DEPARTMENT OF GEOSPATIAL AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY

SEMESTER 1 2022/2023
Course: ENGINEERING SURVEYING

Course Objective; To introduce fundamental concepts of Setting Out Linear

Engineering Structures
Course Assessment; Final Exam 70 marks
CAT 10
Coursework 20
Course Outline;
1.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)
1.1 Basic Principles
1.2 Instrumentation
1.3 Associated Errors
1.4 Inbuilt software packages.
1.5 EDM Types
1.6 EDM applications
1.7 Coordinates determination with Global Positioning System(GPS)

2.0 CIRCULAR CURVES

2.1 Types of curves
2.2 Curve Elements
2.3 Methods of Setting out
2.4 Obstructions to setting out.
2.5 Compound and Reverse Curves
2.6 Worked example of setting out

3.0 TRANSITION CURVES(TC)

3.1 Introduction
3.2 TC Types
3.3 Determination of TC design parameters
3.4 Setting out TCs
3.5 Worked example of setting out
4.0 VERTICAL CURVES(VC)
4.1 Basic Attributes
4.2 Types of VC
4.3 Permissible Approximations
4.4 Determination of VC esign parameters
4.5 Setting out VCs
4.6 Worked example of setting out
References Texts
Bannister A, Raymond S., and Baker R., (1998), Surveying. Longman Publishers.
Uren J. and W.F. Price (1994), Surveying for Engineers Macmillan Publisher.
 ENGINEERING SURVEYING.

Engineering Surveying defined as any surveying carried out to

Support/facilitate the design, construction or maintenance of
works.
Three main components of Engineering Surveys are Setting out,
Earthworks and Deformation monitoring.
 Earthworks – carrying out measurements to enable
computation of areas and volume.
 Setting out – tranferring plan information onto the
ground to realize/actualize the works.
 Deformation Monitoring – carrying out repeat
measurements for detection of displacements, shear and
rotations of structures on the earth’s surface.

ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT.

Currently known as Electronic Distance

Measurement(EDM).
The EM exists in three distinct regions relative to the
wavelength, namely;
- Radiation considered as particles of energy 10-15
to 10-9m in length.
-Has physiological effect 10-9 to 10-3m
-Possible to generate and transmit radiation ---
electronically 10-3 to 109 - Microwaves and
Radiowaves
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

PRINCIPLES OF (EDM) MEASUREMENT.

- A wide variety of EDMs are
available.
 - Distance derived by
measuring;
 Time delay between pulses---laser based
instruments
 Phase difference – comparing
transmitted and received signals.

- Fundamental stages in
distance determination
electronically given in the
flow-diagram.
Consider source at point A and reflector/remote at point
B with Electro-optical(EO) or Microwave(M) signals
CARRIER SIGNAL Electro CARRIER TRANSMITTER
optical(EO) MODULATION
Optical lens (EO)
A=0.56-0.91 μ m Amplitude (EO)
Dipole
Microwave (μ) Frequency (M)
Parabolic
POINT B
8-30=‫גּ‬mm
reflection (M)
PHASE Retro-reflector (EO)
SLOPE MODULATION SIGNAL
MEASUREMENT Remote transmitter
DIST.
Digital (EO) (M)

AMPLIFIER RECEIVER
CORRECTIONS
Silicon photodiode Optical lens
Refractive index
Electronic circuit(M) (EO)
Calibration
Dipole(M)
Slope

MSL

Scale factor
CORRECTED DIST DATA COLLECTOR

1. Basic EM signal (carrier signal) generated.

- Visible, infrared – Passive. From unmanned
reflector (Electroptical)
1- Microwave – Active. Generated by manned
instrument
2. Carrier Modulation.
- wavelength is short (0.5mm – 30mm)
- a measurement modulation signal superimposed
on to the carrier signal
- modulation methods: amplitude, frequency,
phase

3. The transmitted signal is either reflected or

retransmitted.
Electro-optical ---corner cube reflectors
or microwave ----- second remote or slave
instrument
4. Weak reflected signal amplified and phases
compared.
- Difference in phase derived by
either digital pulse counting
on null approach.
- Diagrams.
- Measurement of phase
difference is representative of
fractional part of the total
distance less than integral
value of the modulation
wavelength.

5. Retro-reflectors for EO and Remote M signals

 6. Strict alignment of measuring instruments not as
crucial as in angular observations.

Derivation of EDM distance.

The distance AB is given by
D =M +  - 1

Reflected signal gives

2D = N +  - 2

Equivalent to N revolutions of the vector OA plus

fractional excess equal to .

 is phase difference

Thus
 =  .  - 3
2

D = N +  .  - 4
2 2 2
(4) Is an idealized model. More precise description of the
situation is

D = NC +  x C + K 1 + K2 + K3 - 5
2 fn 2 2fn
N obtained by introducing successive changes in  such
that

D = Ni . i + i . i
2 2 2

Unknown unknown Measured

C- velocity of the EM signal in vacuo
n- refractive index of the atmosphere
f- modulation frequency
k1- scale error
k2- zero error
k3- cyclic error

- Slope distance now reduced to

the surface.

 Typical EDM instrument

Errors in EDM Measurements.
i. Instrument Operator Errors.
 Precise centering of the instrument and Target.
 Pointing to target.
 Setting automatic corrections.
 Personal equation.
 Booking.

ii Atmospheric Errors.
 Analogy to steel tape. Expansion and contraction
from standardized
 Atmospheric Conditions determined by t,p,e to
determine N. Refractive index and Refractivity
 N=f(t,P,e,)
 Refractive Index Models (Barrel and
Sears,Farrell’s)
 Correction for atmospheric effects
- Atmospheric corrections
switch.
- Enter correction directly with
EDM dial.
- Calculate n Direct
(iii) Instrument Errors.
 Careful Use and Regular calibration for reliable
results
 Relatively small but vitally important systematic
error.
 Caused by instrument maladjustment and aging.
 Modern instrument show error flag or dormancy on
use when maladjustment is severe

 Scale error (K1) Freq. Drift.

- Cause
 Modulation Frequency does not correspond
exactly with design freq. value.
 Proportional to Distance (d) and often
expressed in ppm of (d).
 Should be negligible but could be up to
30mm/km.
Or 30ppm in extreme cases

 Zero Error (Additional Constant, Index,

 reflector/prism offset) K2.
 Represents difference between measured
distance (corrected for scale, cyclic error,
atmospheric) and a known distance
 Caused by (Electrical) internal measurements
center difference with physical center of
instrument/reflector.
 Variations in path length through reflector
due to refractive index variations at the
glass/air interface.
 Systematic error of constant magnitude.
 Not distance dependent.
 Value for particular EDM/Reflector
combination.
 Changes when reflector is changed.

