the box are given by
x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 and z2 − z1 .

Thus, the distance from P to Q or the length of the diagonal PQ of the box, is given by
2 2 2
PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 )

Example3 Find the distance between the points P (1, −2,3) and Q ( −4,0,5)
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z2 − z1 ) = ( −4 − 1) + ( 0 − ( −2 ) ) + ( 5 − 3)
= 25 + 4 + 4 = 33 units

Exercise 6.2
1 Find the distance between the given points in space.
a A(0,1,0) and B(2,0,3) b C(2,1,3) and D(4,6,10)
c E(–1,–3,6) and F(4,0,–2) d G(7,0,0) and H(0,–4,2)
 1 1
e L  −1, − , −  and M(–4,0,–1) f N(7,11,12) and P(–6,–2,0)
 2 4
g Q ( )
2, − 2,1 and R(0,0,–11)

2 Can you now solve the opening problem? Please try it.

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6.4 MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT IN SPACE

ACTIVITY6.4
On the coordinate plane, if P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are the endpoints of
a line segment PQ ,you know that its midpoint M has coordinates
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 
 2 , 2 .
 
Q (x2, y2)
y

P (x1, y1)
x
0

Figure 6.9
1 Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the line segments with given end points
on a plane.
a A(2,4) and B(0,2) b C(–1,3) and D(3,–1)
1 3 3 3
c E  , −  and F  , 
4 4 4 4
2 Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the line segments with given end points
in space.
a A(2,4,0) and B(0,2,0) b C (–1,3,0) and D(3,–1,0)
1 3  3 3 
c E  , − , 0  and F  , , 0 
4 4  4 4 
The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment in space are also obtained in the same
way. That is, the coordinates of the midpoint are obtained by taking the averages of the
respective coordinates of the endpoints of the given line segment. Thus, if P(x1, y1, z1)
and Q(x2, y2, z2) are the end points of a line segment in space, the coordinates of its
 x + x2 y1 + y 2 z1 + z2 
midpoint M will be  1 , , See Figure 6.10.
 2 2 2 

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

z
• Q (x2, y2, z2)

•M

x •
P (x1, y1, z1)

Figure 6.10

Example 1 Find the midpoint of the line segment with endpoints A(0, 0, 0) and
B(4, 6, 2).
Solution The midpoint of AB will be at the point M whose coordinates are
 0+4 0+6 0+ 2
 , ,  = ( 2,3,1) .
 2 2 2 
That is, M(2, 3, 1) is the midpoint of AB .
Example 2 Find the midpoint of the line segment whose endpoints are P(–1, 3, –3)
and Q(1, 5, 7).
Solution The midpoint of PQ is at the point M whose coordinates are
 −1 + 1 3 + 5 −3 + 7 
 , ,  = ( 0, 4, 2 ) .
 2 2 2 
So, the point M(0, 4, 2) is the midpoint of PQ .

Exercise 6.3
1 Find the midpoint of the line segment whose endpoints are:
a A (1, 3, 5) and B (3, 1, 1) b P (0, –2, 2) and Q (–4, 2, 4)
1  3 
c C  , 3, 0  and D  , − 1, 1 d R (0, 9, 0) and S (0, 0, 8)
 2   4 
e T (–2, –3, –5) and U (–1, –1, –7) f G (6, 0, 0) and H (0, –4, –2)
1 1   1 1
g M  , , −1 and K  − , 0, 
2 3   2 4
2 If the midpoint of a line segment is at M (2, 5, –3) and one of its endpoints is at
R (–3, 2, 4), find the coordinates of the other endpoint.

