CHAPTER 5.

Water conveyance and control

• The irrigation system consists of

– a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping
station,
– a conveyance system,
– a distribution system,
– a field application system, and
– a drainage system
• The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs
water from the source of supply, such as a reservoir or a river, into
the irrigation system.

• The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the

main intake structure or main pumping station up to the field
ditches.

• The distribution system assures the transport of water through field

ditches to the irrigated fields.

• The field application system assures the transport of water within

the fields.

• The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall

and/or irrigation) from the fields.
 Main intake structure and pumping station

Main intake structure

• The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation
system. Its purpose is to direct water from the original
source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the
irrigation system.
Pumping station
• In some cases, the irrigation water source lies
below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a
pump must be used to supply water to the
irrigation system
 Conveyance and distribution system
• The conveyance and distribution systems
consist of canals transporting the water
through the whole irrigation system.

• Canal structures are required for

– the control and
– measurement of the water flow.
i.Canal characteristics
• According to the shape of their cross-section,
canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b),
trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and
irregular or natural.

• The most commonly used canal cross-section

in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal
cross-section.
ii. Earthen Canals
• Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground
and the bank is made up from the removed
earth

iii. Lined Canals

• Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable
materials to prevent excessive seepage and
growth of weeds
 Canal alignment
• Contour canal
• Watershed canal
• Side slope canal
1. Watershed canal
2. Contour canal
3. Side slope contour
 Design of channels
• Basic definitions:
– Area to be irrigated=Intensity of irrigation*Culturable command area
– Discharge= Area to be irrigated/Duty = Area to be irrigated/(8.64*B/delta)
– Delta= field irrigation requirement of the crop in that month
• Example: A canal has culturable command area of 100,000ha. The
intensities of irrigation for rice, wheat and sugarcane area
respectively 20%, 30% and 10%. The consumptive use of water
for the three crops is as under:
Rice: July =21cm; August=24cm; Sept=12cm; Oct=12
Wheat: Dec= 9cm; Jan=9cm; Feb= 9cm ; March =9cm
Sugarcane: Nov= 6cm; Dec-April=9cm every month; May = 12cm
a. Determine the design capacity of the main canal, assuming 20% losses in
the conveyance
b. Estimate the annual live storage if 10% of the water stored is lost in
evaporation.
Assume a water application efficiency of 75%
• Solution
Field irrigation requirement, FIR= Consumptive use/Water application
efficiency
FIR= Consumptive use/0.75
Area of rice =2*104
Area of wheat =3*104
Area of sugarcane= 1*104
Duty, D =8.64*B/FIR
As, B=30 days for each month
D= 259.2/FIR [ha/m3/s]
Discharge =Area irrigated/D
Maximum monthly discharge = 24.69m3/s
Design capacity of main canal at head= 24.69/0.8 =30.86m3/s
Live storage: for rice =20000*0.92 =18400ha.m
for wheat= 30000*0.48= 1400ha.m
for sugarcane= 10000*0.84= 8400ha.m

Total =41200ha.m
Total live storage = 10+20 =30%
Total live storage =41200/0.7 = 58860ha.m= 588.6Mm3
Mean monthly discharge =158.96/12 =13.25m3/s
Maximum monthly discharge =24.69m3/s
1. Design of non-alluvial channels

– In non-alluvial channels, the water is relatively clear,

and therefore, there is no silting problem.

– Non-alluvial soils are clay, hard loam and soils

formed as result of disintegration of rocks.

– Non-alluvial channels are considered stable if there

is no silt problem in such channels.
• Design of non-alluvial is usually done by
– Chezy’s equation
v = c (R S)1/2 (1)
where
v = mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
c = Chezy roughness and conduit coefficient
R = hydraulic radius of the conduit (m, ft)
S = slope of the conduit (m/m, ft/ft)

k= Bazin’s coefficient, which depends upon the

surface of the channel
– Manning formula
Q=A*V

– n= manning coefficient
– R= hydraulic radius (R=A/P)
– S= bed slope
– A= channel cross section
 Procedure to design non-alluvial channel by Manning’s and
Chezy’s equation
Given: Discharge Q; maximum permissible velocity V; manning’s N; Bed slope S;
Side slope (r:1) are given or have been assumed.
1. Determine the area of cross-section from continuity equation. A=Q/V
2. Determine hydraulic radius from manning formula.