Cyclic Error (Periodic, Revolver,non linearity)

- Have periodic/systematic
Effects
- Analogous to circle graduation
error
- Smaller in magnitude than the
two
- Caused by internal electrical
contamination between
transmitter and receiver
circuitry.
 - Effect cyclic over modulation
wavelength.
- Effect reduced by
manufacturers by electrical
isolation or shielding of the
components.
- Eliminated by taking means of
back and forward distance
readings in microwave
instruments. Akin to FL/FR in
angular obs
- Apply correction for Electro-
optical
- Effect more apparent with a
weak return signal over longer
ranges

INSTRUMENTAL ACCURACY
Quoted in the form of (a mm -/+ bppm)

a - From internal sources within EDM and these are

normally beyond the control of the user.
- An estimate of the individual errors caused by
such phenomena as
  Unwanted phase shifts in electronic
components.
 Errors in phase measurement.
 Index errors.

b. - Is a systematic error.
 Proportional to distance.
 Depends on atmospheric conditions.
 Frequency drift in the crystal of the
modulation oscillator.

Atmospheric conditions are the most dorminant source

of distance error.

 Typical accuracy = + emm + pmm/km.

e=a p=b in previous formular
 Standard error of a measurement given by
SD2 = e2 + [D.p * 10-6]2
D is measured distance
 For short distance (say 100m) – e is more important,
for longer distance (say 10km) – p component is
more important. e depends on sensitivity of phase
revolver and other electrical components.

 P depends on accuracy of modulation and value n.

4.Instrument Calibration.
Two approaches.
 Quick and simple calibration tests done on site.
 Calibration on a baseline- more sophisticated and
done for higher accuracy distance measurements
and for determining state of health of EDM

Three methods in these approaches.

 Laboratory.
 Field method using known baseline lengths.
 Field method using unknown baseline lengths.
Merits and Demerits of the approaches
LAB method
- quick and convenient
-Controlled environment

-Limited to short range calibration

measurements
-Used on short range EDMs
 1. Scale error – Determined in the lab by comparing
observed modulation freq with a time ref. freq.

EDM Frequency counter Off – air frequency

Standard

2. Cyclic error .
- Use of graduated bar.
- Use of superior instrument.
- Effect of scale error assumed
zero.

Describe field procedure pp21

For most E/O EDMs λ=10m and 0.1m intervals used
LM = LT + K2 + K3
For any other point i
LiM = LiT + K2 + K3i 2
Subtracting
 LM = LT + (K3 – K3i)
Or ( LM - LT) = K3 – K3i
A graph may then be drawn to illustrate the difference between the distances (∆L) at various values of L.
The resulting graph will be as follows;

∆L 6

0m 5m 10m L
2

6
3. Determination of Zero error
Measure combinations of distances along a known or
unknown baseline segments and then deduce the
reprensentative difference
- Unknown and known baseline. Expain .

i) Stability of pillars required only @ obs

ii) Known requires periodic monitoring
iii) Unknown, inability to determine other
unknowns
Field method using unknown baseline lenghts
 Can be used to determine all 3 error components
k1,k2,k3
-The three-point method
-Schwendener method

Unknown Versus Known baselines.

 Unknown more popular because stability of markers or pillars of baselines only required for the
duration of survey observation only.
 Known baselines require periodic monitoring of the interpillar distances
 Disadvantage of the unknown is inability to determine scale error in the field.

 Field method using unknown Baseline Lengths. – Measurements on a calibration baseline

can be used to determine all 3 error components (scale, zero and cyclic). Either known or
unknown baselines may be used. Two techniques which are based on the use of an unknown
length of baseline are:
  The three point method
 Schwendener method

The simplest procedure for a quick and appropriate determination of the zero error involves the use of
three points.

l13

∆1 l12 ∆2 ∆3

2 l23 3

Zero error determination using 3-pt baseline method.

If the observed distances (1) are each in error by the same zero error (K2) and if the actual distance 1 to
2 and 2 to 3 are d1 and d2, then ignoring all errors.

l12 = d1 + k2

l23 = d2 + k2

l13 = d1 + d2 + k2

Therefore

k2 = l12 + l23 – l13

If the baseline consists of more than two sections and each section 1 is measured, then if the total
length is L, a more precise value of K2 can be derived using

K2 = L - ∑ li

n-1

Where,

L – Total length of the baseline

1i – Length of each baseline section

n – Number of baseline sections

Schwendener method – Improves the determination of K2 by making use of a 7- point baseline (six
sections) which, taking all combination of distances, results in a total of 21 measurements. Since 7 are
required for a unique solution, the solution is over determined, with 14 redundant measurements.

01 12 23 34 45 56

02 13 24 35 46

03 14 25 36

04 15 26

05 16

06

Schwendener’s basic observation equation is of the form

 ( ∑li)1 + K2 = Mi + Vi

Where,

Li – unknown interpillar distances

K2 – zero error

Mi – observed values (21 distances)

Vi – residuals (21 values)

 Field Methods using known baseline lengths – The use of known values for the length of
baseline is advantageous since it enables the values of the scale error to be derived in
addition to zero and cyclic errors. A variation on the Schwendener’s methods which includes
measured distances as given below;

( ∑li)i + K2 + K1 ( ∑li)i = Mi – (K3)I + Vi

Where,

1i – are the known or observed distance

K2 – zero error

K1 – scale error

K3 – known cyclic error (from laboratory measurements)

Vi - residuals

Mi – observed distances.

EDM Instrument and Applications.

 Geodetic control Networks.

EDM over long range (>10km) has been used since the original development of EDM instruments
to measure baselines and to strengthen the existing geodetic control networks e.g. Tellurometer.
  Large scale surveys.
Large scale, route and site, surveys form the central activities of most surveying organizations.
Other traditional techniques such as chain traversing and stadia tacheometry are still used. However,
they have been superseded by EDM such as geodimeter 122 (traversing) and polar detailing using
tacheometers and data recorders. The use of such EDM instruments not only decreases the observation
time but also enables higher orders of precision to be achieved in comparison to more conventional
methods.

 Setting out works.

The widespread adoption of EDM instruments in the construction industry has lead to significant
changes in the techniques of setting out civil works. Of particular importance has been the move
towards polar methods setting out using coordinates rather than the more tradition technique based on
grids and offsets.

