Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

At the end of this lecture you will have: What are composites materials?

An understanding of what are composite materials

What the various types of composite materials

Why they are used

How they are designed

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Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

What are composites materials? What are the various types of composites materials?

Many materials are composites made up of at least two constituents

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 Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

What are the various types of composites materials? What are the various types of composites materials?

Typically made of a matrix and 1 or more reinforcements

Matrices

They have different compositions, shapes and physical/chemical

properties Carbon and
Polymer Metal Ceramic
Graphite

Thermosets Alloys
Glass
(Epoxy, Polyester) (Steels, Aluminiums)

Ceramics
Thermoplastics
(Semi conductors,
(Polystyrene, Nylons)
Cermets)

Cements

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Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

What are the various types of composites materials? What are the various types of composites materials?
Reinforcements
The type, distribution, size, shape, orientation, and arrangement
Fibres Whiskers Laminar Flakes Filled Particulates Microspheres
of the reinforcement will determine the properties of the
Short Single crystals
composites material and its anisotropy

Long

Plies

Threads

Organic

Inorganic

The arrangement of the reinforcement (distribution, size, shape, and

orientation matters)
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 Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

What are the various types of composites materials? Why are composites materials used?

Classification of composites:
• Matrices:
Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs)
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
carbon‐carbon composites
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
• Reinforcements:
Fibres reinforced composites
Laminar composites
Particulate composites

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Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

Why are composites materials used? Why are composites materials used?

Advantages Disadvantages
• Lower density (20 to 40%) • Not often environmentally friendly.
• Higher directional mechanical properties (specific tensile • Low recyclability.
strength (ratio of material strength to density) 4 times • Cost can fluctuate.
greater than that of steel and aluminium. • Can be damaged.
• Higher Fatigue endurance . • Anisotropic properties.
• Higher toughness than ceramics and glasses. • Matrix degrades.
• Versatility and tailoring by design. • Low reusability.
• Easy to machine.
• Can combine other properties (damping, corrosion).
• Cost.

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 Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

Why are composites materials used? Why are composites materials used?

Interesting mix of properties in which density is always a plus High versatility of shape and properties by design

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Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

How are composites materials designed? How are composites materials designed?

By comparing, and trying to combine the properties of the

various engineered materials to meet the specifications of the
usage planned for the composite.

Specifications

Composite
material

Reinforcements Matrix

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 Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials Lecture 1: Introduction to composite materials

How are composites materials designed? How are composites materials designed?

Properties of some matrices Properties of some reinforcements

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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

At the end of this lecture you will have an understanding The basics of the properties of composite materials
of:
Design of matrix and reinforcements based on the properties of
the individual constituents
The types of composite materials (review of lecture 1)

The basics of the properties of composites

It is important to not forget
about the other properties
The basics of the reinforcements which may not be essential but
may be still detrimental to the
use of the composite!!!

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of composite materials

Properties of some matrices Properties of some reinforcements

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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of composite materials

Basic properties of materials: Polymers Basic properties of materials: Ceramics and Alloys

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of composite materials

Basic properties of alloys: Concept of load transfer in elastic and plastic regime:

• The yield stress often follows an Hall‐Petch type equation: • The applied stress (σa) transfers to the matrix (M) and the
reinforcements (F) present with a volume fraction f
σy = σ0 + k(L) ‐1/2 • The stresses (σvM , σvF) are averaged in volume
• The stresses can be continuous or discontinuous
σa
In which: σ0 is a constant stress dependant on the material F
k is a constant dependant on the material
L is the characteristics length scale of the microstructure
(grain size, closest distance between particles or fibres ..) fσvF + (1‐f)σvM = σa
σvM σvF

M Also referred to as Rule of Mixture

The present case is isostrain
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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of composite materials

Concept of load transfer in elastic and plastic regime: Concept of load transfer in elastic and plastic regime:

Matrix strength: 200 MPa

Reinforcement strength: 600 Mpa

Calculate the strength of the composite for various volume

fractions

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of composite materials

Concept of load transfer (isostrain): When the properties of the matrix and the reinforcements are
very different other models are used.
Intermediate Rule Of Mixtures

Works well when matrix and reinforcements have similar properties

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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of composite materials The basics of the properties of long reinforcements

When the properties of the matrix and the reinforcements are Long reinforcements are particular since they will provide most
very different other models are used. of the properties (the matrix is used mainly to hold them
Isowork model: work increment in each constituents is equal together)
upon deformation
Some mechanical behaviour will strongly depend on them

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of long reinforcements The basics of the properties of long reinforcements

Compressive strength (axial): Compressive strength (axial):

The most likely mode of failure in a long fibre composite is by

Euler buckling:
For a cylindrical fibre, the buckling stress σb is

σb = (π2E/16) (d/L)2
With E the Young’s modulus
d the diameter of the fibre
L the length of the fibre

