ENGINEERING SURVEYING 1

GLS150

Lecturer Notes - Engineering Surveying I (GLS150) Department of Surveying Science And Geomatic
 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT (EDM) & TOTAL
STATIONS
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, students should be able:

1. To define Principles of Electromagnetic Measurements (EDM)

2. To explain the sources of measurement errors
3. To describe introduction total station and adjustments.
INTRODUCTION

• What are the fundamentals data in surveying??

• The common/conventional equipment used to get these
data are theodolite and tape.
• Nowadays, distance can be measured easily, quickly and
with great accuracy using Electronic Distance
Measurement(EDM).
• Both angle & distance can be obtained electronically
using an instrument called total stations.
• This instrument integrate theodolite and EDM.
• EDM are an integrate part of Total Stations and this is the
usual mode of operation.
What is EDM?

• Used to determine the distance (slope/hz) using light & radiowaves.

• Other name: Electromagnetic Distance Measurement
• EDM + Teodolite = Distance + Angle
• 2 types of EDM
a. Visible light / IR Instruments (Electro-optical)
b. Microwave Instruments
The use of EDM/Total Stations in
Engineering Surveying
• To improve an accuracy of distance measurement
compared to other method (pacing, taping, optical).
• More practical to use for large-scale route & site
surveys (1:10,000 & larger)
• For quicker detail surveying with better precision and
more reliable especially when using electronic data
transfer.
• Can be used in setting out based on coordinates in
preference on construction sites.
Electromagnetic Wave (EW)

 energy which propagated in space and transmitted by electric and

magnetic component.
 Types of EW are based on the frequency of waves, in order of
increasing frequency:

1. Gamma rays 6. Microwave

2. X-ray 7. Radio n Television
3. Ultraviolet
4. Visible Light
5. Infrared radiation
Properties of Electromagnetic
Waves
Electromagnetic waves can be represented as periodic sinusoidal waves
& have predictable properties by which all EM is defined.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Cycle
2. Wavelength ()
3. Frequency
4. Period
5. Amplitude
 PROPERTIES OF EW

One wavelength (λ)/

Electrical Field cycle

Sinusoidal Electric Wave

Distance

Magnetic
Field b
Sinusoidal Magnetic Wave

Frequency

Engineering Survey 1
Ernieza Suhana Bt Mokhtar Department of Surveying Science And Geomatic
 CYCLE
The wave completes the cycle when moving between the same points on
the wave.
 WAVELENGTH (λ meter)
Distance which separates two identical points on the wave or length one
complete cycle in one second by the wave ().
 FREQUENCY (f)
The number of times in 1 second to complete a cycle (f hertz, 1 hertz (Hz)
= 1 cycle per second).
 PERIOD (T)
Time taken by waves to complete a cycle or 1 wavelength.
 AMPLITUDE
Displacement of wave (max: pass through 90° and 270°) and (min: 0 and
180°).
 Types of electromagnetic waves
used in EDM
• Microwave :
• Range up to 150 km
• Wavelength 3 cm
• Not limited to line of sight
• Unaffected by visibility

• Light wave (electro-optical):

• range up to 5 km (for small machines)
• visible light, lasers
• distance reduced by visibility

• Infra red (electro-optical):

• range up to 3 km
• limited to line of sight
• limited by rain, fog, other airborne particles
 PRINCIPLE OF EDM

 The wave is traveling along the X axis with the velocity of 299,792.5
± 0.4 km/s (in vacuum).
 The frequency of the wave is the time taken for one complete
wavelength.
 All properties of electromagnetic waves are related by f = (c/) =
(1/T) whereas c=3x108 ms-1
 In an EDM system, the formula is used to identify cycle/wavelength.

λ =c/f
λ = wavelength in meters

c = velocity in km/s = 3x108 ms-1

f = frequency in hertz
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING DISTANCE

• Calculated either from time difference (transmitted and returned

pulse) or phase comparison (transmitted and reflected beam of
radiation)

• Electromagnetic wave or pulse is used to determine distance.

• An electromagnetic is propagated through the atmosphere from

transmitter to receiver and back during the measurement.

• The EDM transmitter sending out a continuous wave to reflector

at the end of line to be measured. Then, the carrier wave
modulated and the distance determined.
Introduction to Phase Comparison

• The speed of light in a vacuum is well known.

• However, the measurements surveyors take are of course not in a

vacuum. Therefore, we must apply corrections for atmospheric
conditions.

• Because the velocity of light is so great, it is not possible to

directly measure the time interval that passes while the light
beam travels.