3. Determine wetted perimeter. P=A/R

4. Determine the depth D and bed width B from the values of A and P obtained
from above
A= (B+rD)D ; P= B+ [2(1+r2)1/2]*D
Example:
• Determine the velocity of flow and discharge capacity of an unlined canal
branch on a grade of 1 m in 800 m having depth of flow 1.5 m, bottom
width 0.80 m, and side slope 1:1. (N=0.023)
2. Design of Alluvial Channels
– In the case of alluvial channels, the channel surface
consist of alluvial soil which can be easily scoured.
Moreover, the velocity is low which encourage silting.

– Kennedy’s silt theory

V= 0.55*m* D0.64
Where V=critical velocity (m/s); m is the critical velocity
ratio (C.R.V); D is depth of flow (m)
m-C.R.V values can be found from table for different
soils.
 Procedure to design alluvial channel using Kennedy’s
theory
Given: Q; m; N and S
1. Assume a trail value of the depth D
2. Calculate the velocity V ; V= 0.55*m* D0.64
3. Determine the cross-sectional area; A=Q/V
4. Assume a side slope and determine the width B from the relation. A=BD+ rD2
5. Determine the wetted perimeter P from P=B+D (r)0.5
6. Determine the hydraulic radius R; R=A/p
7. Calculate the actual mean velocity V from Kutter’s equation

8. If the value of V as found in step 7 is nearly the same as that found in step 2,
the assumed depth is correct. If not, the procedure is repeated after
assuming another value of D till the two values of velocity are approximately
equal.
Example:
Design a concrete lined canal from the following data:
• Discharge = 400 cumec
• Slope = 1in4,000
• Side slope = 1.5:1 (H:V)
• Limiting velocity = 2.5 m/s
• Val ue of N in Manning’s equation = 0.013
• Solution
 Canal structures
• The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under
control.
• For this purpose, canal structures are required.

• They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of
water to the different branches of the system and onward to the
irrigated fields.

• There are four main types of structures:

– erosion control structures,
– distribution control structures,
– crossing structures and
– water measurement structures.
i. Erosion control structures
Drop structures and chutes
• Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the
bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping land in
order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of
erosion. These structures permit the canal to be
constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at
a different elevation

• Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher

section of the canal to a lower one.
There are three main types of drop structures:
Vertical Drop
– Simplest form of drop structure.
– For an unlined channel the it is suitable for drops
height of up to about 1m for canal capacities of up to
about 10.0m3/s, and for drop height up to 0.5m for
larger capacities.
– For lined sections, vertical drops are suitable for drops
of up to about 2.4m.
Glacis Type Drop.
– Energy dissipation for the glacis drop is by means
of a hydraulic jump which forms at the bottom of
the glacis.
– It is used commonly for larger channels and for
drops in the range from about 1.0m to 4.6m.
Pipe drop
– The pipes are inclined to start with and then either
horizontal or sloping slightly upwards.
– The energy is dissipated by means of a hydraulic jump
formed in the pipes. However, a downstream outlet
structure is often also required to dissipate residual
energy.
– Pipe drops are generally used for smaller flows than
for glacis type drops, but again for drops in the range
from about 1.0m to 4.6m.
Chute structures
• In a chute, the water does not drop freely but
is carried through a steep, lined canal section.
Chutes are used where there are big
differences in the elevation of the canal
ii. Distribution control structures/Regulating structures
• Distribution control structures are required for easy and
accurate water distribution within the irrigation system
and on the farm.

a. Division boxes
Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of
water between two or more canals or ditches. Water
enters the box through an opening on one side and flows
out through openings on the other sides. These openings
are equipped with gates
b. Turnouts/offtake
• Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a
canal. They divert part of the water from the
canal to a smaller one.
• Turnouts can be concrete structures, or pipe
structures
c. Checks
• To divert water from the field ditch to the
field, it is often necessary to raise the water
level in the ditch.
• Checks are structures placed across the ditch
to block it temporarily and to raise the
upstream water level.
• Checks can be permanent structures or
portable
 Permanent
concrete check