Buckling will be favoured for high aspect ratio fibres

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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of long reinforcements The basics of the properties of long reinforcements

Fibre flexibility: Fibre flexibility:

Important because of process ability:

Measure by the moment M required to bend a fibre to a given
curvature K

M=(πEKd4)/64
With E the Young’s modulus
d the diameter of the fibre

The flexibility is expressed as K/M

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of long reinforcements The basics of the properties of long reinforcements

Bending fracture: Fibre flexibility:

During bending, high surface tensile stresses are created which

can lead to fracture

Assuming elastic deformation, the surface tensile stress is:

σt = EKd/2

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Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials

The basics of the properties of reinforcements
The basics of the properties of reinforcements
Fracture:
Fracture:
The probability for an element ΔLi to fail is then:
Most reinforcements are brittle and fracture is statistically linked Pfi = nσ ΔLi
to flaws in the materials. This approach was developed by
Weibull and in the case of fibres is known as the Weakest Link
The probability for the element ΔLi to survive is:
Theory.
Psi = 1 ‐ Pfi = 1 ‐ nσ ΔLi
Instead of fibres, let’s consider length elements ΔLi containing n
flaws. The probability for the fibre to survive is:
Under an applied stress σ the elements will require nσ flaws to Ps = Σ(1 ‐ Pfi ) = Σ(1 ‐ nσ ΔLi )
statistically fail.

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 Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials Lecture 2: Basics of composite materials
The basics of the properties of reinforcements
The basics of the properties of reinforcements
Fracture:
Fracture:
With ΔLi small, Pf is small and (1‐x) ≈ exp (‐x) when x << 1
The probability of failure of the fibre:
Ps = exp (‐Lnσ) Pf = 1 – exp [‐(L/L0)(σ/σ0)m]
Experimentally:
or the probability of survival:
nσL0 = (σ/σ0)m ln(Ps) = ‐(L/L0)(σ/σ0)m
With m the Weibull modulus
σ0 most probable fracture strength from a fibre of length L0

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Fibers and Matrices Fibers

• Inorganic fibers
– Glass
– Graphite (carbon)
– Silicon carbide
• Organic fibers
– Aramid
– Thermoplastics
Dr. Richard Chung • Metallic fibers
Dept. Chemical and Materials Engineering – Stainless steel
– Nickel alloy
San Jose State University
 Glass Fibers Properties of Glass Fibers
• Glass is an amorphous material that consists of a
silica (SiO2) backbone with various oxide
components to give specific compositions and
properties.
• Types: E-glass, S-glass, C-glass, quartz
• E-glass: calcium aluminoborosilicate with 2%
alkali; good strength and electrical resistivity; the
least expensive one
• S-glass: 40% higher than E-glass; high temp
application
• C-glass: soda limeborosilicate; use in corrosive
environments
• Quartz: low dielectric; use for protecting antennas
and radomes

Use of Glass Fibers

• Tensile strength is highly dependent on surface
defects. The shorter the sample, the higher the
value.
• Moisture has a detrimental effect on strengths
• Temperature has profound impact on strength
and modulus. The higher the temperature, the
lower the strength (E-glass will be lower than S-
glass). The higher the temperature, the higher
the tensile modulus (E and S are about the
same)
 Fiber Glass Manufacturing Processes
Surface Treatments
• Glass fibers are very brittle and
susceptible to developing tiny cracks
when processed lead to premature
failure
• Sizing effect – a thin temporary water
soluble coating
• Coupling agent – Silanes

Carbon/Graphite Fibers Structure of Graphite Fibers

• Three precursors: polyacrylonitrile (PAN),
Rayon, and mesophase pitch fibers,
o
stretched and heated at 350 C then
o
1000 C
• CVD method: Pyrolytic deposition (via
methane, benzene and naphthalene) at
o
1000 C
• Carbon fibers heated to 2000oC
with/without stretching (graphitization)
graphite fibers
 Properties of Graphite Fibers Manufacturing Process