 Tracking
Almost all modern electronic-Optical EDM instruments are capable of measuring to a moving
target. Generally the level of accuracy is of a lower order of accuracy than for static mode
measurements- typically 10-20mm.

 Integral speech communication.

One way communication between the instrument and target can be achieved by modulating the
infrared carrier signal with speech information.

 Visible guidance system.

A further facility offered by Geotronics is the track light system. In this case a flashing light source
is built into the instrument. The correct alignment for the target occurs when the prism is located
exactly along the direction being defined by the track light. When the target is in this position, the
survey assistant will view a white pulsing light. Any deviation of line will be indicated by a change in the
colour of the pulsing signal, which turns red with movement to the right and green if the deviation is to
the left of the correct position.

 Deformation monitoring
The analysis of surveying measurements/observation of different epochs to determine whether any
structural deformation has occurred is becoming increasingly popular. Several different techniques can
be used for such operations including those based primarily on angle, distance measurement or close
range photogrammetry. The determination of precise distance is of fundamental importance in all cases
and is generally performed using specialized instruments such as Kern Mekometer and Comrad
Geomensor. Laser interferometers may be used for very short range distance measurements. Dams,
bridges, waterways, manufacturing plants, landslides, tectonic movements, geothermal stations, can be
subject to successful monitoring using EDM measurements.

ELECTRONIC TACHEOMETER.

This refers to an instrument that is able to:-

 Electronically measure both angles and distances.

 Perform some limited computational tasks using an integral microprocessor.
 Reduce slope distance to horizontal
 Calculating coordinates from bearings and distances
 It may also store data in an internal memory unit or external solid-state data recorder also
known as total stations.

There are basically two designs.

 Integral
 Modular

 Integrated design.
The primary feature is that the electronic theodolite and EDM instrument form a single integrated
unit.

Advantages.

- Need to transport only a single unit.

- Dispense with auxiliary cables that are often required to link separate units.

- Collimation of the telescope line of sight and the EDM signal properly aligned.

Examples include Shokisha Set2&Geodimeter 440.

  Modular design.
Electronic theodolite and EDM instrument are a separate unit which can be independently operated.

Advantages.

- More flexible
- Cost effective solution.

DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: EDM AND TOTAL STATIONS

TABLE 5.2

Some Examples of Total Stations

Instrument Nikon Sokkia Zeiss

DTM-A5LG SET 3C Elta 5

Angle measurement

H accuracy ± 2 ±5 ±3 ‫״‬

V accuracy ± 2 ‫״‬5 ± ‫״‬±3 ‫״‬

Distance measurement

to one prism 2.3 km 2.2km 1.0km

to three prisms 3.1 km 2.9 km 1.5 km

accuracy ± (2 mm + 2 ppm) ± (3 mm+ 3ppm) ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

Measurement time 3.0 seconds 3.2 seconds 3 – 4 seconds

Data displayed

H and V angles yes yes yes

SD, HD and VD yes yes yes

X, Y and Z cords yes yes yes

Setting out data yes yes yes

Data processing data recorder data recorder data recorder

field computer field computer field computer

memory card

Compensator single-axis dual-axis single-axis

Battery NiCad NiCad NiCad

7.2 V 6V 4.8 V

I. Modular Design (SEE FIGURE5.9 BELOW )

EDM and electronic theodolite are separate units
- Mounted EDM.
 Yoke-mounted – Sokisha RED 2.
 Attached – wild DI-1600
- Independent measurements of angle α, and distance d.

II. Integral Design (Total station).FIGURE 5.10 BELOW

- Also called electronic tacheometer.
- Operated using multi-functional keyboard connected to a microprocessor.
 The microprocessor.
o Controls α, d measuring systems.
o Small computers to compute (x,y)
o Stores observation data in internal memory.
IV.
 Total Station Modular
1. Theodolite & EDM in one unit Detached.
2. Infra-red carrier source -do-
3. Phase comparison -do-
4. Coaxial (EDM + Theodolite telescope combined) EDM and theodolite in different axes.
5. Compact (easier to use) More flexible
6. Reduces slope distance N/A
7. Computes Δh and displays N/A
8. No cables May use cables
9. More expensive Cost effective

V On-board software modules. Microprocessor programmed to perform some

calculations.

1. Slope correction and reduced levels.

- From raw data (slope dist, VA), TS calculates and displays HD, VD.
- If RL of inst. stations, HI, HT are entered the RL of the prism station can be calculated and displayed.

2. Horizontal circle orientation.

- Horizontal circle set to read known bearing by entering (N,E) of instrument station A and (N,E) of reference station R
- Site reference station to activate the orientation program to calculate bearing AR making ready for other
observations.

3. Coordinates Measurements.
- With oriented horizontal circle, site a new station P1 and obtain distance AP 1,αnd bearing AP1. With coordinates
measurement program, (NE)P1 is displayed.
- With RLA, HIA, HTp1 entered RLP1 obtained.
4. Traverse Measurement.
- Repeat (3) for each new station.

5. Resection (Free station)

This is done when the occupied unknown station is to be coordinated
(E,N)1, and (E,N)2 entered
D1, D2, , ϴ measured.
TS calculates and displays Es, Ns.. With RL1, HI1,HTs known, RLs obtained.

Control point 1
Control point 2
(E1N1)
(E2N2)

D1
D2

Instrument station

(E2N2)
 S

Missing Line Measurement (MLM)

This software option allows determination of HD, VD between a start point 1 to a series of selected points at a single
instrument Station 1.
- Site 1 and 2 from instrument station and obtain distances D1,D2, and circle readings(both horizontal and vertical)
- MLM program computes D12, ∆h12 between the two points.
- Need not know coordinates of station A.
- Radial MLM and continuous MLM exist.

1
D12

∆h12 2

1 D23
D12 ∆h23
∆h12 2
3

D13 A

∆h13
Instrument station
3

CONTINUOUS
Instrument station
RADIAL
Remote Elevation Measurement (REM)
- The functions used to determine height at inaccessible points where its not possible to locate prism say S.
- Measurements taken along extended plumb line through prism.
- Enter prism height p, measure D.
- In REM mode, height from ground at the prism to any point along the vertical through prism determined.
- Sight top of structure directly.
- Displayed, h which is the height of S above ground
- Used to set profile boards at their correct heights.
-
S
-

- Point at S and display h

h
- P

- D p
Point at prism and measure
- D

D1
1
1
1 Vertical through prism
- 1
1
d

6. Setting out function.

When HA and distance for setting out are given di, αi.
Coordinates of the points for setting out may be given instead
- Enter HA (bearings), distance; or coordinates of Pi to be set out
- With oriented horizontal circle.
- Activate SET OUT mode.
- Rotate Total Station to make entered and measured HA difference = 0
- Adjust distance until (entered – measured) is zero by tracking.
- When coordinates (Ni, Ei) are known distance. and bearing to and from station along line of sight are obtained to
place the point i.
- This is the setting out operation
- Use pole-mounted prism for tracking.
Get line of position using Lumi-Guide
 CURVE RANGING.
I - Setting out works in construction schemes is reverse of
Surveying. That is from plan to ground
- Curve alignments required for highways, railways, canals, city streets, property lines, tunnels, sewers, pipelines etc.
- In such works straight are connected by curves of constant or varying radii.
- Curves facilitate safe and comfortable turns in deflecting a vehicle from one straight to the other.

