COURSE CODE: CSC 101

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units
COURSE DURATION: Three hours per week
COMPLIED BY: ISAIAH, UTIBE SUNDAY

At the completion of this course, students are expected to:

1. Define the concept of Computer

2. History of Computer and generations of computer
3. Understand the characteristics of a computer, classes of computer, types of
computer and functions of personal computers
4. Components of a Personal Computer and categories of an operating system
5. Principles of Networking
6. Program development: algorithms and methods of representing algorithms

COURSE DETAILS:

Week 1-2: Introduction to computer History and generations of computers Week

3-5: the characteristics of a computer, classes of computer, types of computer and
functions of personal computers
Week 6-8: Components of a Personal Computer and categories of an operating
system
Week 9-10 Principles of Networking: computer network, topology, Internet and
Benefits of the Internet
Week 11: Program development: algorithms and methods of representing
algorithms concept of algorithms: flowcharts and pseudo code

Week 12 Revision

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INTRODUCTION
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century.
Early computers were large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals.
Thus they were confined to the laboratories and few research institutes. They
could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic applications were
confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering.
Today, the computer is no longer confined to the laboratory. Computers, and
indeed, computing have become embedded in almost every item we use.
Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application in engineering,
communication, space science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences,
humanities, the military, transportation, manufacturing, the extractive
industries to mention but a few.
Definitions
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from
the user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called
program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It
can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical)
calculations.

A computer has four

functions:

a. accepts data Input

b. processes data Processing
c. produces output Output
d. stores results Storage

A diagram to define computer

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 A Computer System

Brief History of a Computer

A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices
such as the ancient Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles
Babbage‟s “analytical engine” (1834). It would also include a discussion of
mechanical, analog and digital computing architectures. As late as the 1960s,
mechanical devices, such as the Merchant calculator, still found widespread
application in science and engineering. During the early days of electronic
computing devices, there was much discussion about the relative merits of analog
vs. digital computers. In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog computers were
routinely used to solve systems of finite difference equations arising in oil
reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices proved to have the
power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with large scale computations.
Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from
the hand calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society.
Therefore, this brief sketch of the development of scientific computing is limited
to the area of digital, electronic computers.
The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each
generation is characterized by dramatic improvements over the previous
generation in the technology used to build computers, the internal
organization of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not
usually associated with computer generations, there has been a steady
improvement in algorithms, including algorithms used in computational science.
The following history has been organized using these widely recognized
generations as mileposts.

The First Generation (1946 – 1958)

• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums
for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
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 • They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions
• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations
and they could only solve one problem at a time.
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed
on printouts

Vacuum tube

The Second Generation (1959 – 1964)

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers.
• One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy
efficient and more reliable
• Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words
• Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their
memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology

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Transistor

The Third Generation (965 – 1970)

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.
• Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
• It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
• Users interact with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because
they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors

Integrated Circuit

The Fourth Generation (1971 – today)

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.

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 • As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse
and handheld devices.

Microprocessor

The Fifth Generation (Today to future) •

Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
• Still in development.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality
• The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and
are capable of learning and self-organization.

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Computer Generations and Their Characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
• Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and
response time can be very fast.
• Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon.
Errors in computing are mostly due to human rather than technological
weakness. There is in-built error detecting schemes in the computer.
• Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data
and instructions. This capacity varies from one machine to the other.
Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory
locations.
• Automatic: Once a program is in the computer‟s memory, it can run
automatically each time it is opened. The individual has little or no
instruction to give again.
• Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of
tiredness and lack of concentration. It will perform the last job with the
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 same speed and accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs
are involved.
• Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to
logical steps. Modern computers can be used to perform a variety of
functions like on-line processing, multi-programming, real time
processing e.t.c.

CLASSES OF COMPUTER
• Analog Computers: This class of computer are special purpose machines
that surfaced in the late forties (1948). They are used solving scientific and
mathematical equations or problems. An example is the thermal analyzer.
Data and figures are represented by physical quantities such as angular
positions and voltage.
• Digital Computers: They are machines made up of combinations of chips,
flip-flops, buttons and other electronic devices to make them function at a
very fast speed. A digital computer has its numbers, data letters or other
symbols represented in digital format. They are mostly special purpose
machines unless minor specifications are included in the design.
• A computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer is
called a hybrid computer.

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Super Computers
• A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given
time. These machines are built to process huge amounts of information and
do so very quickly.
• Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists working
on projects that demand very huge amounts of data variables; an example
is in nuclear research, where scientists want to know exactly what will
happen during every millisecond of a nuclear chain reaction. (To
demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air pollution control
project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it will take a mini
computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation process while it will
take a super computer 30 minutes only).
• They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. (Super
computers are made by CRAY Company).

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Mainframe Computers
• The largest types of computers in common use are the mainframe
computers. They are designed to handle tremendous amounts of input,
output and storage.
• They are used mainly by large organization like the PHCN, NITEL, and
CBN.
• Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals
consist of a type of keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The
mainframe is usually in the computer room (Mainframe computers are
made by IBM, Boroughs & Univac).