Organic Fibers
• Para-phenylene diamine and terephthaloyl chloride are
Properties of Kevlar Fibers
mixed in an organic solvent to form poly
paraphenyleneterephthalamide. Tensile Tensile Elongati Density
• Developed from aromatic polyamides, also known as aramid
fibers Modulus Strength on (%) (g/c.c.)
• Manufactured by E.I. Du Pont with a trade name – Kevlar (MPa) (MPa)
• It is fully aligned and closely packed K-29 83 3.6 4 1.44
• The polymer is washed and then dissolved in sulfuric acid.
20 wt% polymer solution is then passed through an extruder
and spinnerettes to develop a high degree of orientation
(liquid crystal form; process patented) K-49 131 3.6 2.8 1.44
• Four types of aramid fibers: kevlar®, Kevlar 29 (high
toughness), kevlar 49 (high modulus) and kevlar 149 (ultra-
high modulus)
• Kevlar fibers are less brittle than carbon or glass fibers,
K-149 186 3.4 2 1.47
however, a combination of good strength, light weight and
excellent toughness has led to the unique applications for
aramid composites
 Inorganic Fibers Boron/Silicon Carbide
• A class of short crystalline fibers, often called crystal
whisker fibers • Boron trichloride interacts with the tungsten filament to form
tungsten borides, simultaneous bonded with the deposited
• Made of aluminum oxide, beryllium oxide, magnesium
boron coated layers.
oxide, potassium titanate, silicon carbide, silicon nitride,
titanium boride, etc. • Silicon carbide, a structure similar to diamond, offers a low
density, high stiffness, high strength and excellent thermal
• Boron and silicon carbide fibers are popular because they
stability and thermal conductivity properties.
offer very high tensile strength and modulus.
• Growth from a melt --whisker form – defect free, single
• Boron fibers are considered amorphous (crystal structure
crystal rod, 0.1-1μm in diameter
is small), but SiC has a much larger crystal structure.
• CVD on fine carbon (30 μm) or tungsten (10 μm) fiber core
• Boron fibers have a surface structure like scale or corncob
to yield a large-diameter SiC monofilament fiber (100-150
appearance. SiC fibers have a smoother surface than
μm)
boron.
• Developed from polycarbosilane (PCS) precursor, stretched
• Boron composites have excellent tensile property retention
and heated at 1300oC .
with increasing temperature
 Properties of Boron and SiC Filaments
Boron Silicon Carbide
Density (g/cc) 2.40-2.59 2.98-3.20
Tensile Strength 3.60 3.90
(GPa)
Tensile Modulus 441 400
(GPa)
Elongation (%) 0.9 N/A
CTE (10-6 2.5 N/A
cm/cm/oC)
Cost ($/lb) 320 100

Thermal Stability of Fibers Compressive Strengths

• Carbon fibers can be used in high temperatures • Crushing, shearing and buckling effects under a
(above 2000oC) in which the oxidizing compressive load.
2 2
environments are absent. E ⎛d ⎞
• The strength and modulus of silica based glass Euler buckling = ⎜ ⎟
fibers decrease rapidly above 250oC and have a 16 ⎝ L ⎠
softening point around 850oC. Aramid fibers are • where E is the tensile modulus and d/L is the reciprocal of
the aspect ratio
worse than carbon and glass fibers at high • Larger-diameter fibers tend to resist buckling effect better
temperatures. Aramid fibers can be attacked by than small-diameter fibers
UV lights as well. • Ideally, fibers’ tensile strength is the same as compressive
strength. However, Kevlar fibers’ compressive strength is
• Inorganic fibers (Al2O3 and SiC) can sustain much only 20% of their tensile strength.
higher temperatures (above 2500oC) • Bonding condition (via matrix) can help reduce buckling
effect
 Flexibility
• The flexibility of a fiber, defined as k/M, can be
expressed in moment, M.
4
Ekd
M =
64
• Where E is the tensile modulus, d is the fiber
diameter and k is the reciprocal of the radius of
the curvature

Matrices
• Thermosetting polymeric resins – epoxy,
polyester, phenolics, polurethane, polyimides
• Thermoplastic resins – polyamide (nylon),
polypropylene (PP), poly ether ether ketone
(PEEK)
• Elastomers – silicone, neoprene (CR), NBR,
SBR
• Metal matrix
• Ceramic matrix
 Polymer Matrices Thermosets
• Most of the polymer matrices are thermosets (75%)
Polymers
• Thermosets are cured using curing agents or
hardeners to form a network structure (cross-linked)
• Thermosets are brittle at room temperature and
have low fracture toughness values (KIC = 0.5 -1.0
Thermosets Thermoplastics Elastomers MPa▪m1/2)
• Thermosets are suitable for high temperature
application as they have higher softening
temperatures and better creep resistance than
Non-crystalline Crystalline
thermoplastics