• To get around this problem, EDM instruments measure the phase

difference between the transmitted and received signals.
 Phase Comparison
• Phase is the unfinished cycle (portion) of a wave.
• The wave completes one oscillation and a portion of it is left
incomplete.
• Distance are measured electronically by determining the number of
full and partial waves of transmitted electromagnetic energy that
are required in traveling the distance between the two ends of the
line.
• The modulated electromagnetic wave will leaving the EDM and
being reflected (light waves) or retransmitted (microwaves) back to
EDM.
• It can be seen that the double distance (2L) is equal to a whole
number of wavelengths (nλ), plus the partial wavelength (Φ)
occurring at the EDM.
L = nλ + Φ meter
2
 Transmitted Reflected

Method involved using

A B
A’ phase comparison

formula:
ø
L = nλ + ø meter
2
nλ
0 90° L = Distance (A-B)
λ = wavelength
L L
n = whole number of
wavelength
ø = fraction of wavelength
 Measurement Requirement

The value of wavelength depends on the accuracy of the EDM instrument

Phase resolution (smallest fraction of a cycle that the instrument is
capable of resolving.

MEASURING WAVE

 is generated within the instruments

 used to measure the distance
 long wavelength have poor propagation characteristics

CARRIER WAVE
 short wavelength but higher frequency
 can travel longer distance
 used to carry the measuring wave
MODULATION
• Process of superimpose between 2 or more types of waves

• Measuring wave is superimposed on the carrier wave gives much higher

frequency in phase comparison process.

• Used to improve the propagation characteristic of wave

• Used for the actual measurement and to be an accurately controlled

frequency

• 2 types of modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Amplitude Modulation

 Used in short range EDM

 The carrier wave has constant frequency
 Amplitude of carrier wave being superimposed with amplitude
of measuring wave
 used in visible light/ infra-red instruments

Figure 4: Amplitude Modulation

 Frequency Modulation
 Used in long range EDM

 The carrier wave has constant amplitude

 Frequency of carrier wave being superimposed with

frequency of measuring wave

 used in microwave instruments

Figure 5: Frequency Modulation of a Carrier Wave

 EDM Reflectors

 A corner-cube prism (retroreflector) is essential for

most EDM and Total Stations.
 The EDM reflector (prism) is used to return the
transmitted beam to the instrument to allow a distance
to be determined by time of flight or phase
comparison.
 It is constructed from glass cubes or blocks that will
return a beam along a path exactly parallel to the
incident path.
Pole mounted reflector

Glass cube

Figure 6: Types of
EDM reflectors
cut face

Reflected light emerges

Corner cube prism construction parallel to incident light

Prism
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS

• Atmosphere Effects

• Instrument Errors
• Zero Error
• Cyclic Error
• Scale Error
Zero Error

• Also known as Index Error.

• The error occurs when there is uncertainties/differences in the

mechanical, electrical and optical centers of the EDM instrument &
reflectors.

• Usually, the manufacturer determines this constant and programs it in

to the instrument. However, this value can change with time, and if a
different type of reflector is used, the value will change.

• This value can sometimes be changed in the instrument, or can be

applied in the office computations. If a different type of reflector is
used, and the distance is not corrected, a significant error can result.

• The centering error is self explanatory. This error of course can be

reduced by proper adjustment of tribrachs.
 Cyclic Error

• Also known as Instrument Non-linearity.

• This errors is caused by unwanted interference (cross-talk)

between electrical signals of EDM.

• It is more likely to occur in microwave instruments, & it is likely

to be small.

• It can be detected when the periodic wave obtained through the

plotted of calibration curve distances.
Calibration Procedures

• Calibration procedures is to determine the zero, cyclic and

scale error in EDM.

• Zero and cyclic errors calibration is carried out using baselines

and the techniques involving both known and unknown
baseline lengths.
 Procedure to detect zero error in field
 Involves the use of an unknown 3-point baseline. Sometimes it
called the three-peg test.

 Measure a straight line L1

 The line is than divided in two parts, L2 and L3 and have to

measure this two lines.

 The zero error(z) can be calculate by using this formula:

Figure 7 : Procedure to detect

L2 L3 zero errors
L1

(L2 +z)+(L3 +z) = (L1 + z) The value of zero error obtained

usually apply to an instrument
and reflector.
L2 + L3 + 2z = L1 + z The zero constant changes when
the reflector changed.
z = L1 – (L2 + L3)
 Procedure to detect cyclic error in field
 Establish a line (e.g.50m) in length using a steel tape on the flat
ground.
 On the line mark the 40m, 41m, 42m, 43m, 44m, 45m, 46m, 47m,
48m and 49m point with pegs.
 Place the transmitter of the EDM on the starting or zero meter
mark and its reflector or prism on the 50m mark.
 Measure the length six(6) times and obtain its mean value.
 Move the prism to the 49m mark and measure its length six(6)
times. Compute its distance mean.
 Move the prism to the next point and repeat the above step until
the prism is finally placed on the 40m mark.
 Take the difference between the mean readings of a point and its
nearest neighbor. The differences should be 1m. Differences other
than 1m indicate the existence of cyclic error for the sector.
 Example the mean reading for the measured lines

Distance by tape (m) Mean Distance by EDM (m) Distance by frequency (F1) e
40 40.043
41 41.044 1 0.001
42 42.044 2 0
43 43.043 3 -0.001
44 44.044 4 0.001
45 45.045 5 0.001
46 46.043 6 -0.002
47 47.045 7 0.002
48 48.045 8 0
49 49.043 9 -0.002
50 50.043 10 0

 Ex: 41.044-40.043 = 1.001m, Error = 0.001m.