Mini Computers
• These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used
for special purposes or small-scale general purposes.
• The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they
lie between mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they
can handle a great deal more input and output than personal computers.
• Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can
handle dozens or even hundreds of terminals.
• Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older
mainframes of the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment
Company’s PDP II and Vax rang)

Workstations
• Between mini computers and micro computers – in terms of processing
power is a class of computers known as workstations.
• A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one
person, although it is still more powerful than the average personal
computer.
• The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing
smaller. They significantly differ from micro computers in two ways: the
central processing unit (CPU) of workstations are designed differently to
enable faster processing of instructions and most of the micro computers
can run any of the four major operating systems.
• Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)] use UNIX
operating system or a variation of it. (A note of caution: Many people use
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 the term workstation to refer to any computer or terminal that is connected
to another computer. Although this usage was once a common meaning of
the term, it has become out dated) (The biggest manufacturers of
workstations are Sun Microsystems).

Micro Computers/Personal Computers

• The term microcomputers and personal computers are used
interchangeably to mean the small free- standing computers that are
commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms.
• Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks,
and cameras. Today, PCs are seriously challenging mainframes and mini
computers in many areas. In fact today PCs are more powerful than
mainframes of just a few years ago, and competition is producing smaller,
faster models every year.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

• THE DESKTOP: This is the first type of PCs and the most common. Most
desktops are small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry
around.
• THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg). They are battery –
operated computers with built–in screens. They are designed to be carried
and used in locations without electricity. Laptops typically have an almost
full –sized keyboard.
• THE NOTEBOOK: They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller. They
weigh about 6 to7 pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg). As the name implies, they are
approximately the size of a notebook and can easily fit inside a brief case.
• THE PALMTOP: They are also known as personal digital assistance
(PDAs) and are the smallest of portable computers. Palmtops are much less
powerful than notebooks or desktops models and feature built-in
applications such as word processing. They are mostly used to display
important telephone numbers and addresses.

FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers
perform include:
• Writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs
• Budgeting and performing accounting tasks

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 • Analyzing numeric information
• Searching through lists or reports for specific information
• Scheduling and planning projects.
• Creating illustrations
• Communicating by using electronic mail
• Advertising products and services.

COMPONENTS OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER

A personal computer is not a single unit. A typical computer consists of several
basic parts or components that work together. To perform any computer task you
need two major components: the hardware and the software.
[1] The hardware is the physical components of a computer system. Generally
you can think of the hardware as any part of the computer that you can see
or touch. Although the hardware of a computer is capable of performing
marvelous tasks, it cannot accomplish any of them without the vital
instructions that the software provides.
[2] The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You
can’t see or touch the software, although you can see packages that contain
the software. It is typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on
the computer hard drive.

HARDWARE COMPOINENTS
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the
following:
[1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and
instructions from a user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help
in communicating with the computer. The most common input devices are the
keyboard and the mouse.
i. The Keyboard: The keyboard of the personal computer comes in
a number of styles. The various models may differ in size and
shape, but except for a few special purpose keys, MDS keyboards
are laid out almost identifiably. The most common keyboard used
today was established by IBM. The computer keyboard is more
than just a typewriter. It contains all of the keys required for typing
letters, numbers, plus the keys for entering commands and moving
around on the screen. There are 101 keys arranged in groups:
Alphanumeric, Numeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement
keys, and Computer keys.

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ii. A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move
around on the screen, and to select commands from menus rather
than type the commands. A mouse is useful because it enables the
user to point at items on the screen and clicks a button to select the
item. It is convenient for entering certain data.
iii. Track Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like an
upside-down mouse. You rest your hand on the exposed ball and
the fingers on the button. To move the cursor around the screen,
you roll the ball with your thumb. Trackballs are much popular
with notebook computers. They require less desk space than the
mouse.
iv. The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly used for games.
It is not used for business applications.
v. The Pen: It is an input device that allows a user to write on or point
at a special pad on the screen of a pen-based computer, such as a
personal digital assistant (PDAS).
vi. The Touch Screen: A computer screen that accepts input directly
into the monitor; users touch electronic buttons displayed on the
screen. It is appropriate in environment where dirt or weather
would render keyboards and pointing devices useless.
vii. The Scanner: This is an input device used to copy images into a
computer memory without manual keying. It works by converting
any image into electronic form by shinning light on the image and
sensing the intensity of reflection at every point. There are several
kinds of scanners. These includes: hand held, flatbed, and sheet
feds.
viii. The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used
input devices after the keyboard and mouse. It is commonly found
in supermarkets and department stores. This device converts a
pattern of printed bars on products into a product number by
emitting a beam of light frequently from a laser that reflects off the
bar code image. A light sensitive detector identifies the bar-code
image by special bars at both ends of the image. Once it has
identified the barcode, it converts the individual bar patterns into
numeric digits.

Input Devices

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[2] Processing Devices: Basically two components handle processing in a
computer: the central processing unit (CPU) and the memory.
a. The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit
(CPU) is a tiny electronic chip known as the micro processor located in
the system unit. It is installed on the main circuit board of the computer,
the motherboard. The CPU as the name implies is where information is
processed within the computer. In this regard, you might think of the
CPU (processor) as the brain of the computer. The CPU is otherwise
known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two basic parts. The
control unit and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The control unit
coordinates all the computer activities and contains the CPUs
instruction to carry out commands. The ALU is responsible for carrying
out arithmetic and logic functions. In other words, when the control unit

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 encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and logic it refers it
to the ALU.
b. Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the
computer: before, while and after information is processed? It is held in
the computer memory or Random Access Memory (RAM). The
memory to which we are referring here is not the kind of long-term
storage that allows you to save work on a floppy disk and months later
to use it, but rather a short term holding area that is built into the
computer hardware. While the CPU is fast and efficient, it cannot
remember anything by itself. It often refers to the memory in the
computer for software instruction and to remember what it is working
on. The term RAM and memory are often interchangeable. RAM refers
to the way the CPU searches through memory for the information it
needs. For the workings of a memory, information is stored in memory
chips. The CPU can get information faster from RAM than it can from
a disk. A computer then reads information or instruction from disks and
stores the information in the RAM where it can get the information
quickly. The CPU processes the information and then returns to the
RAM.