Portable metal check

iii. Crossing structures
• It is often necessary to carry irrigation water
across roads, hillsides and natural depressions.
Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts and
inverted siphons, are then required.
a. Flumes: Flumes are used to carry irrigation water
across gullies, ravines or other natural
depressions. They are open canals made of wood
(bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to
be supported by pillars
b. Culverts
• Culverts are used to carry the water across
roads.
• The structure consists of masonry or concrete
headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by
a buried pipeline
c. Inverted siphons
• When water has to be carried across a road which is
at the same level as or below the canal bottom, an
inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. (canal
bottom and road are on the same level)
• The structure consists of an inlet and outlet
connected by a pipeline.
• Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across
wide depressions.
iv. Water measurement structures
• The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit
efficient distribution and application. By measuring the flow of
water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during each
irrigation.

• In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer,

water measurement provides a basis for estimating water charges.

• The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and
flumes.
– In these structures, the water depth is read on a scale which is part of
the structure.
– Using this reading, the flow-rate is then computed from standard
formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared specially for the
structure.
a. Weirs
• In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of
timber, metal or concrete with an opening
with fixed dimensions cut in its edge.

• The opening, called a notch, may be

rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular.
Rectangular weir
Triangular weir
A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
b. Parshall flumes
• The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete
channel structure with three main sections:
(1) a converging section at the upstream end, leading to
(2) a constricted or throat section and
(3) a diverging section at the downstream end

• Depending on the flow condition (free flow or

submerged flow), the water depth readings are
taken on one scale only (the upstream one) or on
both scales simultaneously
c. Cut-throat flume
• The cut-throat flume is similar
to the Parshall flume, but has
no throat section, only
converging and diverging
sections.

• Unlike the Parshall flume, the

cut-throat flume has a flat
bottom.
• Because it is easier to construct
and install, the cut-throat flume
is often preferred to the Parshall
flume
 5.2 Water measurement Method
• There are a number of good ways to measure the
amount of water in a stream or a canal.

• What method of measurement you should use

will depend on several factors:

– The accuracy of the result needed;

– The quantity of water present in the stream or canal
you will measure;
– The equipment you have available to use.
 Water flow measurement methods for
streams or canals
Method Water flow Accuracy Remarks Equipment

Quick and rough Small An approximation For a quick estimate None

Most accurate of all Dam, pipe, buckets,

Bucket Very small Very high
methods 1 -l bottle, watch

Float, stakes, line, measuring stick,

Float Medium
watch

Float and cross section Best for streams with Float, stakes, line, measuring stick,
Small to large record sheet, watch
calm water
Low to medium
Dye, stain and cross Dye, stakes, line, measuring stick,
section record sheet, watch

Does not
vary greatly,
Weir,
114 l/s or smaller, Wood, sheet metal or corrugated roof
triangular
or does vary greatly For recording flow sheeting; tools for working with wood
from small to large High
over a period of time or metal; shovel, pick, line, level,
Does not vary greatly measuring stick
Weir,
and is greater than
rectangular
114 l/ s
1. Bucket method
• This is a simple method for measuring a very small flow of less than 5 l/s
with very high accuracy.

• Begin to build a small dam of earth across the stream to stop the flow. You
can use wood poles, bamboo or tree branches to hold the earth in place
while you build the dam.

• When the dam is about half built, put in a pipe about 5-7 cm in diameter
and about 1-1.5 m long. This pipe can be made of bamboo.

• Finish building the dam across the stream so that all the water flow passes
through the pipe.

• Find at least two buckets or other, similar containers which you can use to
catch the water flowing through the pipe. You will also need a bottle or
other, smaller 1-litre container.
2. Float method

• This is a method for measuring small to large water flow with medium
accuracy.

• This method is best used in streams with calm water and during periods of
good weather. If there is too much wind and the surface of the water is
rough the float may not travel at the normal speed.