II Setting out curve or curve ranging.

CURVE

Horizontal Vertical

Circular Transition combined

simple
Compound Reverse cubic Clothoid cubic Spiral Lemniscate

- Straights (horizontal) and gradients (vertical).

III Circular Curves designation;

- by the radius R. radius curve

- by the degree of curvature (D0) subtended at its center by a 100m arc length
 arc
 chord degree curve
- by through chainage

I ϴ

T1 B T2

R l2
R
00000Oo0 o

D2
D1
Elements of a circular curve

Radius -------------R
T1------------------Tangent point(entry),point of curvature
T2------------------Tangent point(exit),point of tangency
I--------------------Point of intersection(vertex)
O-------------------Curve centre
ϴ -------------------Angle of intersection(deviation) , apex?, deflection
L--------------------Length of curve
TI------------------Tangent distance
T1T2----------------Long chord
E--------------------External (apex)Distance
M-------------------Middle Ordinate(Rise)

Important lengths
 tangent length = Rtan ϴ/2
 curve ,, = Rϴ
 M =R( 1-cos(ϴ/2))
 Chord ,, = 2Rsinϴ/2
 E =R(sec(ϴ/2)-1)

Chainage of I,T1, T2

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES

 Distance only (tape-tape)
 Angle and distance(Theodolite and distancer) method
 Two-angle(Theodolite only) method
 By Coordinates (with appropriate instrumentation)
- Using angle-distance

- Using angle only

V Small radius curves (Linear only)

For kerb lines, road intersections,boundary lines

Offsetting methods
.
- Offsets from long chord
- Offsets from tangent.
- Offsets from chord produced.
Note the offsetting baselines

How to do offsetting:
  By hands
 By Pythagoras theorem measurements
 Cross Staff
 Optical Square

 Basic formular for the offset

 Field procedure

 Diagram

 Usage

Define a suitable baseline and measure a perpendicular distance from the baseline to obtain the, offset
VI - Offset from long chord.

Circular curve defined by R and L

Intersection point I obtained by ranging along L1I and L2I on the ground
VII Offset from tangent.

VIII Offset from chord produced.

Replace α with ϕ
A1TA= ϕ

For small angles

Chord AA1=Arc AA1

Hence AA1=TA1 . ϕ

Angle subtended at center of curve is 2ϕ

Arc TA=Chord TA assuming TA not more than R/20

= R .2ϕ

AA1=TA.ϕ= TA.TA/2R=TA2/2R

Subsequent equivalents of AA1 such as BB1, CC1 will be TA2/R

Since B1B=B1B2 + B2B

XI Angle and Distance Methods.
Diagram
- Chords from tangent point
angle obtained from arc length.
distance from chord length.

XT10 = 90◦ - δ1, but lT10 = 90◦

lT1X = δ1

By radians, the length T1X = R2δ1

δ1 rad = arc T1X/2R = chord T1X/2R

δ°1 = chord T1X × 180°/2R.Л = 28.6479 chord/R = 28.6479 C/R (8.2a)

For any setting out method, pointers to consider are;

 Attributes
 Geometry
 Derivation
 Setting out/deflection/ tangential angle.
 Field procedure.
 Arc to Chord approximation for distances
 Application.
 Format.
 DISTANCE FROM CHORD WHILE ANGLES DERIVED FROM ARC
 Go to Example below

Rankines (deflection or tangential angle method.)

X Peg 1
●
δ
A

R Y Peg 2
T1 ●

○
 Using EDM (TS or MODULAR)
 Specify arc length
 Compute setting out angle
 Deduce chord lengths
 Last chord same as long chord

B
A ●
●
C
σ ●

δδδ
T1 o0 ●
Main cord T2

T1A = 2 R sin σ1 = 2 R sin 2◦00’19” = 14.00m

T1B = 2 R sin σ2 = 2 R sin 4◦52’12” = 33.96m

T1C = 2 R sin σ1 = 2 R sin 7◦44’05” = 53.83m

T1T2 = 2 R sin (∆/2) = 2 R sin 15 ◦00’00” = 103.53

Diagram 5
 l
ϴ

Peg1 Peg2
● ●

T1 T2

XII Two-angle Method(Theodolite only)

Diagram 5
 When to deploy
Taping is impossible, over water or mash, 2surveyors
 Attributes/disadvantages
 Setting out data
 Field procedure- orienting rays
 When T1-T2 not intervisible
 Format
 Geometry
Set out with δi from T1 and 360-ϴ+δi from T2

XIII Coordinates Method

 Using angle-distance- suits Total stations

 Using intersection only- used either dist or angle
 Computation of coordinates of curve points Pi
1) Given coordinates of I
2) Compute distance T1I from R and ϴ
3) Compute coordinates of T1 from bearing T1I and distance T1I
4) Deduce arc length Ci from specified points intervals
5) Compute δi then deduce ∆i(setting out angle)
6) Compute chord dist di from T1 to point i using ∆i
7) Deduce bearing T1i
8) Compute coordinates of point i on the curve from bearing in (7) and distance in (6)
9) Proceed likewise with the rest of the points
10) Coordinates of last point from dn and ∆n will be same as coordinates of T2

Ranskines Method example

 An example will now be worked to illustrate these principles.
The centre-line of two straights is projected forward to meet at l, the deflection angle being 30 ◦. If the straights are to be connected by a
circular curve of radius 200m, tabulate all the setting-out data, assuming 20m chords on a through chainage basis, the chainage of l being
2259.59m.