Central Processing Unit (CPU Memory

[3] Storage Devices: Among the most important part of a computer system are
the devices that allow you to save data or information. The physical
components or materials on which data are stored are called storage media. A
storage device is a piece of hardware that permanently stores information.
Unlike electronic memory, a storage device retains information when electric
power is turned off. There are several storage devices and primary among them
are:
a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic
made of a flexible (or floppy) magnetic material on which data are
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 recorded. Floppy disk drives store data on both sides of the disks.
Earlier computers stored data on only a single side of the floppy disk.
b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard
disks are usually enclosed within the system unit. The hard disk is a
stack of metal platters that spin on one spindle like a stack of rigid
floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where the disk and drive are separate,
the hard-disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit. Generally you
cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however some
manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate
drive unit.
c. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk.
CD-ROM is an acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This
implies that the disk can only be read. You cannot change or overwrite
the contents of a CD-ROM disk.
d. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the
surface of a magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring
the data of an entire hard disk.
e. The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or
tape drives. A zip drive can be internal or external. Zip drives have
removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to 250
MB of Data.

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Storage Devices

[4] Output Devices: Output devices return processed data, that is, information
back to the user. In other words, output devices allow the computer „talk‟ to
us. The most common output devices are the monitor and the printer. Others
include modems and speakers.
a. The Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the
computer to display to the user what is going on. It has a screen like that
of a television. It is commonly referred to as the screen or display. It is
the main source for output of information from the computer. As data
is entered through an input device, the monitor changes to show the
effects of the command. Messages displayed on the screen allow the
user to know if the command is correct.
b. The Printer: The printer is an output device that produces on hard copy
or a print out on a paper i.e. it takes data from its electronic form and
prints it out on paper. There are three principal types of printers; Laser,
Inkjet and Dot – Matrix.
c. The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise known as sound boards, is
a hard ware board. It is a device that produces audio sounds and usually
provides ports in the back of a computer for external speakers.

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 It is installed in one of the expansion slot inside the system unit‟s
motherboard.
d. The Modem: The modem is a device that allows a computer to
communicate with another computer through a telephone line. Both
computers need compatible modem. With a modem, a computer and
required software, you can connect with other computers all over the
world.
Output Devices

SOFTWARE COMPOINENTS
Software is a set of instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and
execute particular functions or tasks. In other words, it is a programs, routines,
and symbolic languages that control the function of the hardware. For software
(the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is,
the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer
can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless.
Computer program is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a
computer to carry out a process.
There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software.

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[1] Applications Software: Applications software includes programs that
user access to carry out work. They include applications for the following
functions.
✓ Word processing is the most common applications software. The
great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that
you can make changes without retyping the entire document. Word
processors make it easy to manipulate and format documents.
Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office Word,
Microsoft Works Word, Open Office Word, etc.
✓ Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically
create and manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in
rows and columns with predefined relationships to each other).
Spreadsheets are used for mathematical calculations such as
accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. Example; Microsoft Excel,
Lotus 1, 2, 3, and SPSS.
✓ Database management applications are computer programs that let
people create and manipulate data in a database. A database is a
collection of related information that can be manipulated and used
to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate reports.
Example is Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL, MySQL and Oracle
database.
✓ Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that
enable users to create highly stylized images for slide presentations
and reports. They can also be used to produce various types of charts
and graphs. Many software applications include graphics
components including: paint programs, desktop publishing
applications and so on. Example is Microsoft PowerPoint.
✓ Communications applications typically include software to enable
people to send faxes and emails and dial into other computers.

[2] Systems Software: includes the operating system and all the utilities that
enable the computer to function. The most important program that runs on
a computer is the operating system. Every general-purpose computer must
have an operating system in order to run other programs. This includes
controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware and
applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input and
output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked
computers.

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FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
• Booting of Computer: This is the first process which takes place the
moment the computer's electrical switch is put on. During this process all
the peripherals connected to the computer are checked and validated; at the
end of the validation process, the OS signals the user to begin working on
the computer.
• Providing User Interface: The OS provides an interface for the user,
either as a command line interface or as a graphical user interface. This
enables the user to communicate with the computer.
• Managing the Hardware: OS controls and manages hardware resources.
For example, OS manages the selection and operation of devices used for
input, output and storage. In other words the OS serves as the intermediary
between programs and hardware.
• Managing the File System: The operating system groups‟ data together
into -logical compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are
called files. The computer stores information in files. Files may contain
program instructions or data created or used by a program. The OS
maintains the list of files on a disk.
• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide
services to other programs. Often these services are similar to those that
the OS provides directly to users. For example when you want your word-
processing program to retrieve a document, the word processor will list the
files in the directory that you specify.
• Some of the other services that an OS provides to programs are:
✓ saving files to disk reading them from disk into memory
✓ checking available disk or memory space
✓ allocating memory to hold data for a program

CATEGORIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Multitasking the Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an OS
that is able to run more than one program task per operation time.
There are two types of multitasking operating systems cooperative and
preemptive.
• Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the
OS and application programs. In this case the programs are written
in such a way that they periodically check with the OS to see whether
any other program needs the CPU. If a program needs the CPU, they
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 relinquish control of the CPU to the next program. Cooperative
multitasking is common with Macintosh OS and DOS computers
running Microsoft Windows.
• Preemptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the OS maintain a
list of processes (programs) that are running. Each process on the list
is assigned a priority by the OS when it is started. At any time, the
OS can intervene and modify the priority list. The OS also retains
control of the amount of time that it spends with any process before
going to the next process. UNIX, OS/2 and Windows NT employ
preemptive multitasking.
2. Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user OS allows more than a
single user access to a computer at the same time. Of course, to accomplish
this, a multi-user OS must also be capable of multitasking. Only UNIX OS
and Windows NT are capable of supporting multiple users. UNIX provides
three ways to let people use the same PC at the same time.
• The first way to connect to a PC running UNIX is from another
computer with a modem. The remote user can log in and run
programs, list files, send e-mails read the news and otherwise do
everything they could do if they were physically in front of the
UNIX computer.
• The second way to connect to a UNIX computer is by attaching
terminals to the PC. Terminals are inexpensive devices
that consist of a keyboard, and a monitor.
• The third way to tap into a UNIX computer multi-user
capabilities is with a network.
3. Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of OS is required to
use a computer equipped with more than one CPU. In other words,
multiprocessing requires an OS capable of using and managing a series of
CPUs. There are two types:
• With asymmetrical multiprocessing one main CPU retains the
overall control of the computer as well as that of the other
microprocessor.
• On the other hand in symmetrical multiprocessing there is no single
controlling CPU. This arrangement provides a linear increase in
system capacity for each processor added to the system.
• Some extensions of UNIX supports asymmetric multiprocessing
while Windows NT supports symmetric multiprocessing.

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TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS used to be the most common and
most popular of all the PC operating systems. The reason for its popularity
then is because of the overwhelming volume of available software and large
installation of Intel-based PCs. DOS runs on any of the Intel microprocessor.
DOS functions through the command–line interface i.e. DOS functions by
commands.
2. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a version of DOS. It was released
in 1987. Microsoft Windows can run standard DOS programs either in a
window within the Graphic Use Interface (GUI) or on a full-screen. To take
full advantage of the Microsoft environment you need programs written for
Microsoft Windows.
3. Operating Systems 2 (OS/2): 1BM and Microsoft teamed up to develop the
Operating System 2(OS/2) to take full advantage of the multitasking
capabilities of the newly introduced Intel 80286 microprocessor. OS/2 like
DOS has a character–based command-line mode, but unlike DOS, the
command interpreter is a separate program from the OS kernel and is only
involved when you click on the OS/2. OS/2 runs only on Intel 80286 and later
Intel processors.
4. The Macintosh OS: The Macintosh OS is a purely graphic machine. In fact
there is no equipment of a command-line interface available for it. Its tight
integration of OS, GUI and desktop make it desirable for people who do not
want to deal with a command-line interface. The Macintosh OS only runs on
Macintosh machine. The Macintosh OS has an additional network protocol
built into it and is ideal for desktop publishing. Installing and configuring a
Macintosh with new hardware device is simple.
5. UNIX: UNIX is the first OS that runs on many different types of computers.
It runs on Cray supercomputers, PCs, and everything in between including
mainframes and minicomputers. UNIX is older than all the other PC operating
systems and in many ways served as a model for them. UNIX is based on a
simple idea-small is better. Every command and program that makes up the
OS is designed to do a simple very specific task and do it well. UNIX is an
extremely robust and capable OS that utilizes command –line and there are so
many commands.
6. Microsoft Windows NT: Microsoft Windows NT is a new OS designed from
scratch for the most modern and capable machines available. Microsoft
Windows NT offers built-in features that no other PC OS has – with the
possible exception of UNIX. In addition to the traditional UNIX features of

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 strict system security, built-in networking, built-in communications and
electronic mail services development and system administration tools, and a
GUI. Microsoft Windows NT can run Microsoft Windows applications and
many UNIX applications, directly. Like OS/2 it is a 32-bit OS that can use
386, 486 and Pentium processors Microsoft Windows NT is multitasking and
purely graphical OS with network software to make a network client or server.
It is single- user and allows access to command line interface of the DOS
unlike the Macintosh.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
We said earlier that software is a program that tells the computer what to do and
how to do it. This implies that without the software computer will practically do
nothing and you will not be able to use it at all. This software cannot be seen like
we see the hardware. They are programs.
Programs are coded set of instructions that instruct the computer to perform
specific task. In other word, it tells/instructs the computer what the user intend to
do. So to communicate with the computer we would need software, before we can
have software we would need to write a program. To write a good program we
need to develop algorithm and a flowchart. So, what are they?

ALGORITHM /PSEUDO-CODE
Algorithm: An algorithm is a set of steps for solving a particular problem. To be
an algorithm, a set of rules must be unambiguous and have a clear stopping point”.
There may be more than one way to solve a problem, so there may be more than
one algorithm for a given problem.
Pseudo-code: A pseudo-code is an algorithm but in this case it uses a mixture of
English statements, some mathematical notations, and selected keywords from a
programming language. Most at time when we say algorithm in computer science
we mean pseudo-code.
Before writing an algorithm/pseudo-code for a problem, one should find out what
is/are the inputs to the algorithm and what is/are expected output after running the

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algorithm. Now let us take some exercises to develop an algorithm for some
simple problems: While writing algorithms we will use following symbol for
different operations:
„+‟ for Addition
„-‟ for Subtraction
„*‟ for Multiplication
„/‟ for Division and
„ ‟ for assignment. For example A =X*3 means A will have a value of X*3.