Where to measure
• Find and mark a length AA to BB along the stream, which is straight for a
distance of at least 10 metres. Try to find a place where the water is calm
and free from water plants so the float will flow easily and smoothly.
Find the average water velocity
Your three time measurements are 19, 21 and 20
seconds; their sum is 19 + 21 + 20 = 60 sec; the average
time to travel from AA to BB is 60 ÷ 3 = 20 seconds

• AA to BB = 10 metres;
Average time = 20 seconds;
Surface water velocity = 10 m ÷ 20 s
or 10 ÷ 20 m/s= 0.5 m/s
Average water velocity = 0.5 m/s x 0.85 = 0.425 m/s.
– 0.85 correction factor
Find the average width
• Measure the width (in m) of the stream in a
number of places. Take the measurement that
occurs most frequently as the average width.
– Your width measurements were 1.1 m, 1 m, 1 m,
0.9 m, 1 m and 1.2 m; use 1 m for the average
width.
Find the average depth
• Measure the water depth (in m) of the stream
at several points along its width. Take half of
the deepest measurement as an
approximation of the average depth.
Your depth measurements were 0.2 m, 0.6 m.
0.9 m. 1.2 m, 0.8 m and 0.3 m: the deepest
one is 1.2 m, so the average depth is 1.2 m ÷ 2
= 0.6 m.
3. Float and cross-section method
• This is a simple method for measuring small to large water flow
with an accuracy somewhat greater than the float method
described above
• Like the float method, it is best used in calm water and during
periods of good weather when there is little wind.

Where to measure
• Find a length along the stream that is straight for a distance of at
least 20 metres.

• Try to find a place where the water is calm and free from water
plants so the float will float easily and smoothly. Mark it with stakes
on both sides of the stream at points AA and BB and stretch a line
between the stakes.
Find the average cross-section
The cross-section of the stream
will be different at the
beginning (AA) and the end
(BB). You will need to find the
average cross-section.
Measure the water depth (in m)
five times at equal distances
across the stream at point AA
• Your depth measurements at point AA were 0.6 m, 1.1 m.
1.4 m, 1.1 m and 0.8 m; their sum = 5.0 m; then the
average depth at point AA is 5.0 m ÷ 5 = 1 m.
• The stream width at point AA is 2 m; the cross section at
that point is thus 1 m x 2 m = 2 m2.
• At point BB, the average depth is 0.8 m and the stream
width is 2 m; the cross section at that point is thus 0.8 m x 2
m = 1.6 m2.

• Cross-section at point AA = 2.0 m2

Cross-section at point BB = 1.6 m2
Total (AA + BB) = 3.6 m2
Average cross-section = 3.6 m2 ÷ 2 = 1.8 m2.
Find the average water velocity
Distance AA to BB = 20 m; your three time
measurements are 59, 61 and 60 seconds; their sum
is 180 seconds: the average time to travel from AA to
BB is 180 ÷ 3 = 60 seconds; surface water velocity is
20 m ÷ 60 s = 0.33 m/s; average water velocity is
0.33m/s x 0.85 = 0.27 m/s.
Calculate the water flow
• To calculate the water flow (in m3/s) multiply
the average water velocity by the average
cross-section.

Average water velocity 0.27 m/s;

Average cross section 1.8 m2 ;
Water flow = 0.27 m/s x 1.8 m2 = 0.486 m3/s
4. Dye stain and cross-section method
This is a method for measuring small and large water flow
with medium accuracy. In this method, water-staining dye
is used instead of a float to measure the water flow.

• Drop a small amount of dye in the middle of the stream a

little above line AA. This will form a dye stain in the water.