DIAGRAM
Tangent length = R tan ∆/2 = 200 tan 15◦ = 53.59m
Chainage of T1 = 2259.59 – 53.59 = 2206m

Length of circular arc = R∆ = 200(30◦ .∏/180)m = 104.72m

From which the number of chords may now be deduced

i.e. 1st sub-chord = 14m

2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th chords = 20m each.
Final sub-chord = 10.72m.
Total = 104.72m (check)
Chainage of T2 = 2206m + 104.72m = 2310.72m

Deflection angles:

For 1st sub-chord = 280.6479 . 14/200 = 2◦ 00’19”

Standard chord = 280.6479 . 20/200 = 2◦51’53”

Final sub-chord = 280.6479 . 10.72/200 = 1◦32’08”

Check: The sum of the deflection angles = ∆/2 = 14◦59’59” = 15◦

Table 8.1

Chord Chord Chainage Deflection Setting-out Remarks

number length angle angle
(m) (m) ◦ ‘ “ ◦ ‘ “

1 14 2220.00 2 00 19 2 00 19 peg 1
2 20 2240.00 2 51 53 4 52 12 peg 2
3 20 2260.00 2 51 53 7 44 05 peg 3
4 20 2280.00 2 51 53 10 35 58 peg 4
5 20 2300.00 2 51 53 13 27 51 peg 5
6 10.72 2310.72 1 32 08 14 59 59 peg 6

The error of 1” is, in this case, due to the rounding-off to the nearest second and is negligible.

GO TO SETTING OUT WITH EDM slide45 above

Common difficulties associated with setting out of curves;

  Inaccessible Intersection Point

 Obstruction on the line of site

 With obstruction on the curve

 Passing a curve through a given point

Compound or Reverse curves used when simple circular curves cannot logistically be deployed owing to
pertinent ground constraints

Compound Curve

I ∆=∆1+∆2

∆1 ∆2
t1 t
t2
∆1/2
T1
∆1 T2
R1
01
R2
∆2
A B
02
 Series of simple circular curves running in same direction with common tangent

 Used when simple circular curve is not sufficient

 Use dictated by topography

 Involves curves of unequal radii

 Common in railway designs

IT1= It1 + t1T1

IT2= It2 + t2T2

Reverse Curve

I1
∆1
02

∆2 R2

t
T2
T1

R1
∆1

01

∆2 I
2

 Formed by two circular curves with common tangent but on opposite sides of the tangent

 Joins nearly parallel straights

 Commonly used in railway designs

 Consists of setting out two circular curves from two tangent points
 TRANSITION CURVES.

1.1 GENERAL
- Transition curve is that of constantly changing radius.
- Commonly used to connect straight to circular curve
- From r=∞ to r=R Dangerous????????
- More complex than circular curve
- Circular curves.
 Simple design
 Easily set out.
- Why transition curves? To afford safety and comfort as the vehicle
changes direction from straight to curve and vice-versa

1.2 EFFECT OF SUPER ELEVATION.

Consider a curve with a vehicle at speed V along straight line. Forces
acting on the vehicle are W(up) and W’(down)

(a)

P R w
O

Se P

w

(b) N

P w
At T1 there is additional force, P

P pushes the vehicle outside the road.

P increases with decreasing r.

W,P introduces resultant force, N

P = WV2 V= 85 percentile speed

eq1

rg

V= speed not normally exceeded by 85% of vehicles using the road

Road super-elevated to make N perpendicular to road surface to avoid

skidding or overturning of vehicle

Diagram showing , N, P, W, se. above

- Reduce speed gradually to reduce P

- r to be sufficiently large for small P hence higher degree of safety
- Flatter curves safer

1.3 TYPES OF TRANSITION CURVE COMBINATIONS

- Wholly transition see diagram below
. 2 transition curves adjoined

.increased safety due to absence of minimum r

.difficult to fit between 2 straights

- Composite curve. See diagram below

. 2 TCs and a circular curve intervening

.longer danger length since curve length is finite

.more popular
1.4 LENGTH OF T.C.
It is not possible to eliminate P.

It is allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along the

curve.

PRINCIPLE OF T.C

=ensure gradual change of direction from straight to curve

=permit gradual application of superelevation to counteract

centrifugal force

1.5 TYPES OF T.C. TO BE USED.

- Clothoid (rℓ=c)
- It is a series formular
- Cubic spiral (truncated clothoid)

1.6 THE CLOTHOID

Also known as ideal transition curve or

ideal transition spiral.

Defined by rℓ =constant , c

Use an infinitesimally small portion of the transition curve ∂ℓ of radius

r with deviation ∂Ø

See diagram below

- Derive length of clothoid curve, ℓ.

 Since P cannot be eliminated, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along the curve.
From equation (1), P is inversely proportional to r. The basic requirement of the ideal transition curve is
that its radius should decrease uniformly with distance along it. This requirement also permits the
uniform application of the super-elevation; thus with the distance ℓ along the transition of radius r,

r ℓ = c(constant):

l/c = 1/r eq2

From Figure below, tt1 is an infinitely small portion of a transition δℓ of radius r; thus:

δℓ = rδφ eq3

1/r = δφ/ δℓ which on substitution above gives

l/c = δφ/ δℓ

integrating: φ = ℓ²/2c . ℓ. = (2cφ)1/2

putting a = (2c)1/2

ℓ = a(φ)1/2 (8.10)

When c = RL, a = (2RL)1/2 and (8.10) may be written:

ℓ = (2RLφ)1/2 eq4 (8.11)

The above expressions are for the clothoid curve, sometimes called the Euler spiral formulars, which is
the one most used in road design.
 ∂ϕ
t1

t
r
δ ∂ϕ

T1
0

1.7 THE COMPOSITE CURVE GEOMETRY

Deviation angle ϕ, deflection angle δ, intersection angle ϴ

Diagram

- VW is circular curve of radius (R+S).

- This is replaced by the composite curve .

- Original curve VW shifted inward a distance S=VG = WK.
1.8 CURVE DESIGN

Requirements;
 - Value of minimum safe radius, R.
- Length of the curve, L

2.0 MINIMUM SAFE RADIUS

(1) - From centrifugal ratio P =cr= V2 V in km/hr

W 127R

- Commonly used values

p
/ w = v2

Rg 0.21 to 0.25 on roads

0.125 on railways

For cr=0.22 V=64km/hr

R=146.6m

(2) Coefficient of friction

V2/127R > tan  + u. values obtained at Transport Office

ϴ = superelevation angle

μ = coefficient of friction

Make R the subject of the formular

2.1 LENGTH OF CURVE.

(1) Rate of application of super elevation rse

1:200 motorways, 1:100 all purpose roads, 1:480 railways

For rse=1:200 with given se= 0.3

L= 60m

(2) Rate of change of radial acceleration, shortt’s Factor.