SAMPLES OF ALGORITHM AND PSEUDOCODE

PSEUDO-CODE ALGORITHM

START BEGIN:
1. INPUT A First, accept the first number
2. INPUT B Second, accept the second number
3. Sum A + B
Add the first and second number together
4. PRINT Sum
END OF ALGORITHM Print the result
END OF ALGORITHM

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ALGORITHM

• Each step of an algorithm must be exact. This goes without saying. An

algorithm must be precisely and unambiguously described, so that there

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 remains no uncertainty. An instruction that says “shuffle the deck of card”
may make sense to some of us, but the machine will not have a clue on how
to execute it, unless the detail steps are described. An instruction that says
“lift the restriction” will cause much puzzlement even to the human
readers.

• An algorithm must terminate. The ultimate purpose of an algorithm is to

solve a problem. If the program does not stop when executed, we will not
be able to get any result from it. Therefore, an algorithm must contain a
finite number of steps in its execution. Note that an algorithm that merely
contains a finite number of steps may not terminate during execution, due
to the presence of „infinite loop‟.

• An algorithm must be effective: An algorithm must provide the correct

answer to the problem.

• An algorithm must be general: An algorithm must solve every instance of

the problem. For example a program that computes the area of a rectangle
should work on all possible dimensions of the rectangle.

FLOWCHART

A flowchart is a graphical or pictorial representation use to solve a giving

problem. To be more precise, it is a graphical representation of algorithm. It
shows sequence of operations and procedures to be taken to solve the problem.
This means by seeing a flow chart one can know the operations performed and
the sequence of these operations in a system. Algorithms are nothing but sequence
of steps for solving problems. So a flow chart can be used for representing an
algorithm. A flowchart, will describe the operations (and in what sequence) are

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required to solve a given problem. You can see a flow chart as a blueprint of a
design you have made for solving a problem.
For example suppose you are going for a picnic with your friends then you plan
for the activities you will do there. If you have a plan of activities then you know
clearly when you will do what activity. Similarly when you have a problem to
solve using computer or in other word you need to write a computer program for
a problem then it will be good to draw a flowchart prior to writing a computer
program. Flowchart is drawn according to defined rules.

Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents
through the computer to final distribution to users.

Program flowcharts show the sequence of instructions in a single program or

subroutine. Different symbols are used to draw each type of flowchart.

A Flowchart does the following:

✓ shows logic of an algorithm

✓ emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections e.g. control
flow from one action to the next

FLOWCHART SYMBOLS
The basic flowchart symbols are as follows:

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SYMBOL NAME FUNCTION

Input/output Use for any input/output

operation

Process Indicate any type of

operation done in the
CPU or memory

Use to ask a question

that can be answered in a
Decision binary format
(Yes/No, True/False

On-page connector Provide connection of

program flow within the
same page

Off-page connector Provide connection of

program flow within
different pages

Shows direction of flow

Flow lines

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EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS

Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.

Inputs to the algorithm:
Radius r of the Circle.

Expected output:
Area of the Circle

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle
Step3: Area PI*r*r // calculation of area
Step4: Print Area
Step5: End

Start

Read r

Area=3.142*r*r

Print: Area

End

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Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum.

Inputs to the algorithm:

num1. num2.

Expected output:
Sum of the two numbers.

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input: num1.
Step3: Read\input: num2.
Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum
Step5: Print: Sum
Step6: End
Start
Start

Read F
Read: Num1,
Num2

C=5/9* (F - 32)
Sum=Num1+Num2

Print: C
Print: Sum

End
Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to Celsius

Inputs to the algorithm:

Temperature in Fahrenheit

Expected output:
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Temperature in Celsius

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F
Step 3: C 5/9*(F32)

Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C

Step5: End

TYPES OF LOGIC (CONTROL STRUCTURES) USED

In the late 1960s, two mathematicians, Corrido Boehm and Giuseppe Jocopini,
proved that even the most complex logic can be expressed using the three general
types of logic or control structures: Sequential (Begin – End), Selection (If-
Then-Else) and Iteration (Do-While or Do-Until). Naturally, these general types
of logic or control structures can be combined in any fashion or combination to
produce a process which when executed will yield the desired result.

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SEQUENTIAL (BEGIN – END)
The sequence is exemplified by sequence of statements place one after the other
- the one above or before another gets executed first. In flowcharts, sequence of
statements is usually contained in the rectangular process box.

SELECTION/ BRANCHING (IF-THEN-ELSE)

The branch refers to a binary decision based on some condition. If the condition
is true, one of the two branches is explored; if the condition is false, the other
alternative is taken. This is usually represented by the „if-then‟ construct in
pseudo-codes and programs. In flowcharts, this is represented by the diamond
shaped decision box. This structure is also known as the selection structure.