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6.5 EQUATION OF SPHERE

ACTIVITY6.5
When the centre of a circle is at (h, k) and its radius is r, the equation
of the circle is given by (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
Here notice that C(h , k) is the centre and P(x, y) is any point on the circle and r is the
radius of the circle or the distance of P(x, y) from the centre C(h, k).
Now using similar notions:
1 Define a sphere whose radius is r and whose centre is at (a, b, c).
2 a Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is at the origin, and has radius
r = 2.
b If a point P(x, y, z) is on the surface of this sphere, what is the distance of P
from the centre of the sphere?
3 If the centre of a sphere is at the origin and r is its radius, what is the distance of a
point P(3,4,0) on the surface of the sphere from the origin?
Now, let us consider a sphere whose centre is at the origin of a coordinate system and
whose radius is r. Then, if P(x, y, z) is any point on the surface of the sphere, the length
of OP is the radius of that sphere. In the discussion above, you have seen that the
length of OP is given by x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . Therefore, every point P(x, y, z) on the sphere
satisfies the equation r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
That means, if the centre of a sphere is at the origin of the coordinate space and r is its
radius, the equation of such a sphere is given by x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2
z

r P(x, y, z)
O y

x
Figure 6.11
Example 1 Write the equation of the sphere whose centre is at the origin and whose
radius is 3 units.

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Solution If P(x, y, z) is any point on the sphere, its distance from the origin (the
centre) is given by d = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . Substituting d by 3, we get the
equation of the sphere to be x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 3 , which is equivalent to
x2 + y2 + z 2 = 9 .
Therefore, the equation of the sphere will be x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 .
Now let us consider a sphere whose centre is not at the origin but at any other point
C(a, b, c) in space. If P(x, y, z) is any point on the surface of the sphere, then the radius
of the sphere will be the length of CP .
2 2 2
That means, in this case r = (x − a) + ( y − b) + ( z − c)
Therefore, the equation of the sphere in this case is
2 2 2
( x − a ) + ( y − b) + ( z − c) = r2
z

P(x, y, z)
r

C (a, b, c)
O y

x
Figure 6.12
Example 2 Write the equation of the sphere with centre at C(1, 2, 3) and radius 4
units.
Solution If P(x, y, z) is any point on the surface of the sphere, then the distance
from the centre C to the point P is given to be the radius of the sphere.
2 2 2
That means r = ( x − 1) + ( y − 2 ) + ( z − 3)
Substituting r by 4 and squaring both sides, you get the equation of the sphere to be:
2 2 2
( x − 1) + ( y − 2 ) + ( z − 3 ) = 16 .
Observe that when the centre is at the origin (0, 0, 0) the equation
2 2 2
( x − a ) + ( y − b) + ( z − c) = r 2 reduces to the form x2 + y2 + z2 = r 2 .
(Substituting (a, b, c) by (0, 0, 0)).

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2 2 2
That means the equation of a sphere given by ( x − a ) + ( y − b) + ( z − c) = r 2 ,
where r is the radius and C(a, b, c) is the centre can be applied to a sphere whose
centre is at any point C(a, b, c) including the origin.
Example 3 Given the equation of a sphere to be x2 + y2 + z2 = 9, what can you say
about the points:
a P(1, 2, 2,)? b Q(0, 1, 2,)? c R(1, 3, 2)?
Solution Clearly the centre of the sphere is at the origin O(0, 0, 0) and its radius is 3.
a Because the distance of P from the centre is 3, P is on the surface of the
sphere.
b Because the distance of Q from the centre is 5 , which is less than 3, Q is
inside the sphere.
c Because the distance of R from the centre is 14 > 3,, R is outside the sphere.
In general, if O is the centre of a sphere and r is its radius,then for any
point P taken in space, we have one of the following three possibilities.
i OP = r, in which case P is on the surface of the sphere;
ii OP < r, in which case P is inside the sphere; and
iii OP > r, in which case P is outside the sphere.
Exercise 6.4
6.4
1 Write the equation of a sphere of radius 4 cm whose centre is at O(3, 0, 5).
2 Given the equation of a sphere to be x2 + y2 + z2 − 6x − 4y − 10z = −22, find the
centre and radius of the sphere.
3 If A(0, 0, 0) and B(4, 6, 0) are end points of a diameter of a sphere, write its equation.
4 How far is the point P(3, −1, 2) from the sphere whose equation is
(x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z2 = 1?
5 If the centre of a sphere is at the origin and its radius is 10 units, determine which
of the following points lie inside or outside or on the sphere.
A(2, 1, 2) B(–3, 2, 4) C(5, 8, 6) D(0, 8, 6) E(–8, –6, 0)
6 Decide whether or not each of the following points is inside, outside or on the
sphere whose equation is
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x − y + z = 0.
1
a O(0, 0, 0) b P(−1, 0, 1) c Q(0, , 0)
2
7 a State the coordinates of any point in space which is on the z axis.
b Find the coordinates of two points on the x-axis which are 12 units from
the point P(–1, –1, 2).