Polyester
• Developed in 1833, consisted of unsaturated linear
polyester molecules dissolved in styrene (styrene is
a cross-linking monomer).
• Curing can take place when an organic peroxide
(e.g. MEKP) is added to the polyester resin. Free
radicals are then created during the chemical
reaction which leads to a formation of a 3-
dimensional network structure.
• Polyesters are fairly easy to process as they are
relatively inexpensive and have low viscosities. The
shrinkage which occurs on curing is around 4-8%
(pretty high).
 Terminology Epoxy
• Shelf life or storage life – the length of time that • Developed in 1939, was mainly for coatings and
unmixed resins can be stored adhesives.
• Pot life – resins into which the initiator has been mixed • Many different structures available today are derived from
• Inhibitor – molecules which absorb free radicals are bisphenol acetate and epichlorohydrin.
added to resin mixture to slow down or prevent further • Epoxy is more expensive and is more viscous than the
cross-linking reaction polyester resin making it very difficult to process
• A-stage – referring to resole and nonvolac resins • A higher curing temperature (up to 180oC) with two to three
stages of curing will be required.
– Resole: a low molecular mass material, only heat is
needed to covert the resin to the C-stage • The shrinkage is much smaller than for polyesters (1-4%)
– Nonvolac: hardener is needed to achieve the C-stage • In general, epoxies are stiffer and stronger, but more brittle
than polyesters. Epoxies also retain their properties better
• B-stage – a rubbery phase, the resin mixture is partially in high temperatures than polyesters do.
soluble and partially cured
– Prepreg: pre-impregnated tape (B-stage)
• C-stage – resin mixture is cured to a fully cross-linked
condition
 Phenolics
• Developed in 1872, known as phenol-
formaldehyde.
• A resole is produced by reacting a phenol with an
access amount of aldehyde in the presence of a
basic catalyst. (one-stage resin)
• A nonvolac is generated when excessive phenol is
reacting with an acid catalyst. (two-stage resin)
• Low cost, excellent heat resistance and good
balance of properties
 Thermoplastics
• Are linear polymers, don’t cross-link, might be branched
• Have superior toughness to thermosets
• Polypropylene and polyethylene are similar in origin and
manufacture. PP is cheaper than PE. PP is harder, more
rigid and has a higher stress cracking resistance than PE.
Polycarbonate is an amorphous, transparent material, has
good impact resistance, can be used up to 140oC.
• Polyamide (e.g. Nylon) has a high m.p. (260oC) and
maintains its properties to about 150oC.
• Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a semi-crystalline polymer
having 20-40% crystallinity. PEEK has a high Tg (143oC)
and m.p. (343oC), good toughness (6 MPa▪m1/2) and good
solvent resistance
 Elastomers
• Rubber-like elasticity – can be stretched more than
200%.
• In general the suitable temperature range for an
elastomer is between -50oC and 120oC. However,
Silicone has a wider range (-115oC and 315oC)
• Natural rubber –cis-polyisoprene
• Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
• Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR)
• Chloropreene (CR)
• Polysiloxane (Silicone)
• Vulcanization – a chemical reaction to cross-link
chains using sulfur.
 

o

o

o

o


 

o ρ ρ ρ

ρ ρ ρ
•
properties (strength …) ρ ρ

•
 

𝜋 𝑟 𝜋 𝑟
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓 =
2 3 𝑅 4 𝑅

=2 −1 𝑟 =2 −1 𝑟

 

o
 

o o

 

o o
 

o o

 

o o

o
 

 

o o

o
• Σ Σ
o
• Σ Σ
o
 Fabrication of Composites

Richard Chung
Chemical and Materials Engineering
Dept.
San Jose State University

Thermosetting Resin Matrix

• Hand lay-up
• Hand spray-up
• Vacuum bag/ Autoclave molding
• Match-die molding
• Resin transfer molding
• Filament winding
• Pultrusion
• Braiding
• Preform/molding compounds(SMC, BMC)
 Laminate

Hand Lay-up Hand Spray-up

Vacuum Bag/ Autoclave Molding Autoclaves

Match-die Molding Resin Transfer Molding

 Filament Winding
Pultrusion

Braiding
• Advantage of Joint-Braiding Composite
• Seamless, thickness uniformity, fiber
density uniformity
• Angle of braiding yarn can be controlled
from 10 to 80 degree
• Multi-node complicated jointing composite
(Max. 10 layers by our experience)
• Various kind of application of joint part
 Preform/Molding
Compounds(SMC, BMC)

Sandwich Structure Thermoplastic Resin Matrix

• Fibers
• Tapes
• Electrostatic charge
• Powder
• Stamping
Metal Matrix Ceramic Matrix
 


o

o



 

o o

• •

 

o o

𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 =𝜀 = =𝜀 =
𝐸 𝐸
 

o o
•

𝐸 = = 𝐸 +𝑓
σ σ

𝜎 = 1−𝑓 𝜎 + 𝑓𝜎 𝐸 = 1 − 𝑓 𝐸 + 𝑓𝐸

 

o o

• •

• •

•
 

o o

𝜀 = 1−𝑓 𝜀 + 𝑓𝜀

𝜎 𝜎
𝐸 = =
𝜀 1−𝑓 𝜀 + 𝑓𝜀

𝜎 =𝜎 =𝜀 𝐸 =𝜎 =𝜀 𝐸 𝑓 1−𝑓
𝐸 = +
𝐸 𝐸

 

o o

• •
• •
•
•

•
•
 

o o

 

o o

𝐸 1 + 𝜉𝜂𝑓
𝐸 =
1 − 𝜂𝑓
𝐸
−1
𝐸
𝜂=
𝐸
+𝜉
𝐸

• ξ an adjustable parameter ≈1
 

o o

• •
•
• •
•
𝜏 𝑖≠𝑗

𝛾 𝑖≠𝑗

𝐺 =

 