 Ex: 43.043-42.044 = 0.999m, Error = - 0.001m.
 The error for the sector 50m and 49m is 0, sector 49m and 48m is
-2cm, with sector 41m and 40m is 1cm.
 Build a cyclic error graph with the vertical axis represents the errors in
cm and horizontal axis represent the horizontal distances.
Example of cyclic error graph
Calibration of systematic (cyclic) error in phase
measurement

0.003
0.002

0.001
Error

e
0
Poly. (e)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-0.001

-0.002
-0.003
Distance measured with F1 frequency

Figure 8: Cyclic Error Graph

 INTRODUCTION TO TOTAL STATION
• Total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying.
• Three (3) basic components of total station are :
• EDM
• Electronic angle measuring component
• Computer/microprocessor
• These devices automatically measure horizontal and zenith (or
vertical) angle & slope distance can be displayed.
• Upon keyboard commands, hz & vertical distance components can be
instantaneously computed & displayed.
• If the instrument is oriented in direction & the coordinate of the
occupied station are input to the system, the coordinate of any point
sighted can be immediately obtained.
• These data can all be stored within the instrument, or in an automatic
data collector, thereby eliminating manual recording.
 Functions Performed by Total Stations
Instruments
1. Averaging of multiple angle & distance measurements.

2. Correcting electronically measured distances for prism constants,

atmospheric pressure & temperature.

3. Making curvature & refractions corrections to elevation determined by

trigonometric levelling.

4. Reducing slope distances to their hz & vertical components.(supplemented

with keyboard input of instruments & reflector height)

5. Calculating point elevations from the vertical distance components

6. Computing coordinates of surveyed points from hz angle & hz distance

components.(supplemented with keyboard input of coordinates for the occupied
station & reference azimuth)
Figure 9a :
Parts of
Total
Station
instrument
Figure 9b :
Parts of
Total
Station
instrument
Figure 10 :
Reference
axis of
Total
Station
instrument
 Features of Total Stations

• Angle measurement
• Distance measurement
• Keyboard & display
• Power supply
• Useful accessories
Angle Measurement

 Can be used to measure angles in the same way as an electronic

theodolite.
 To measure the directions, targets should be established.

 The angular accuracy varies from instrument to instrument in the

range 1-10”.

 Some instruments will have software installed for measuring

rounds of angles on both faces.
 Distance Measurement

• All total station will measure a slope distance which the onboard
computer uses, together with the zenith (vertical) angle recorded by the
theodolite along the line.

• In addition, the height different between the tilting axis and prism
center is also calculated and displayed.

• Three types of measurement are possible will using either of these:

• Phase Shift System
• Pulsed Laser System
• Rapid (coarse or fast)
Keyboard & Display

• A total station is activated through its control panel, which consists of a

keyboard and multiple line liquid crystal display (LCD).

• The keyboards enables user to select and implement different

measurements modes, enables instrument parameters to be changed and
allows special software function to be accessed.

• Angles and distances are usually recorded electronically by a total station in

digital form as raw data (slope distances, vertical angle, and horizontal
angle).

• For mapping, if a code is entered from the keyboard to define the feature
being observed, the data can be processed much more quickly when it is
downloaded into and processed by an office-based computer and plotter.
 Power Supply

• NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE (NiMh)

• Compatible with standard camcorder batteries.
• Better capacity than NiCad.
• 10 hours use for angle measurement.
• 7-8 hours for angle and distance measurement.
• NIKEL CADMIUM (NiCad)
• More charging cycle than NiMh battery (Has been available for many
years).
• 10 hours use for angle measurement.
• 7-8 hours for angle and distance measurement.
• LITHIUM ION BATTERY
• Easy to charge and maintain.
• Have operating timer of about half that of NiMh and NiCad batteries.

• Some instrument will accept AA size alkaline batteries

 Useful Accessories
• An optical guidance system for setting out has been produced by a
number of manufacturers.

• In one system, the device consists of two visible beams of red light, one
steady and one flashing. if the prism is to the of centre f the line of sight,
a steady red light is seen and if the prisms to the right, a flashing red light
is seen .during the setting out, the frequency of the flashing changes to
indicate whether the prism needs to move forward or back in order to set
out the correct distances to the design point .

• In other systems, different colored lights are used to indicate setting out
to the left or right and the rate at which these flash helps position the
prism along the line of sight.
 SUMMARY

• EDM measures distance electromagnetically

• from time difference or phase difference (2L = nλ + Φ) of
electromagnetic waves
• from microwave / light wave / infrared
• With modulation process (amplitude/frequency modulation)

– EDM errors;
• zero error, cyclic error & scale error.
• EDM Calibration (instrument test) must be carried out in order to
detect these errors.

• Total station
• is a combination of of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic
distance measuring device (EDM) and software running on an external
computer.
• It can automatically measure, display, store and transfer the hz and
vertical angles, as well as distances (slope/Hz/Vertical).