0.3,0.45,0.6m/s3

Rate of change of RA which would be unnoticeable to passenger when

travelling

L = V3/Rq = V3/3.63.R.q

RA = V2 RA 1/ R Radial Acceleration

Rate of change of RA= RA/(L/V)

TC to be long enough to ensure rate of change of R hence RA, is
unnoticeable to passengers.

- Show q = v3/RL.

2.3 Geometry of Composite Curve. See slide55

The Shift

Where transition curves are introduced between the tangents and a circular curve
of radius R, the circular curve is ‘shifted’ inwards from its original position by an
amount S (the shift). This is equivalent to having a circular curve of radius (R+S)
connecting the tangents replaced by two transition curves and a circular curve of
radius R.

2.4 Derive setting out parameters

Setting out TC

Two straights are projected forward to intersect at I, with a clothoid transition

curve commencing from target point T1 and joining the circular arc at t1. The
second equal transition commences at t2 and joins at T2. Therefore, the composite
curve from T1 to T2 consists of a circular arc with transitions at entry and exit.

Fixing the tangent points T1 and T2

In order to fix T1 and T2, the tangent lengths T1I and T2I need to be obtained.

T1I = T2I = (R + S) tan Ө/2 + C -------(1)

Where S = Shift = L2 + -------

24R

C = L/2 + --------------------- (2)

Hence, using the chainage at I, the points T1 and T2 may be fixed.

Setting out of transitions

(i) Set the theodolite at T1 and orient to I with horizontal circle reading zero.
(ii) Peg out the transition using deflection angles and chords in the same way
as for simple curves.
(iii) Calculate the length of the transition L using the formula given equation
(iv)

L = V3 (3) q=Shortt’s factor

3.63 Rq

(v) Partition the transition length into appropriate arc lengths; then, the
equivalent chord lengths become

CL = A - A3 + A5

24R2 1920R4, Where A is the arc length. (4)

 (vi) Calculate the setting out angles as follows:

From equation
ℓ = (2 RL Ф) 1/2 therefore Ф = ℓ2 = L
2RL 2R
When ℓ = L 200M (say)
And ℓ is any distance along the transition other than the total distance L.
Differenciate between lower and upper case symbols where upper case
symbolizes maximum values which apply at end of transition

But δ = Ф/3 + - - - - Ф1 = ℓ12

2RL --------------- (5)

Then Ф1 = ℓ12 therefore Ф1 = Ф ℓ12

Ф L 2
L2
Where ℓ1 = chord length = 30m (say)

And δ1 = Ф1/3

Similarly Ф2 = Ф ℓ22 where ℓ2 = 60m (say)

L2
And δ3 = Ф3/3 + - - - - -, and so on.

(vii) Note that the value for ℓ1, ℓ2, ℓ3 etc are accumulative and therefore, the
values obtained for δ1, δ2, δ3 etc are the final setting out angles. Which
must not be summed as in the case of simple curves.

Setting out the circular arc t1t2

(i) Establish the direction of the tangent t1B by setting the theodolite at t1 and
back sighting to T1 with the horizontal circle reading at
 1800 – (Ф – δ). Then, set the instrument to read zero by transiting the
telescope in order to orient in the direction t1B. i.e the circle reading
should be zero before setting out the simple circular arc. The angle
“ Ф – δ” is called the “back angle” to the origin.

(ii) As each transition absorbs an angle Ф, the angle subtending the circular
arc becomes θ – 2Ф and consequently the length of circular arc change to
R(θ – 2Ф) which is then partitioned into required chord length (C).

(iii) The deflection angle δ (min) becomes

5400 C
πR
and are then set out from tangent t 1B in the visual way. Then, the
second

transition curve t2 T2 is set out.

Exercise

Part of a motorway scheme involves the design and setting out of a simple
curve with cubic spiral transitions at each end. The transitions are to be
designed such that the centrifugal ratio is 0.197 while the rate of change of the
centripetal (radial) acceleration is 0.45m/s3 at a design speed of 100km/h. If
the chainage at the intersection of the straights is 2154.22m and the angle of
deviation is 500 00’ 00”. Calculate.

(i) The length of the transition.

(ii) The chainage at the beginning and the end of the total
composite curve.
(iii) the setting out angles for the first three 10m chords on a
through chainage basis.

Solution (refer to figure 3)


Centrifugal ratio P/W = V2 /127R or V2
 Rg

Therefore R = 1002 = 399.696m

127 x 0.197

Rate of change of centripetal (radial) acceleration

(i) q= V3 therefore L = 1003 = 119.165m

3.63 RL 3.63 x 399.696 x 0.45

S = L2 = (119.165)2 = 1.480m
24R 24 x 399.696


Tangent length= (R+S) tan Ө/2 + L/2
= (399.696 + 1.480) tan 250 + 59.5825
= 246. 654m

(ii)

Chainage at T1 = 2154.22 – 246.654m = 1907.566m

Length of circular arc = R ( Ө -2Ф), Ф = L
2R

Therefore 2Ф = L = 0.298139 rad
R

and Ө =500 = 0.872665rad

therefore R( Ө - 2Ф) = 399.696 (0.872615 – 0.298139)

= 229.636m.

(iii) hence, chainage at T2 = 1907.566 + 2x119.165 +229.636

= 2375.532m.
 
Setting out angles: δ1/δ = ℓ12/L2
Hence δ = Ф = L =119.165 rad = 119.165 x 180 x 60
3 6R 6 x 399.696 6x 399.696 x π (min)

Let first chord be 3m, then δ= 10249”

(iv) δ1 = δ ℓ12 = 10249 x 32 = 00 00’ 06’’

L2 (119.165)2

δ2 = δ ℓ22 = 10249 x 132 = 0 02 02

L2 (119.165)2

δ3 = δ ℓ32 = 10249 x 232 = 0 06 22

L2 (119.165)2

------------------------------------------------------------------------

VERTICAL CURVES

1. VC Attributes
  Used to connect gradients.
 In route design they are provided at all changes of gradient.
 Sufficiently large curvature for safety.
 That is low rate of change.
 Afford adequate sight distance for safe stopping at a given V.
 Simple parabola to connect grades g1,g2

2. Gradient.
 Expressed as %
 -ve for downgrade, +ve for upgrade.
 Angle of intersection for the two grades is grade angle, A.
 A is algebraic difference of the two gradients.
 Crest, summit, hogging - A +ve.
 Sag, valley,Sagging - A –ve.

Types of VC for varying A.