o o
•
τ

τ
τ

τ
 

o o
• •
•

• 𝜏 =𝜏 𝜏 =𝛾 𝐺 = 𝜏 𝜏 𝑓 1−𝑓 𝛾
𝛾 𝐺 𝛾 𝐺 = = = +
𝛾 𝑓𝛾 + 1−𝑓 𝛾 𝐺 𝜏

• 𝑓 1−𝑓
𝐺 = +
𝐺 𝐺
𝑢 +𝑢
𝛾 = = 𝑓𝛾 + 1−𝑓 𝛾
𝑓+ 1−𝑓
𝐺 = 𝑓𝐺 + 1 − 𝑓 𝐺

 

o o
•

𝐺 1 + 𝜉𝜂𝑓
𝑓 (1 − 𝑓) 𝐺 =
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐺 = + 1 − 𝜂𝑓
𝐺 𝐺
𝐺
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐺 = 𝑓𝐺 + (1 − 𝑓)𝐺 −1
𝐺
𝜂=
𝐺
+𝜉
𝐺

• ξ an adjustable parameter ≈
 

 
o ν
oisson s ratio 𝜈 𝑖≠𝑗

𝜎
𝜀 𝜀 = −𝜈 𝜀 = −𝜈
𝜈 =− 𝐸
𝜀
𝜎
𝜀 = −𝜈 𝜀 = −𝜈
𝜈 𝜈 𝐸
=
𝐸 𝐸
𝜀 = 𝑓𝜀 + 1−𝑓 𝜀
𝐸
𝐺 =
2 1+𝜈
𝜀 =− − = − 𝑓𝜈 𝜀 − 1−𝑓 𝜈 𝜀
 
o o ν

𝜀
𝜈 =− = − 𝑓𝜈 + (1 − 𝑓)𝜈 𝜎
𝜀 Δ𝑉 = 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 =
𝐾
𝐸 𝐸
𝜈 =𝜈 = − 𝑓𝜈 + (1 − 𝑓)𝜈 <𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 o σ
o 𝜎 +𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 = =
3 3
ν 𝜀 𝐸
𝜈 =− =1−𝜈 −
𝜀 3𝐾

 
o

𝜎 =Δ 𝐾 =Δ 𝐾

Δ = 𝑓Δ + 1 − 𝑓 Δ

𝜎 𝑓 (1 − 𝑓)
𝐾= = +
Δ 𝐾 𝐾

𝐾 = 𝐾 =
( ) ( )
 
o

𝜎 = 1−𝑓 𝜎 + 𝑓𝜎 𝜀 = 1 − 𝑓 𝜀 + 𝑓𝜀
𝑓 1−𝑓
𝐸 = 1 − 𝑓 𝐸 + 𝑓𝐸 𝐸 = +
𝐸 𝐸

 
o o

τ
τ

τ 𝜈 𝜈
τ =
𝐸 𝐸
𝐸
𝑓 (1 − 𝑓) 𝐺 =
𝐺 = 𝑓𝐺 + (1 − 𝑓)𝐺 𝐺 = + 2 1+𝜈
𝐺 𝐺
 
o o

𝜈 = − 𝑓𝜈 + (1 − 𝑓)𝜈
Δ = 𝑓Δ + 1 − 𝑓 Δ
𝐸
𝜈 = − 𝑓𝜈 + (1 − 𝑓)𝜈
𝐸 𝑓 (1 − 𝑓)
𝐾= +
𝐾 𝐾
𝐸
𝜈 = 1−𝜈 −
3𝐾
𝐾 = 𝐾 =
( ) ( )


o
• –

• –
• ν ν – Poisson’s ratio of matrix and fibre 
•



 

 
o o τ
ρ
τ

𝜏 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 𝜏 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝜏 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜏 𝜌
𝜏 𝑟
=
𝜏 𝑟
 

ρ
γ
𝑑𝑢 𝜏 𝜏 𝑟
=𝛾= =
𝑑𝜌 𝐺𝑚 𝐺 𝜌

 
o
o

𝜏𝑟 𝑑
𝑑𝑢 =
𝐺 𝜌 o
𝜋𝑟
𝑓=
2𝑅 3
𝜏𝑟 𝑅
𝑢 −𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑅 𝜋 1
𝐺 𝑟 = ~
𝑟 2𝑓 3 𝑓
 
o σ
o

2𝜋𝑟𝑑 = −𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝜎
𝑑𝜎 2𝜏 𝑑𝑢 𝜎
=− =𝜀 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝐸
o
𝑑𝑢
= 𝜀 ~𝜀
𝑑𝑥
𝐸 𝑑𝜎 2𝐸 𝑢 − 𝑢
𝐺 = =−
2 1+𝜈 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝜈 𝑟 𝑙𝑛 1⁄𝑓