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

6.6 VECTORS IN SPACE

Recall that a vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. In physics,
velocity and force are examples of vector quantities. On the other hand, a quantity that has
magnitude only but no direction is called a scalar quantity. For example, mass and speed are
examples of scalar quantities.

ACTIVITY6.6
1 How do you represent a vector on a plane?
2 How do you represent the magnitude of a vector?
3 How do you show the direction of a vector?
4 How do you express the vector in Figure 6.13 below using the standard unit
vectors i and j?
y

P (x, y)

j
x
o i
Figure 6.13







Recall also that the vector OP can be named using a single letter. That is, OP may be

named a , or simply by a so that a = a = x i + y j


Operations on vectors can be performed using their components or the coordinates of

their terminal points when their initial points, are at the origin of the coordinate system.

Example 1 If a = 2 i + 4 j and b = 5 i + 3 j , then find

   
i a+b ii a–b
Solution
 
i a + b = ( 2i + 4j) + ( 5i + 3j) = ( 2 + 5) i + ( 4 + 3) j = 7i + 7 j
 
ii a – b = ( 2i + 4j) − ( 5i + 3j) = ( 2 − 5) i + ( 4 − 3) j = − 3i +j
 
Notice that the terminal points of the vectors a and b are at (2, 4) and (5, 3) respectively,
 
while the terminal point of the vector a + b is at (7, 7) which can be obtained by adding the
 
corresponding coordinates of the terminal points of the two vectors a and b . You may also
look at Figure6.14 below.

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Mathematics Grade 12

(7 , 7)
7
6
5
(2, 4)
4  
3
 a+b
2
a (5 , 3)

1 b
x
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 6.14

In your previous studies, you have also learned about the scalar or dot product of two
 
vectors. That is, if θ is the angle between the two vectors a and b , the dot or scalar
   
product of a and b denoted by a · b is defined as:
     
( a ) ⋅ b = a b cosθ, where a and b are the magnitudes of the two vectors a and b


( )
respectively.

Example 2 Compute the scalar product of the vectors a = 3i + 3 j and b = 4i +0j.


Solution By picturing a diagram, the angle between the two vectors is 45 o.

2 2

Then, a = 3 + 3 = 3 2 and b = 42 + 0 2 = 4


Thus a · b = a ⋅ b cosθ = 3 2 ( 4 ) cos 45o = 12.

   

Or
 
a × b = (3 i +3 j)⋅(4 i +0 j) = (3 × 4)i⋅i + (3 × 0)i⋅j + (3 × 4) j⋅i + (3 × 0) j⋅j
= 12 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 12.

The notion of vectors in space

Just as you worked with vectors on a plane by using the coordinates of their terminal
points, you can handle vectors in a three dimensional space with the help of the
coordinates of the terminal points.
Now, let the initial point of a vector in space be the origin O of the coordinate system




and let its terminal point be at A (x, y, z). Then the vector OA can be expressed as the
sum of its three components in the directions of the x, the y and the z-axis, in the form:

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space


OA = xi + yj + zk where i = (1,0,0) , j = ( 0,1,0) and k = ( 0,0,1) are standard unit
vectors in the directions of the positive x, positive y and positive z-axis, respectively.
Look at Figure 6.15 below.
z

A (x, y, z)
k
iOj y
B

x
Figure 6.15




Do you observe that the vector OA is the sum of the three perpendicular vectors










OC , OB and OD ?
Example 3 If the initial point of a vector in space is at the origin and its terminal point or
head is at P(3, 5, 4), show the vector using a coordinate system and identify
its three perpendicular components in the directions of the three axes.
Solution The three components are the vectors with common initial point O(0, 0, 0)
and terminal points A(3, 0, 0) on the x-axis, B(0, 5, 0) on the y-axis and
C(0, 0, 4) on the z-axis as shown in Figure 6.16.
z
5