The angle of deflection of the two intersecting gradients is called the grade angle and equals A in Figure
1. The grade angle simply represents the change of grade through which the vertical curve deflects and
is the algebraic difference of the two gradients.

When A is negative ==== SAG

When A is positive ==== CREST

crest

A% = (g1% - g2%) sag

I
T1 A%
T2
sag -g2%
g1%
-g1% g2%
Crest
T1 T2
A%
I

-g1%
T1

T2
I A -g1%
-G2% T1 I
A
T2
-g2%
 g2% A T2 g2%
I
T2 T1

g1%
A
T1
I
g1%

Figure 1

3. Permissible approximations in VC Computations.

 From shallowness of the gradients( small A is desirable)
 VC approximations

-g1%
Horizontal
T1 D

l1
y1 B

Y
l1 y2 C G
T2+g2%
Y Fy4
l2

L
J
 I A y5 y6

Figure2

8.10.1 Permissible approximations in vertical curve computation

In civil engineering, road design is carried out in accordance with the following documents:

(1) Layout of roads in rural areas.

(2) Roads in urban areas.
(3) Motorway design memorandum.
The geometric design in the above documents has been worked out by Department of Transport with
the standards for the desirable maximum gradients for vertical curve design being:

Motorways 3%

Dual carriageways 4%

Single carriageways 6%

Due to the shallowness of these gradients, the following VC approximations are permissible, thereby
resulting in simplified computation (see Figure 2 above)

(1) Distance T1D = T1BT2 = T1CT2 = T1l + lT2), without sensible error. This is very important and means
that all distances may be regarded as horizontal in both the computation and the setting out of
vertical curves.
(2) The curve is of equal length each side of l. Thus T 1C = CT2 = T1l = lT2 = L/2, without sensible error.
(3) The curve bisects Bl at C, thus BC = Cl = Y (the mid-offset).
 (4) From similar triangles T1Bl and T1T2J, if Bl =2Y, the T2J = 4Y. 4Y represents the vertical divergence
of the two gradients over half the curve length (L/2) and therefore equals AL/200.
(5) The basic equation for a simple parabola is
y = C.l2

Where y is the vertical offset from gradient to curve, distance l from the start of the curve, and C is a
constant. Thus, as the offsets are proportional to distance squared, the following equation is used to
compute them;

yi/Y = li2/(L/2)2

Where Y=the mid-offset=AL/800

4. Purpose/Requirements of VC.
 Adequate visibility.

 Passenger comfort and safety

5. Adequate visibility
 At design speed vehicle to stop or overtake safely.
 Requirements achieved by use of sight distance and K-value.

6. Passenger Comfort and Safety.

 Radial force acts in vertical plane.
 Forcing vehicle away from centre of curvature of the VC.
 In crest design vehicle leaves road surface.
 In sag underside of vehicle hits the surface.
 Safety achieved by
- Restricting the gradients.
- Choosing ℓ to reduce the force gradually and
uniformly. K-values help.

7. Some Facts about VC

  Restrictions placed on the gradients.
 Flat - L<1
R 10

 Definition of flat assumes that the VC forms part of a circle

radius R.
 Circular arc, ellipse, parabola assumed same
 In practice, parabolic curve is used to achieve a uniform rate
of change of gradient hence uniform introduction of the
vertical radial force.

i.e. x = cy2

d2x = 2c = constant

dy2

8. Vertical curve design

In order to set out a vertical curve in the field, one requires levels along the curve at given chainage
intervals. Before the levels can be computed, one must know the length L of the curve. The value of L is
obtained from the parameters supplied in Table 3 of TD 9/93 (reproduced below as Table 8.3) and the
appropriate parameters are K-values for specific design speeds and sight distances; then

L = KA (8.38)

where A = the difference between the two gradients (grade angle)

K = the design speed related coefficient (Table 8.3)

e.g. A + 4% gradient is linked to a – 3% gradient by a crest curve. What length of the curve is required
for a design speed of 100km/h?

A = (4% - (-3%)) = +7% (positive for crest) i.e g 1 – g2

From Table 8.3

C1 Desirable minimum crest K-value = 100

C2 One step below desirable minimum crest K-value = 55

from L = KA

Desirable minimum length L = 100 × 7 = 700m 100x7%

One step below desirable minimum length = L = 55 × 7 = 385m

Wherever possible the vertical and horizontal curves in the design should be co-coordinated so that the
sight distances are correlated and a more efficient overtaking provision is ensured.

The various design factors will now be dealt with in more detail.

8.10.3.1 K-value

Rate of change of gradient (r) is the rate at which the curve passes from one gradient (g 1%) to the next
(g2%) and is similar in concept to rate of change of radial acceleration in horizontal transitions. When
linked to design speed it is termed rate of vertical acceleration and should never exceed 0.3m/s 2.

A typical design of badly designed vertical curve with a high rate of change of grade is a hump-backed
bridge where usually the two approaching are quite steep and connected by a very short length of
vertical curve. Thus one passes through a large grade angle A in a very short time, with the result that
often a vehicle will leave the ground and/or cause great discomfort to its passengers.

Table 8.3

Design speed (kph) 120 100 85 70 60 50 V2/R

A Stopping sight distance, m

Desirable minimum 295 215 160 120 90 70

 One step below desirable minimum 215 160 120 90 70 50

B Horizontal curvature, m

Minimum R* without elimination of adverse 2880 2040 1440 1020 720 510 5

camber and transitions

Minimum R* with superelevation of 2.5% 2040 1440 1020 720 510 360 7.07

Minimum R* with superelevation of 3.5% 1440 1020 720 510 360 255 10

Desirable minimum R with 1020 720 510 360 255 180 14.14

superelevation of 5%

One step below desirable minimum 720 510 360 255 180 127 20

R with superelevation of 7%

Two steps below desirable minimum 510 360 255 180 127 90 28.28

radius with superelevation of 7%

C Vertical curvature

C1 Desirable minimum* crest K-value 182 100 55 30 17 10

C2 One step below desirable minimum 100 55 30 17 10 6.5

crest K-value

C3 Absolute minimum sag K-value 37 26 20 20 13 9

Overtaking sight distances

C4 Full overtaking sight distances FOSD, m * 580 490 410 345 290

C5 FOSD overtaking crest K-value * 400 285 200 142 100

Commonly used design values for r are

3% on crest curves

1.5% on sag curves

8.10.3.2 Sight distances

Sight distance is a safety design factor which is intrinsically linked to rate of change of grade, and hence
to K-values.

Thus, sight distance, i.e. the length of road ahead that is visible to a driver, is a safety factor and it is
obvious that the sight distance must be greater than the stopping distance in which the vehicle can be
brought to rest.