 
 
o

 

cosh 0 sech 𝑛𝑠 ≪ 1 cosh 0 = 1

sech 𝑛𝑠 = 1/ cosh 𝑛𝑠 ≪ 1
cosh 𝑛𝑠 ≥ 10
 

o σ

𝜎 +𝜎
𝜎 =
2
σ σ
ε

 

o σ σ
 

 
 

 
 

 
 Strength of Composites
• Microstructural deformation leads to an
ultimate failure in a composite material.
• Stress and energy are two important
November 8, 2005 considerations in determining a failure
mode.
Dr. Richard Chung • Failure modes in long-fiber and short-
fiber composites are different.
Dept. Chemical and Materials Engineering
• Three popular failure modes: axial
San José State University
tensile failure, transverse tensile failure
and shear failure

• (a) and ( c) show

• Matrix undergoes microcarcking with an appearance of
“plateau” in the stress-strain curve. the fiber have
• If fibers break before the matrix cracking, the strength of higher strain to
the composite will follow the simple rule of mixtures failure than
1u = V f fmu + (1 − V f ) mu
Matrix does
where σfmu is the fiber stress at the onset of matrix
cracking • (b) and (d) show
• If matrix cracks while the fibers are still carrying the matrix has the
applied load, then the strength of the composite becomes: higher strain to
1u = Vf fu + (1 − V f ) mfu
failure than
fibers do
where σmfu is the matrix stress at the onset of fiber
cracking
 Fiber Breakage Models
• Matrix carcking does not mean the matrix
becomes completely unloaded, and the fibers • Stress field around a crack tip is used to predict
still carry some stress even after they have the crack propagation movement.
broken into short fibers. • Cook and Gordon, 1964, proposed: crack
• Cumulative weakening models (Rosen 1965): movement is closely associated with an
a random sequence of fiber fractures occurs with interactive stress field between stress σ1
increasing load until residual strength across a perpendicular to the crack moving direction and
section somewhere along the length is reached. σ2 the stress field along the crack propagation
• Fiber Breakage Propagation Models (Zweben direction. σ1 is an axial stress, a ratio to the
and Rosen, 1970): The initial failure sequence applied stress, and σ2 is a transverse stress, also
involves fracture of individual fibers at weak a ratio to the applied stress.
points.
• Fiber and matrix interaction is not addressed • Crack blunting occurs when the crack tip
approaches the interface between fiber and the
matrix

Axial fractures

more energy
Transverse fractures dissipated along
new surfaces
 Fiber breakage

Matrix fracture

Matrix fracture
• In general, the transverse
strength is LESS than that
of the unreinforced matrix.
As such, transverse plies
tend to fracture before the
parallel plies.
• The transverse strength is
influenced by many factors Fibers serve as
defects to the
such as interfacial bonding, composites
fiber distribution and the
amount and the presence
of voids.

• Adams and Dorner (1967) used finite

• Under a transverse difference method to study the relationship
loading, the Poisson’s between shear stress concentration and
effect is reduced as the fiber volume fraction.
surface openings
• Unless the fiber
compensate the lateral
contraction. volume fraction is
• Heat treatment can very high, the shear
help prevent the stress τ12u is close
reduction of Poisson’s to τu of matrix.
effect (a lower strain
will be resulted).
 • A kink band of
misoriented fibers or • Composite failure will start when the
fiber buckling may be critical values are reached.
generated.

Three failure modes:

• Yield occurs when a critical value of the • Yield occurs when the distortional (shape-
maximum shear stress is reached. changing) strain energy stored in the
p − q
2
− 2
Y q − r
2
− 2
Y r − p
2
− 2
Y =0 composite reaches a critical value.
where σ p , σ q , σ r are principal stresses

• Tsai-Hill Criterion:
Hoop Stress

Axial Stress
Internal Stresses with respect
to the Applied Stress

What is Toughness?
Toughness of Composites • A large amount of energy is required to
initiate a failure.
• Toughness is a measure of the energy
stored in a material.
November 17, 2005
• Toughness is generally determined in a
tensile or impact test.
Dr. Richard Chung • Three levels of energy associated with a
Dept. Chemical and Materials crack: crack initiation, crack growth, and
Engineering crack propagation.
San José State University • This leads to a field of study – fracture
mechanics
 What is Fracture Toughness? Fracture Toughness
• The fracture behavior of material with a crack present. Consider two examples:
• Stress intensity factor (K): the stress in the vicinity of a
crack tip • Example 1. without a crack in a glass rod –
• Fracture toughness (Kc): a critical value of K when the low fracture toughness
applied stress exceeds the critical stress value and a • Example 2. without a crack in an aluminum
brittle fracture occurs rod -- high fracture toughness.
• Cracks longer than a critical length (C*) will grow
spontaneously 2 E
• Glass and aluminum represent two extreme
C* = 2 cases: extremely brittle and extremely
• Crack energy release rate (G) is an expression of the
ductile.
applied stress and a pre-existing crack size • Generally, strength ↑, ductility ↓, fracture
2
C toughness↓
G =
E
 Energies in a Brittle Crack