4 C
3
P (3, 5, 4)
2

1
B y
O
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2
3
4 A
5
6

x
Figure 6.16













That means, OP = OA + OB + OC or in terms of the unit vectors,
( 3, 5, 4) = 3i + 5j + 4k = ( 3, 0, 0) + ( 0, 5, 0) + ( 0, 0, 4)

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Mathematics Grade 12

Addition and subtraction of vectors

Just as with vectors on the xy-plane, vectors in space can be added using the
coordinates of their terminal points when their initial points are at the origin. That is,
 
if a and b are vectors in space with their initial points at the origin and their terminal
 
points at (x1, y1, z1 ) and (x2, y2, z2 ), respectively, then a + b is the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point at (x1+x2 ,y1 +y2, z1+z2).

Here, it is advantageous to note that a vector v with initial point at the origin and




terminal point at point P(x, y, z) in space is shortly expressed as v = OP = ( x, y, z ) .

Thus v = ( 3, 2, − 4 ) is the vector in space with initial point at the origin and terminal
point at (3, 2, −4).
  
Example 4 If a = (1, 3, 2 ) and b = ( 3, −1, 4 ) , find the sum vector a + b .


Solution As explained above, the sum of the two vectors is obtained by adding the
corresponding coordinates of the terminal points of the two vectors.
   
That is a + b = (1, 3, 2) + (3, –1, 4) = (4, 2, 6) which means that a + b is the vector
whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal point is at (4,2,6).
Subtraction of a vector from a vector is also done in a similar way. So if we are
   
given two vectors a =(x1, y1, z1) and b =(x2, y2, z2) then a - b is the vector
c = ( x1 − x 2 , y1 − y 2 , z1 − z 2 ) .

    
Example 5 If a = (5, 2, 3) and b = (3,1, 4) then find a - b and b - a


Solution
 
i a - b = (5, 2, 3) – (3, 1, 4) = (5–3, 2–1, 3−4) = (2, 1, –1)
 
That means a - b is the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal
point at (2, 1, –1)in space.
 
ii b - a = (3, 1, 4) – (5, 2, 3) = (3–5, 1–2, 4−3) = (–2, –1, 1).
   
Do you see that a - b ≠ b - a ?

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar


If a = (x, y, z) then observe that
  
2 a = a + a = (x, y, z) + (x, y, z) = (x + x, y + y, z + z) = (2x, 2y, 2z).

Thus, it will be reasonable to accept the following: If a = (x, y, z) is any vector and k is
any scalar (a number), then

k a = (kx, ky, kz) which is a vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point at
(kx, ky, kz).

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Example 6 If a = (4, 2, 3), then



a b
 
3 a = (12, 6, 9) − a = (−4, −2, −3)
1  3
c d

−2 a = (−8, –4, –6) a = (2, 1, )
2 2

Properties of addition of vectors

Since vector addition is done using the coordinates of the terminal points of the addend
vectors, which are real numbers, you can easily verify the following properties of vector
addition.
i Vector addition is commutative
 
For any two vectors a = (x1, y1, z1) and b = (x2, y2, z2) in space,
   
a + b = b + a . To see this, let us look at the following.
 
a + b = (x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2, z2) = (x1+x2, y1+y2, z1+z2)= (x2+x1, y2+y1,z2+z1) Why?
 
= (x2,y2,z2)+(x1,y1,z1)= b + a
ii Vector addition is associative
        
For any three vectors a , b and c in space, a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b )+ c
   
iii
 
For two vectors a and b and any scalar k, you have k ( a + b ) =k a + k b .