• Note: potassium permanganate and fluorescein are

suitable dye solutions that may be available from chemical
suppliers.
Time for front of dye stain (t1) to reach line BB =
95 seconds
Time for end of dye stain (t2) to reach line BB
=105 seconds
Total time: 95 + 105 = 200 seconds.
Average time: 200 ÷ 2 =100 seconds.
Length of AA to BB = 20 m.
Average time = 100 s.
Water velocity = 20 m ÷ 100 s = 0.2 m/s
• Average cross-section = 1.8 m2.
• Water velocity = 0.2 m/s
Average cross-section = 1.8 m2
Water flow = 0.2 m/s x 1.8 m2 = 0.36 m3/s or
0.36 m3/s x 1 000 = 360 l/s
5. Current meter
6. Weir
• Classification based on end contraction:
– Contracted weir
– Suppressed weir
A. Classification according to shape of crest
Sharp-crested weir
• The crest of the weir is very sharp such that the water will
springs clear of the crest.
• The weir plate is bevelled at the crest edges to obtain necessary
thickness. And weir plate should be made of smooth metal
which is free from rust and nicks.
• Flow over sharp-crested weir is similar as rectangular weir.
Broad-crested weir:
• These are constructed only in rectangular shape and
are suitable for the larger flows.
• Head loss will be small in case of broad crested weir.
Narrow-crested weir:
– It is similar to rectangular weir with narrow
shaped crest at the top.
– The discharge over narrow crested weir is similar
to discharge over rectangular w
Ogee-shaped weir:
– Generally ogee shaped weirs are provided for the spillway
of a storage dam.
– The crest of the ogee weir is slightly rises and falls into
parabolic form.
– Flow over ogee weir is also similar to flow over rectangular
weir.
B. Classification based on end contraction
Contracted weir
– The crest is cut in the form of notch and then it is similar to
rectangular weir. Head loss will occur in this type.
Suppressed weir
– The crest is running all the way across the channel so head
loss will be negligible.
A. Discharge over rectangular weir
B. Discharge over triangular weir
C. Discharge over trapezoidal weir (cippoletti weir)
7. Flume
Measuring depth of flow and use table.
8. Orifice
 H-
measurement
 CHAPTER 6: Surface and subsurface drainage

Definition:
• Drainage, in agriculture, the artificial removal
of water from land; drainage is employed in
the reclamation of wetlands, in the prevention
of erosion, and as a concomitant of irrigation
in the agriculture of arid regions.
6.1 The need and benefit of drainage

• The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper

layers, feeds the groundwater reservoir.

• As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table

or simply water table) rises.

• Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the

groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the
rootzone. Again, if this situation lasts too long, the plants may
suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water table are thus
necessary.
Salt problem in irrigation agriculture

• Agricultural drainage is the

– removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the
land,
– removal of soluble salts from the soil, to enhance crop
growth.

• Drainage of agricultural land is one of the most critical water

management tools for the sustainability of productive
cropping systems, as frequently this sustainability is extremely
dependent on the control of waterlogging and soil
salinization in the rootzone of most of crops.
The specific objectives of agricultural drainage are:
– to lower the water table for favorable crop growing
conditions,
– to remove excess surface and subsurface water,
– to remove excess soluble salts with the (excess) water
from the drained soil profile, and
– to maintain groundwater levels at a desired level.
• Water logging is the accumulation of excess water in the root
zone of the soil.

• Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts at the soil

surface, or at some point below the soil surface.
 Even if irrigation water is of very good quality, it will
contain some salts
 Salt are left behind on the soil, after the irrigation water is
used by the crop or evaporates directly from the soil
 The above process can called salinization
 Basic causes for water logging

 There are two basic factors responsible to causes water

logging
 Factors responsible for excess inflow
1. Infiltration from excess rainfall
2. Flooding land
3. Induced seepage
4. Over irrigation
5. Sub-Soil flow
 Factors responsible for poor outflows
1. Inadequate surface drainage
2. Natural & artificial obstructions to subsoil &
surface out flow
3. Poor topography
Drainage criteria could be:
• Agricultural drainage criteria – optimum crop production;

• drainage criteria – minimize the costs of installing and

operating the system;

• Environmental drainage Technical criteria- to minimize the

environmental damage; and

• Economic drainage criteria – to maximize the net benefits.

 6.4 Types of drainage
• Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Many areas have some
natural drainage; this means that excess water flows from the farmers'
fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers.

• Natural drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-

made drainage is required.
• There are two types of artificial drainage: surface drainage and
subsurface drainage.

Surface drainage
• Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the
land. This is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called
open drains.