Griffith Crack
• A crack cannot propagate unless the energy of the
system is decreased.
Gc E
* =
C
Kc = * C = EG c

Kc is the critical stress intensity factor is referered to as a

fracture toughness
• Crack opening displacement can be expressed as
2
K
≈
y E
• As seen in the previous table, tough materials have
fracture energies of 100 kJ/m2 or more, whereas a brittle
material can have a value as low as 0.01 kJ/m2 (like
glass)
 Crack Deflection
• To have a high toughness in a composite, a crack
passing through the matrix must be frequently
deflected at the fiber-matrix interfaces.
• Cook and Gordon (1964) investigated the stress
field in front of a crack tip. It was reported that the
transverse stress was about 1/5 of the maximum
axial stress. The interface debonds when its
strength is about 1/5 that of the matrix.
• Kendall (1975) along with He and Hutchinson
(1989) proposed that the deciding factor that
contributed to a penetrating or deflecting crack
was based on the merit of giving a greater net
release of energy.
 Other Effects
• Effect of microstructure
• Fracture always involves a high degree of
interfacial debonding, fiber breakage and fiber pull- • Development of sub-critical crack growth
out (frictional sliding), so that the toughness is • Fatigue
relatively high. • Stress corrosion cracking

Gic ⎛⎜ hm Em + h f E f ⎞⎡
⎟⎢ 1 ⎤
≤ ⎥
G fc ⎜⎝ hf E f ⎟⎣ 4 1 −
⎠
2
⎦
» where Gic and Gfc are fracture
energies of interface and
uncracked block (fiber), hm and hf are
thicknesses of cracked (matrix) and
uncracked (fiber) blocks

Where m is theWeibull modulus

 Fatigue Crack Growth

What is fatigue?
Performance of Composites
• An engineering structure is often
subjected to the repeated
application of a stress below its
Dr. Richard Chung yield strength of the material.
Chemical and Materials Engineering • This cyclical stress may occur in
San Jose State University the form of rotation, bending, or
vibration.
 Effects of Fatigue
• Due to cyclic loading (or alternative loading), the
strength of a composite structure is lower than
its static strength (i.e. ultimate tensile strength).
• Unidirectional continuous fiber-reinforced
composites have excellent resistance to fatigue
in the fiber direction.
• Composite laminates will have fatigue damages
developed in some weak plies before the final
fracture.
• The damages are debonding at fiber-matrix
interface, matrix cracking or crazing, fiber
breakage, and void growth (separation of plies
or delamination).

Terminology
• Endurance limit: is the stress below which that
failure by fatigue will never occur, this is a
preferred design criterion.
• Fatigue life: indicates how long (no. of cycles) a
component survives a particular stress.
• Fatigue strength: is applicable to a component
has No endurance limit. It is the maximum
stress for which fatigue will not occur at a
particular number of cycles, in general, 500
million cycles.
• Endurance ratio: the endurance limit is
approximately ½ the tensile strength.
 Definitions Fatigue Damages
Stress Ratio = R = min
• Crack initiation – Separation of fibers from
max the matrix.
Amplitude Ratio = A = a
=
1− R • For a cross-ply laminate, the cracks usually
m 1+ R start perpendicular to the direction of load
and extend over the entire width of the ply
1− A 1− R
R = A = (mainly along the fiber-matrix interface).
1+ A 1+ R
− • For a randomly oriented fibrous composite,
Alternatin g Stress = a = R
= max min
the initial crack commences in a similar
2 2
way – the fiber strands lying perpendicular
+ to the loading direction.
Mean Stress = m = max min

2
Modes of Fatigue-Crack Growth
• Shear crack initiation at fiber break
• Tensile splitting of interface ahead of
matrix crack
• Matrix cracking bypassing strong fiber
• Crack initiation inductile fiber ahead of
matrix crack
• Fracture of brittle fiber ahead of matrix
crack

Factors Influencing Fatigue

Properties Resulted from Damage
Behavior
• Internal cracking results in lowering of the • Type of matrix
stiffness (modulus) and strength of • Ply orientation
composite materials. • Volume fraction of reinforcement
• Stiffness decreases due to the crack • Interface properties
initiation in the cross plies. • Type of loading
• The order of fatigue damage: Cross-ply • Mean stress
cracks, longitudinal-ply cracks and • Frequency of loading
delamination • Environment
 Goodman-Boller Relationship S S
A
= 1 − M
S E S C
• This relationship shows in good
agreement with the experimental results, where SA is stress amplitude, SM is
assumes that a fixed fatigue life mean stress, SE is fatigue strength
• The decrease in stress amplitude at zero mean stress for equal cyclic
normalized by the fatigue strength (or life, and SC is the stress-rupture
stress amplitude) at zero mean stress is
strength for the time corresponding
equal to the mean stress normalized by
the stress-rupture strenth.
to the cyclic life
Formulas for Fatigue Properties Impact Properties
ΔS • Impact properties are associated with high
= m log N + b strain rates.
u
• Absorbing energy by two mechanisms:
where ΔS is the stress range, σu is the material deformation and creation of new
ultimate tensile strength, N is the fatigue surfaces
life, and m and b are material constants • Types of material deformation: fiber de-
bonding, fiber breakage, fiber pull-out,
N k
Δ = c matrix deformation and cracking, de-
lamination crack
where Δε is the strain range, and k
and c are material constants