Magnitude of a vector
At the beginning of the discussion about vectors in space, it was mentioned that a vector
is usually represented by an arrow, where the arrow head indicates the direction and the
length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector. Thus, to find the magnitude
of a vector, it will be sufficient to find the distance between the initial point and the
terminal point of the vector in the coordinate space.
For example, if the initial point of a vector is at the origin of the coordinate space and




the terminal point is at P(3, 2, 4) then the magnitude of the vector OP is the distance
2 2 2
from O to P. This is, as you know, 3 + 2 + 4 = 29
Thus, in general, if the initial point of a vector v is at the origin and its terminal point is

 
at a point Q(x, y, z) or if v = xi + yj + zk , then magnitude of the vector v , denoted by

| v | is given by x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . That is,

| v | = x2 + y2 + z2

If the initial point of v is at P(x1, y1, z1) and the terminal point at Q(x2, y2, z2),then
 2 2 2
| v | = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 ) .

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Scalar or dot product of vectors in space

When you were studying vectors on a plane, you saw that the dot product (scalar
 
product) of two vectors a and b was defined by:
   
a · b = | a | | b | cosθ where θ is the angle between the two vectors. In particular, for the
   
unit vectors i and j , you know that | i | = | j | =1 and from the definition of the dot
    
product, you easily see that i . i = j.j =1and i.j =0=j.i. So, if a = ( x1 , y1 ) ,and, b = ( x2 , y2 )

 
the dot product a ⋅ b = x1.x2+y1.y2 can be verified very easily.
The dot (scalar) product of two vectors in space is just an extension of the dot product

of vectors on a plane. That means if a and b are now two vectors in space, the dot

  
(scalar) product of a and b denoted by a · b is defined as:

     
a · b = | a | . | b | cosθ whereθ is once again the angle between the two vectors a and b .
 
Observe that a · b is a real number and in particular if

a = ( x1, y1, z1 ) = x1i + y1 j + z1k and b = ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) = x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k , you see that,


the distributive property of multiplication over addition enables you to find:

 
a · b = ( x1i + y1 j + z1k ).( x2 i + y2 j + z 2 k ) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z 2 .
 

Here it is important to note that for the unit vectors i , j and k ,
   
    
 
i. i = j.j = k.k = 1 while i. j = i .k = k.j = 0 the reason being that the magnitude of a
unit vector is one, cos 90 o = 0 and cos 0o = 1.

Example 7 If a = (2, 3, –1) and b = (–1, 0, 2), then find the scalar (dot) product of

 
a and b .
 
Solution a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z 2 = 2 (–1) + 3 (0) + (–1) (2) = –4

Example 8 If a = (2, 0, 2) and b = (0, 3, 0) find their dot product.

 
Solution a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z 2 = 2 (0) + 0 (3) + 2 (0) = 0
Observe that (2, 0, 2) and (0, 3, 0) are perpendicular vectors i.e. the angle between
them is 90o.

Exercise 6.5
1 Calculate the magnitude of each of the following vectors.
1 3 4
a (–1, 3, 0) b (3, 1, –1) c  , , 
2 2 5
2 Find the scalar (dot) product of each of the following pairs of vectors.
a (2, –3, 1) and (1, 0, 4) b (–5,0,1) and (1,–3,–2)
c (–2, 2, 0) and (0, 0,–1) d (0,0,3) and (0,0,3)

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Angle between two vectors in space

 
For two vectors a and b with initial point at the origin, their dot product is defined by
   
a · b = | a | | b | cosθ where θ is the angle between the two vectors, assuming that both
vectors have the same initial point at the origin. Then solving for cosθ, you can rewrite
the above equation in the form:
 
a. b
cos θ =  
| a || b |

Hence the angleθ between the two vectors can be obtained using this last formula,
provided the vectors are non-zero.

Example 9 Find the angle between the vectors a = (2, 0, 0) and b = (0, 0, 3).


 
a. b
Solution cos θ =  
| a || b |
 
But, a ⋅ b =2(0) +(0)(0) +0(3) = 0

| a | = 22 + 02 + 02 = 2 and | b |= 02 + 02 + 32 = 3


0
Therefore cos θ = = 0 ⇒ θ = 90o
2 ( 3)

Notice that, the vector (2, 0, 0) is along the x-axis while the vector (0, 0, 3) is
along the z-axis and the two axes are perpendicular to each other.
 