ITERATIVE/LOOP
The loop allows a statement or a sequence of statements to be repeatedly executed
based on some loop condition. It is represented by the „while‟ and „for‟
constructs in most programming languages, for unbounded loops and bounded
loops respectively. (Unbounded loops refer to those whose number of iterations
depends on the eventuality that the termination condition is satisfied; bounded
loops refer to those whose number of iterations is known before-hand.) In the
flowcharts, a back arrow hints the presence of a loop. A trip around the loop is
known as iteration. You must ensure that the condition for the termination of the
looping must be satisfied after some finite number of iterations, otherwise it ends
up as an infinite loop, a common mistake made by inexperienced programmers.
The loop is also known as the repetition structure.

The three basic control structures can be represented pictorially as shown below:

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 Sequential Selection Iteration

PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING

Computer Networks

Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect
groups of people together create a physical network. Connections with your
friends create your personal network. Websites that allow individuals to link to
each other’s pages are called social networking sites.

People use the following networks every day:

• Mail delivery system

• Telephone system
• Public transportation system
• Corporate computer network
• The Internet

Networks share information and use various methods to direct the manner in
which information flows. The information on the network goes from one place to
another, sometimes via different paths, to arrive at the appropriate destination.
For example, the public transportation system is a network similar to a computer
network. The cars, trucks, and other vehicles are like the messages that travel
within the network. Each driver defines a starting point (source computer) and an
ending point (destination computer). Within this system, there are rules such as
stop signs and traffic lights that control the flow from the source to the destination.
A computer network also uses rules to control the flow of data between hosts on
a network.

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A host is any device that sends and receives information on the network. Some
devices can serve either as hosts or peripherals. For example, a printer connected
to your laptop that is on a network is acting as a peripheral. If the printer is
connected directly to a network, it is acting as a host.

Many different types of devices can connect to a network:

• Desktop computers
• Laptop computers
• Tablet computers
• Smartphones
• Printers
• File and print servers
• Game consoles
• Home appliances

Computer networks are used globally in businesses, homes, schools, and

government agencies. Many of the networks are connected to each other through
the Internet. A network can share many different types of resources and data:

• Services, such as printing or scanning

• Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or optical drives
• Applications, such as databases
• Information, stored on other computers
• Documents
• Calendars, synchronizing between a computer and a smartphone

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LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES

A logical topology describes how the hosts access the medium and communicate
on the network. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast
and token passing. In a broadcast topology, a host broadcasts a message to all
hosts on the same network segment. There is no order that hosts must follow to
transmit data. Messages are sent on a First In, First Out (FIFO) basis.

Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token

sequentially to each host. If a host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data
and a destination address to the token, which is a specially-formatted frame. The
token then travels to another host with the destination address. The destination
host takes the data out of the frame. If a host has no data to send, the token is
passed to another host.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES

A physical topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other
devices are connected to a network. The figure provides six physical topologies.

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Bus Topology

In a bus topology, each computer connects to a common cable. The cable connects
one computer to the next, like a bus line going through a city. The cable has a
small cap installed at the end called a terminator. The terminator prevents signals
from bouncing back and causing network errors.

Ring Topology

In a ring topology, hosts are connected in a physical ring or circle. Because the
ring topology has no beginning or end, the cable is not terminated. A token travels
around the ring stopping at each host. If a host wants to transmit data, the host
adds the data and the destination address to the token. The token continues around
the ring until it stops at the host with the destination address.
The destination host takes the data out of the token.

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Star Topology

The star topology has a central connection point, which is normally a device such
as a hub, switch, or router. Each host on a network has a cable segment that
attaches the host directly to the central connection point. The advantage of a star
topology is that it is easy to troubleshoot. Each host is connected to the central
device with its own wire. If there is a problem with that cable, only that host is
affected. The rest of the network remains operational.

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology connects all devices to each other. When every device is
connected to every other device, a failure of any cable or device along a
connection does not affect the network. The mesh topology is used in WANs that
interconnect LANs.

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INTERNET
The Internet commonly referred to as the „Net‟ is better described than defined,
as a global network of computers. It is often described as a network of networks
because it first began through the linking of the existing local computer networks
used by universities and governmental organizations. The Internet is a
constellation of computers around the world that speak the same language so
information travels seamlessly from one computer to another. Globally, the
Internet connects scientific research, educational, government, commercial and
business networks. When you connect to the Internet, your computer becomes
part of the global network of computers. The Internet is more than a technological
marvel. The peace is quick, with messages and information racing round the
world in a few seconds. It has ushered in an era of sweeping changes in
networking and communication that has left no business, agency, organization or
government untouched.

How the Internet Developed

The Internet began in the 1960s when the US Department of Defense through
ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network) began creating a
computer network that would continue to function in the event of a major disaster.
In 1969, four mainframe computers at a U.S. university were linked into a
network that transferred data on dedicated high-speed transmission lines.
Through the 1970s and 1980s new similar networks were created to link
educational institutions, government offices and military centers in the United
States and other countries. In the 1990s, as the Internet grew, private businesses
and other regional network providers took over the operation of the major Internet
networks and the development of much of the information available online.
Private businesses, educational institutions, organizations and individuals now
develop much of the information content available online.

How Information is transmitted on the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide complex of small regional networks. To understand

this, picture a major road connecting large cities. Smaller roads link the cities to
small towns where residents travel on narrow residential streets. The high-speed
Internet is the major road in this scenario. Connected to it are smaller computer
36
networks (functioning like smaller, less traveled roads) that can share data
information at high speeds. In order to enable different computers to
communicate and transmit packaged information with each other, a standard
„protocol‟ has been established for transporting data. This Internet protocol is
called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and allows all
networks all over the world to communicate with each other on the Internet. When
transmitting information over a network or the Internet, it is in the same binary
form as when it is stored on a computer, but the data has to be packaged for
transmission. This procedure is necessary because bits travelling freely on the
network will have no meaning to network devices. So before data is transmitted
on the Internet, network software forms the data into packets.