Formulas for Required Energies Low-Velocity Impact

2
• Fiber breakage V f fu l • The level of damage can be assessed by
u =
6E f the degree of matrix cracking, in turn it
determines the residual strength of the
• Fiber pull-out Vf fu cl composite after the impact.
u= • The residual tensile or compressive
12
strengths decreases as the impact energy
2 or the number of impacts increases.
1−Vf d
• Matrix fracture u= mu
Um
Vf 4
 Strength of Composites

Environmental Properties
November 8, 2005

• Stress corrosion cracking (chemical Dr. Richard Chung

Dept. Chemical and Materials Engineering
reaction/temperature) San José State University

• Physical aging or thermal degradation in

matrix (temperature, UV, moisture,
oxidation)
• Mechanical stresses (static or dynamic; • Microstructural deformation leads to an
ultimate failure in a composite material.
constant or accelerated) • Stress and energy are two important
considerations in determining a failure
mode.
• Failure modes in long-fiber and short-
fiber composites are different.
• Three popular failure modes: axial
tensile failure, transverse tensile failure
and shear failure

Fiber Breakage Models

• Matrix undergoes microcarcking with an appearance of • Matrix carcking does not mean the matrix
“plateau” in the stress-strain curve. becomes completely unloaded, and the fibers
still carry some stress even after they have
• If fibers break before the matrix cracking, the strength of broken into short fibers.
the composite will follow the simple rule of mixtures
• Cumulative weakening models (Rosen 1965):
1u = V f fmu + (1 − V f ) mu a random sequence of fiber fractures occurs with
where σfmu is the fiber stress at the onset of matrix increasing load until residual strength across a
cracking section somewhere along the length is reached.
• If matrix cracks while the fibers are still carrying the • Fiber Breakage Propagation Models (Zweben
applied load, then the strength of the composite becomes: and Rosen, 1970): The initial failure sequence
involves fracture of individual fibers at weak
1u = Vf fu + (1 − V f ) mfu
points.
• Fiber and matrix interaction is not addressed
where σmfu is the matrix stress at the onset of fiber
cracking

• (a) and ( c) show

• Stress field around a crack tip is used to predict
the fiber have the crack propagation movement.
higher strain to • Cook and Gordon, 1964, proposed: crack
failure than movement is closely associated with an
Matrix does interactive stress field between stress σ1
perpendicular to the crack moving direction and
• (b) and (d) show σ2 the stress field along the crack propagation
matrix has the direction. σ1 is an axial stress, a ratio to the
higher strain to applied stress, and σ2 is a transverse stress, also
failure than a ratio to the applied stress.
fibers do • Crack blunting occurs when the crack tip
approaches the interface between fiber and the
matrix
 Fiber breakage

Axial fractures

Matrix fracture
Transverse fractures

more energy
dissipated along
new surfaces

• In general, the transverse

strength is LESS than that
Matrix fracture
of the unreinforced matrix.
As such, transverse plies
tend to fracture before the
parallel plies.
• The transverse strength is
influenced by many factors
such as interfacial bonding,
fiber distribution and the
amount and the presence
of voids.

Fibers serve as
defects to the
composites
 • A kink band of
• Under a transverse misoriented fibers or
loading, the Poisson’s fiber buckling may be
effect is reduced as the generated.
surface openings
compensate the lateral
contraction.
• Heat treatment can
help prevent the
reduction of Poisson’s
effect (a lower strain
will be resulted).

• Adams and Dorner (1967) used finite

difference method to study the relationship • Composite failure will start when the
between shear stress concentration and critical values are reached.
fiber volume fraction.
• Unless the fiber
volume fraction is
very high, the shear Three failure modes:
stress τ12u is close
to τu of matrix.

• Yield occurs when a critical value of the

maximum shear stress is reached.
2 2 2 2 2 2
p − q − Y q − r − Y r − p − Y =0
where σ p , σ q , σ r are principal stresses

• Yield occurs when the distortional (shape-

changing) strain energy stored in the
composite reaches a critical value.

• Tsai-Hill Criterion:
 Internal Stresses with respect
to the Applied Stress

Hoop Stress

Axial Stress