Example10 Find the angle between the vectors a = (1,0,1) and b = (1,1,0) .
 
a. b
Solution cos θ =  
| a || b |
 
But, a ⋅ b = 1(1) + 0(1) + 1(0) = 1

| a | = 12 + 02 + 12 = 2 and | b |= 12 + 12 + 02 = 2


1 1
Therefore cos θ = = ⇒ θ = 60o
2. 2 2
 
Notice that the vector a is on the xz-plane and b is on the xy-plane, each forming a
45oangle with the x-axis.

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Mathematics Grade 12

Exercise 6.6
6.6
  
1

If the vectors a, b , v and u are as given below:
    1
a = (1, 3, 2), b = (0,–3,4), v = (–4, 3, –2), u = ( , 0, –3), then find each of the
2
following vectors.
       
a a+b b b+a c a -b d b −a
         
e a+b+v f b+v -u g a+b+v+u
  
2

If the vectors a , b , v and u are as given in Question 1 above, then find
    1
a 3a b c d

−4b 2a + 3b

3b − a + 2v
2
 
3 Verify that vector addition is associative. That is, for any three vectors a , b and
      
c in space, show that ( a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c )

4 For any two vectors a and b in space and any scalar k, show that

  
k (a + b ) = ka + kb


5 Write each of the following vectors as a sum of its components using the standard
unit vectors i, j and k.
a (–4, 3. –2) b (1, –3, 2 )
c (3, 5, –7) d (0, 0, 3)
6 Show each of the following vectors in the coordinate space using an arrow that
starts from the origin.

a b c
 
a = (3, 3, 3) b = (–3, 3, 4) c = (2,–3, –3)
7 Calculate the magnitude of each vector in Question 6 above.
8 Find the scalar (dot) product of each of the following pairs of vectors.
a (1, 0, 1) and (2, 2, 0) b (–2, 5, 1) and (1 , –1, –2)
1 1 1 3 3 1
c ( , , ) and − , − , − d (1, 0, 1) and (–1, 1, 0)
2 2 2 2 2 2
e (5, 0, 0) and (0, –5, 0) f (2, 2, 2) and (–1, –1, –1)
9 Find the angle between each of the following pairs of vectors.
a (2,0,1) and (0,–1,0) b (1,1,1) and (1,0,1)
c (–1,1,1) and (2,2,2)

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

Key Terms
angle between two vectors mutually perpendicular lines
concurrent edges of a rectangular box octants
coordinate planes ordered triples of real numbers
coordinate system reference axes
diagonal of a rectangular box unit vectors
dot product of vectors vector in space
magnitude of a vector

Summary
1 Three mutually perpendicular lines in space divide the space into eight octants.
2 If (x, y, z) are the coordinates of a point P in space, then
 x is the directed distance of the point from the yz-plane,
 y is the directed distance of the point from the xz-plane,
 z is the directed distance of the point from the xy-plane.
3 There is a one to one correspondence between the set of all points of the space and
the set of all ordered triples of real numbers.
4 The distance between two points P(x, y, z) and Q (a, b, c) in space is given by
2 2 2
d= ( x − a) + ( y − b ) + ( z − c ) . Thus the distance of a point

P (x, y, z) from the origin is x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

5 The midpoint of a line segment with end points A(x, y, z) and B(a, b, c) in space
 x+a y+b z +c 
is the point M  , ,
 2 2 2 
6 The equation of a sphere with centre at C(x1, y1, z1) and radius r is given by
2 2 2
( x − x1 ) + ( y − y1 ) + ( z − z1 ) = r2
In particular, if the centre is at the origin and r is the radius, the equation becomes
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2, where (x, y, z) are coordinates of any point P on the surface of
the sphere.
7 In space, if the initial point of a vector is at the origin O of the coordinate system
and its terminal point is at a point A(x, y, z), then it can be expressed as the sum of
its three components in the directions of the three axes as:




OA = xi + yj + zk where i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are the
standard unit vectors in the directions of the positive x, positive y and positive
z-axes respectively.

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Mathematics Grade 12

8

In space if vectors a and b have their initial point at the origin and their terminal
 
points at A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) respectively, then their sum a + b is a vector
whose initial point is at the origin and terminal point is at C(x1+ x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2).
 