Benefits of the Internet

Basically and generally, the benefits derivable from the utilization of the Internet
are mainly as follows:
• Speed/Time Saving: The speed of transmission on the Internet is the
significant benefit of the Internet. A letter or document that could take days
to arrive by regular mail can be sent to the other side of the world in
minutes. Likewise, searching through a card catalogue at a library can be
a time consuming, tedious process, but you can search an online version of
the same catalogue in a fraction of the time. The speed of transmitting
information naturally saves time and money.
• Breadth/Reach: The Internet gives you access to a vast (and growing)
collection of databases, documents, computer software; these and almost
any other kind of information can be stored electronically.
• Cost Saving: Exchanging information via the Internet is less expensive
than using telephones or fax machines especially where telephone access
fees are high. Likewise marketing and advertising your products and
services on the Internet can be less expensive than using conventional
printing and document-delivery methods.
• Two-way Communication: Audiences now have the means to respond
directly to sources of information, research and opinion.
• Trading: The Internet provides the opportunity for purchase and sale of
goods and services. Specifically, the Internet through the E-Commerce has
provided the business community, among others, the following benefits:
i. Improved response time to clients‟ requests
ii. Improved competitive position
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 iii. Eased the process of concluding deals and financial transactions
iv. Extended market reach and increased revenue potentials
v. Increased consumer convenience and choice
vi. Reduced prices
vii. Improved customer service

SERVICES OFFERED ON THE INTERNET

The major Internet services are as follows:

Electronic Mail (e-mail): This is the most popular and most utilized Internet
service especially in the developing countries of the world. A conservative
estimate puts the number of people using the e-mail worldwide at more than 90
million people. E-mail is message sent from one person to another via a computer
network. The same e-mail can be sent easily to one address or many addresses.
Commercial electronic mail is used for the same purposes as the organization
wide mail system. But instead of being limited to members of one organization,
the service is made available to the public on subscription bases.
E-mail messages are exchanged between customers, suppliers, friends and
business partners. E-mail service has cut down on the cost of mailing or sending
information thus saving time and money. E-mail is used as a marketing tool, for
example, a company, Dealaday.com uses e-mail to prospect for customers and
sends group e-mail to 10,000 user names all customers who have indicated they
would like to receive e-mails. With e-mail they receive a 7%, 8% and sometimes
10% response, unlike 1% or 2% response in normal direct marketing.

The World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web or the web is one of the
Internet’s most popular applications and it was launched in 1991. It is a graphical,
easy–to-use way to organize and present information, including texts, images,
movies, sounds and more.
The World Wide Web has generated tremendous popular interest in the Internet.
The www is unique for two reasons. Firstly it is highly interactive media bringing
documents in graphics, audio and video. Secondly, it uses hyperlink, which
provides connections between different resources. It allows users to jump from
one page to another.
A file in www is called the home page and usually contains a multimedia clip. A
page can link you to other web pages and Internet resources with clicks of a

38
mouse. You can view and download any information you need on any home page
with the aid of software known as the web browser.

File Transfer Protocol (ftp): File transfer protocol (ftp) is an Internet tool used
to transfer files between computers and it is the most common method of
transferring files on the Internet. Without viewing them as they are transferred the
ftp enables you to access file on a remote location on the Internet once you log on
to an ftp site, and you are able to access all files on sites and download them if
you so desire. It is fairly easy to publish information on the Internet. Many
institutions maintain publicly accessible archive of information that they want to
share with others.

Telnet: Telnet is an Internet service that allows you to connect to a remote

computer to use specific databases or other applications available on that
computer. Telnet is one of the first applications widely used on the Internet. Many
telnet applications are now available on the World Wide Web where they are
easier to use.

Internet Conference: This is an Internet service whereby different techniques

are used to allow people to discuss topics of mutual interest. A conference can be
as simple as sending e-mail to many different people or as complex as arranging
to have people link different cities, see images of each other and hear each other
talk in real time- that is video conferencing. Internet conferencing is possible, but
the technology becomes more complex and the speed of the connection becomes
more important as you go from text only, to transmitting sound and video in real
time. Internet conference brings about tremendous savings on travelling, time and
money.

Internet Telephony: This is a service in which you can use the Internet as a voice
telephone line. With some types, both you and the person you are calling must
have an Internet connection and be online at the time you wish to talk. Some
companies also offer Internet-to- telephone services where from your computer
you can call any telephone number in the world. Internet telephone services are
inexpensive when you compare them with the conventional cost of telephone
services. If your organization spends a lot of money on long distance telephone
calls, this might be a good option for you. There are growing numbers of
companies providing Internet telephone services.

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Internet Fax: Internet fax is a service that takes a special type of e-mail message
and sends it to a fax machine specified in the message. The message can be faxed
to a computer (Internet-to-Internet).

THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

For a modem to bring information, it must have a number to dial. This is where
an Internet service provider (ISP) comes in. The ISP is the organization that gives
a subscriber access to the information super highway. So to be connected to the
Internet you need to subscribe to an ISP. There are several ISPs scattered all over
the world; some of the popular ones are American Online (AOL), UK Line and
CompuServe. Here in Nigeria, some of the common ones are Hyperia, Infoweb,
Cyberspace, Linkserv, Nigeria Online, Nigeria Net, Nitel, Nova, Prodigy, etc.
The choice of an ISP depends mostly on the effectiveness in the transmission of
information, that is, speed of service is an important criterion for selecting an ISP.
The efficiency of an ISP, in terms of speed of transmission of information, can be
determined by the bandwidth it can support. A bandwidth is a measure of the
amount of data line, satellite link etc. The bandwidth available determines the
total capacity of an ISP to move data anywhere in the world.

INTRANET
An intranet is a local area network that companies use to distribute information
and speed up the movement of data within offices. In other words an intranet
allows the job of processing to be distributed among multiple computers. Intranet
activities usually take place behind secure „firewalls‟ that only authorized users
have access to.
An intranet can span multiple business locations via the Internet. Intranets are
built using the same standard Internet software such as TCP/IP, e-mail client, web
browser and telephone dialer.

EXTRANET
When a company makes open its internal network or intranet to selected business
partners, the intranet becomes an extranet. Suppliers, distributors and other
authorized users can then connect to the company’s network over the „Net‟ or
through virtual private networks. Once inside, they can view the data the company
makes available.

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COMPUTER MEMORY

The main function of computer memory is to store software. Computer memory

is divided into two: Primary memory and Secondary memory.

Primary memory

Primary memory is divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM).

Secondary memory:
Secondary memory are called storage device. Example of secondary memory
devices are: Hard disk, floppy disks, CD ROMs etc. NOTE:

• The CPU can read and write to RAM but can only read from the ROM but
not write into ROM.
• RAM is volatile but ROM is not volatile.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) chips are located on the motherboard and other circuit
boards. ROM chips contain instructions that can be directly accessed by a CPU.
Basic instructions for operation, such as booting the computer and loading the
operating system, are stored in ROM. ROM chips retain their contents even when
the computer is powered down. The contents cannot be erased or changed by
normal means.

NOTE:

Read only memory (ROM) chips: Information is written to a ROM chip when
it is manufactured. A ROM chip cannot be erased or re-written and is obsolete.

CATEGORIES OF ROM

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

Programmable read only memory. Information is written to a PROM chip
after it is manufactured. A PROM chip cannot be erased or rewritten.

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 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Information is written to
an EPROM chip after it is manufactured. An EPROM chip can be erased
with exposure to UV light. Special equipment is required.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Electrically erasable programmable read only memory. Information is
written to an EEPROM chip after it is manufactured. EEPROM chips are
also called Flash ROMs. An EEPROM chip can be erased and re-written
without having to remove the chip from the computer.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

There are three categories of programming languages:

1. Machine languages (ML)

2. Assembly languages (AL)
3. High-level languages (HLL)

The ML and AL are classified as Low-Level Languages (LLL).

Machine Language (ML)

This is the fundamental language of the computer’s processor. It is made up of
binary-coded instructions, which is used directly by the computer. All programs
are converted into ML before they can be executed. The language consists of
0‟s and 1‟s. Example: 100101, 010011

Advantages

• Fast and efficient Machine friendly

• No translation is required
Disadvantages

• Not portable
• Not programmer friendly

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Assembly Language (AL)
Also a low-level language (LLL) which is similar to the machine language is the
AL. It was developed to make programmers job easier. It uses symbolic operation
code to represent the machine operation code.

Symbolic operation codes are in an easy-to-remember form called mnemonics.

Assembly languages have some of the advantages and all of the disadvantages of
machine languages.

Advantages

It is machine friendly as compare to high-level language

Disadvantages

• Not portable
• Not programmer friendly
Compare the following machine language and assembly language programs:
8086 Machine language program for 8086 Assembly language program for
var1=var1+ var2 var1=var1+ var2
1010 0001 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV AX, var1
0000 0011 0000 0110 0000 0000 0000 ADD AX, var2
0010 MOV var!, AX
1010 0011 0000 0000 0000 0000

High Level Language (HLL)

The HLL began to appear in the 1950‟s – COBOL is an example of such early
HLL used to create complex computer programs without necessarily knowing
how the CPU works and without writing a large number of low-level instructions.
The HLL uses English like statements such as PRINT, WHILE, GOTO etc.

A high level language has two primary components:

1. A set of built-in language primitives and grammatical rules

2. A translator

HLL program consists of English-like statements that are governed by a strict

syntax.

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Advantages

• Portable or machine independent

• Programmer-friendly
Disadvantages

• Not as efficient as low level languages

• Need to be translated

Examples are C++, Visual Basic, Pascal, etc.

LANGAUGE TRANLATORS

As mention earlier, one of the disadvantages of a high-level language is that it

must be translated to machine language. High level languages are translated using
translators.

A language translator translates a high level language program or an assembly

language program into a machine language program.

TYPES OF TRANSLATORS

• Assemblers
• Compilers
• Translators

ASSEMBLERS

An assembler is a program that translates an assembly language program, written

in a particular assembly language, into a particular machine language

COMPILERS

A compiler is a program that translates a high level language program, written in

a particular high level language, into a particular machine language.

INTERPRETERS
An interpreter is a program that translates a high level language program, one
instruction at a time, into machine language. As instruction is translated it is
44
immediately executed. Interpreted program are generally slower than compiled
programs because compiled programs can be optimized to get faster execution.

NOTE:

• Some high level languages are compiled while others are interpreted.
• There are also languages like Java, which are first compiled and then
interpreted.

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