• The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains.
In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the
field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading
Subsurface drainage
• Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the rootzone. It
is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains.

i. Deep open drains

• The excess water from the rootzone flows into the open drains .
The disadvantage of this type of subsurface drainage is that it
makes the use of machinery difficult.
ii. Pipe drains
• Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water
can enter. The pipes convey the water to a collector drain.
• Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually
placed in trenches by machines. In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30
cm long and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage water enters the pipes
through the joints. Flexible plastic drains are much longer (up to 200 m)
and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire
length of the pipe.
 7. Surface Drainage Systems

• Surface drainage is applied primarily on flat lands, where slow

infiltration, low permeability or restricting layers in the profile
prevent the ready absorption of high intensity of rainfall.

• The surface drainage system is therefore intended to

eliminate ponding & prevent prolonged saturation by
accelerating flow to and out-let without causing siltation or
soil erosion.
 7.1 Land forming, land grading and land shaping

• The design of Surface drainage system has two

components

– Shaping the surface by land forming, defines as “ changing the

micro-topography of land to meet the requirements of surface
drainage or irrigation
– Construction of open drains to the main outlet

• Under Land forming -- there are two techniques for

surface drainage system:
1) Bedding
2) Land grading & land planning
1. Bedding is a surface drainage method achieved by ploughing
land to form a series of low beds, separated by parallel field
drains.
– the beds are separated by parallel dead furrows oriented in the direction
of greatest land slope
2. Land Grading & Land Planning
• To overcome the disadvantages of the bedding system, two
other methods of land forming have been developed
– Land Grading
– Land planning
Land Grading
– Land grading is the process of forming the surface of land to
predetermined grades, so that each row or surface slopes to a (field)
drain. Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming the
landscape by cutting, filing & smoothing it to planned continuous
surface.
• Land Planning
– `Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface with a land
plane to eliminate minor depressions & irregularities without changing
the general topography. It is frequently applied in conjunction with land
grading.
 7.2 Design of surface drainage system

Estimation of Design Surface Runoff

• The runoff to be used in drain design is termed as “design runoff.”

Surface runoff tobe generated from an area (design runoff) can be
determined from the equations such as “Rational method” or “SCS
method.”

• According to Rational method, peak surface runoff rate (Q) is

Q = CIA

where Q is the runoff rate (m3/h), A is the area from where runoff
generates (drainage area) (m2), I is the peak rainfall intensity (m/h),
and C is the runoff coefficient(dimensionless).
Components of drainage system
In the field, surface drainage systems can have two different layouts:
1. the random field drainage system
2. the parallel field drainage system
RANDOM FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEM
• The random field drainage system is applied where there are a number
of large but shallow depressions in a field, but where a complete land-
forming operation is not considered necessary.
• The random field drainage system connects the depressions by means
of a field drain and evacuates the water into a collector drain .
Parallel field drainage system
• The parallel field drainage system in combination with proper land
forming, is the most effective method of surface drainage.
• The parallel field drains collect the surface runoff and discharge it
Into the collector drain.

• The spacing between the field drains depends on the size of fields
that can be prepared and harvested economically, on the tolerance
of crops to ponding, and on the amount and costs of land forming.
 8. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
• SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

• A subsurface drainage system is a man-made system that induces excess

water and dissolved salts to flow through the soil to pipes or open drains,
from where it can be evacuated.

• If it is decided to install a subsurface drainage system, a choice has to be

made between open drains or pipe drains. Open drains have the advantage
that they can receive overland flow and can thus also serve as surface
drainage. The disadvantages are the loss of land, the interference with the
irrigation system, the splitting up to the land into small farm blocks, which
hampers farming operations, and that they are a maintenance burden.

• A singular drainage system is a drainage system in which the field drains are
buried pipes and all field drains discharge into open collector drains.

• A composite drainage system is a drainage system in which all field drains and
all collector drains are buried pipes. .
Open drain
• A singular drainage system is a drainage
system in which the field drains are buried
pipes and all field drains discharge into open
collector drains.
Pipe drains
• Three layouts for a subsurface drainage
system: (A) random system; (B) parallel grid
system; (C) herringbone system
Tube well drainage system
• Tube well drainage systems are, similar to subsurface
system, used to control the water table. However,
better use is made of the more permeable deeper soil
layers.