Similarly, the difference a − b is the vector whose initial point is at the origin
and terminal point is at D(x1 – x2, y1 – y2, z1 – z2).
9

If the initial point of a vector a is at the origin and the terminal point is at P(x, y, z),
then for any constant number k, the product ka is a vector whose initial point is at


the origin and terminal point is at Q(kx, ky, kz).

10 Vector addition is commutative and also associative.
11 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar is distributive over vector addition. That is
    
for vectors a and b and a scalar k, k (a + b) = ka + kb .


12 The magnitude of a vector a with initial point at the origin and terminal point at
P(x, y, z) is given by:
a = x2 + y 2 + z 2
   
13 The dot (scalar) product of two vectors a and b is given by a.b =| a | . | b | .cos θ ,


where θ is the angle between the two vectors a and b .


 a.b
14 If θ is the angle between two vectors a and b , then cos θ =   .

| a | .| b |

Review Exercises on Unit 6

1 Locate the position of each of the following points and find the distance of each
point from the origin.
a O(0,0, –3) b P(0, –1, 2) c Q(3,–1,4)
d R(–1,–2,–3) e S(–3, –2, 3) f T(–3, –3, –4)
3 5
g U(4, 3, –2) h V (0, − , )
2 2
2 Find the distance of the point P (4, –3, 5) from the
a origin b xy-plane c xz-plane d yz-plane
e x-axis f y-axis g z-axis
3 For each of the following pairs of points, find the distance from A to B and also
find the midpoint of AB .
a A (–1,2,3) and B (0,–1,1) b A (3,–1,1) and B (–1, 0,1)
c A (2,0,–3) and B (2,–1,3) d A (0,0,–4) and B (4,0,0)

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 Unit 6 Three Dimensional Geometry and Vectors in Space

1 1 1
e A (–2, –1, –3) and B (2, 2, 1) f A( , − ) and B (10, 0, 11)
2 2 2
1
g A ( 2 , 5, 0) and B (0, , 3) h A (0, 0, –2) and B (0, 0, 5)
2
4 Find the midpoint of the line segment whose end points are:
a A (0, 0, 0) and B (4, 4, 4) b C (–2, –2, –2) and D (2, 2, 2)
c P (6, 0, 0) and Q (0, 4, 0) d R( 2 2 ,–4, 0) and S( −2 2 , 0, –5)
5 Show that A (0,4,4),B (2,6,5) and C (1,4,3) are vertices of an isosceles triangle.
6 Determine the nature of ∆ABC using distances, if the vertices are at:
a A (2,–1,7), B (3,1,4) and C (5, 4,5)
b A (0,0,3), B (2,8,1) and C (–9,6,18)
c A (1,0,–3), B(2,2,0) and C (4,6,6)
d A (5, 6, –2), B (6, 12, 9) and C(2, 4, 2)
7 Make a three dimensional sketch showing each of the following vectors with
initial point at the origin.

a = 2i + j + 3k , b b = −3i + 4 j − k ,

a

c c = −3i + 5 j + 5k , d d = 4 j − 7k .


8 Using the vectors in Question 7 above, calculate each of the following.

       
a c b+c+d d 2a − 3b + c
 
a+b b 2a − c
9 Calculate the magnitude of each of the vectors in Question 7 above.
10 A sphere has centre at C(–1, 2, 4) and diameter AB, where A is at (–2, 1, 3). Find
the coordinates of B, the radius and the equation of the sphere.
11 Decide whether or not each of the following is an equation of a sphere. If it is an
equation of a sphere, determine its centre and radius.
a x2 + y2 + z2 − 2y = 4 b x2 + y2 + z2 − x + 2y − 3z + 4 = 0
c x2 + y2 + z2 − 2x + 4y − 6z + 13 = 0
12 Calculate the scalar (dot) product of each of the following pairs of vectors.
 
a b
 
a = (3,2,–4) and b = (3,–2,7) c = (–1, 6, 5) and d = (10,3,1)
  
c p = (2, 5, 6) and q = (6, 6, –7) d

a = (7, 8, 9) and b = (5, –9, 5)
13 For each pair of vectors given in Question 12 above, find the cosine of θ, where θ
is the angle between the vectors.

295