Stopping distance is dependent upon:

(1) Speed of the vehicle

(2) Braking efficiency
(3) Gradient
(4) Coefficient of friction between tyre and road
(5) Road condition
(6) Driver’s reaction time

9. Design factors in Vertical Curves.

 Rate of change of grade
 Sight distance on summit curves
 Headlight sight distance on sags.

10. Sight Distance (SD)

 Safety design factor related to rate of change of grade.

 Related to K-values.
 Length of road ahead that is visible to the driver.
 Must be greater than stopping distance.
 Stopping distance depends on six factors
 To cater for the six above, height of driver’s eye above road
surface taken as 1.05m.
 This height applicable to sports cars with very high braking
efficiency.
 Other vehicles with greater heights have longer sights.
15. Vertical Curve Computations

 Calculate central offset Y

 Calculate levels along the gradients
 Add y to get curve levels

8.10.2 Vertical curve design

In order to set out a vertical curve in the field, one requires levels along the curve at given chainage
intervals. Before the levels can be computed, one must know the length L of the curve. The value of L is
obtained from the parameters supplied in Table 3 of TD 9/93 (reproduced below as Table 8.3) and the
appropriate parameters are K-values for specific design speeds and sight distances; then

L = KA (8.38)

where A = the difference between the two gradients (grade angle)

K = the design speed related coefficient (Table 8.3)

e.g. A + 4% gradient is linked to a – 3% gradient by a crest curve. What length of the curve is required
for a design speed of 100km/h?

A = (4% - (-3%)) = +7% (positive for crest)

From Table 8.3

C1 Desirable minimum crest K-value = 100

C2 One step below desirable minimum crest K-value = 55

from L = KA

Desirable minimum length L = 100 × 7 = 700m

One step below desirable minimum length = L = 55 × 7 = 385m

Wherever possible the vertical and horizontal curves in the design should be co-coordinated so that the
sight distances are correlated and a more efficient overtaking provision is ensured.

The various design factors will now be dealt with in more detail.

8.10.3.1 K-value

Rate of change of gradient (r) is the rate at which the curve passes from one gradient (g 1%) to the next
(g2%) and is similar in concept to rate of change of radial acceleration in horizontal transitions. When
linked to design speed it is termed rate of vertical acceleration and should never exceed 0.3m/s 2.

A typical design of badly designed vertical curve with a high rate of change of grade is a hump-backed
bridge where usually the two approaching are quite steep and connected by a very short length of
vertical curve. Thus one passes through a large grade angle A in a very short time, with the result that
often a vehicle will leave the ground and/or cause great discomfort to its passengers.

Design speed (kph) 120 100 85 70 60 50

B Horizontal curvature, m

Minimum R* without elimination of adverse 2880 2040 1440 1020 720 510 5

camber and transitions

Minimum R* with superelevation of 2.5% 2040 1440 1020 720 510 360 7.07

Minimum R* with superelevation of 3.5% 1440 1020 720 510 360 255 10

Desirable minimum R with 1020 720 510 360 255 180 14.14

superelevation of 5%

One step below desirable minimum 720 510 360 255 180 127 20

R with superelevation of 7%
 Two steps below desirable minimum 510 360 255 180 127 90 28.28

radius with superelevation of 7%

C Vertical curvature

C1 Desirable minimum* crest K-value 182 100 55 30 17 10

C2 One step below desirable minimum 100 55 30 17 10 6.5

crest K-value

C3 Absolute minimum sag K-value 37 26 20 20 13 9

8.10.5 To find the chainage of highest or lowest point on the curve

The position and level of the highest or lowest point on the curve is frequently required for
drainage design.
With reference to Figure 8.44, if one considers the curve as a series of straight lines, then at T 1
the grade of the line is -4% gradually changing throughout the length of the curve until at T 2 it is
+5%. There has thus been a change of grade of 9% in distance L. At the lowest point the grade
will be horizontal, having just passed through -4% from T 1. Therefore, the chainage of the lowest
point from the start of curve is, by simple proportion,

D = L/(g1+g2 )xg1

D =( L/9% )× 4% = L/A × g1 g1= -4%,

(8.50)

For example, a 100m curve is to connect a downgrade of 0.75%

to an upgrade of 0.25%. If the level of the intersection point of
the two grades is 150m, calculate:
 (1) Curve levels at 20-m intervals, showing the second
difference (d2y/dl2) check on the computations.
(2) The position and level of the lowest point on the curv

Method

(a) Find the value of the central offset Y.

(b) Calculate offsets
(c) Calculate levels along the gradients
(d) Add/subtract (b) from (c) to get curve levels.

(a) Referring to Figure 2 above:

Grade angle A = (-0.75 – 0.25) = -1% (this is seen automatically).

L/2 = 50m, thus as the grades lT2, and lJ are diverging at the rate of 1% (1m per 100m), in 50m then

T2J = 0.5m = 4Y and Y = 0.125m

4Y = A/100 . L/2 .. Y = AL/800 (8.53)

(b) Offsets from equation (8.37):

Calculate the offsets from one grade, say T 1l, the offsets being equal on the other side from the
other grade lT2.
From equation (8.37): y1 = Y × l12/(L/2)2

1st diff. 2nd diff.

T1 = 0m

0.02

y1 = 0.125 × 202/502 = 0.02m − 0.04

0.06

y2 = 0.125 × 402/502 = 0.08m − 0.04

− 0.10

y3 = 0.125 × 602/502 = 0.18m −− 0.04

− 0.14

y4 = 0.125 × 802/502 = 0.32m − 0.04

−− 0.18

y5 = T2J = 4Y = 0.50m

The 2nd difference arithmetical check, which works only for equal chords, should be applied before any
further computation.

(c) First find level at T1 from known level at l:

Distance from l to T1 = 50m, grade = 0.75% (0.75m per 100m)

Rise in level from l to T1(50m) = 0.75/2 = 0.375m

Level at T1 = 150.000 + 0.375 = 150.375m

Levels are now calculated at 20-m intervals along T 1J, the fall being 0.15m in 20m. Thus the following
Table may be made.

0.375x20/50 = 0.15m

Chainage Gradient Offsets Curve Remarks

(m) levels levels

0 150.375 0 150.375 Start of curve T 1

20 150.225 0.02 150.245

40 150.075 0.08 150.155

60 149.925 0.18 150.105

80 149.775 0.32 150.095

100 149.625 0.50 150.125 End of curve T 2

Position of lowest point on curve = 100m/1% × 0.75% = 75m from T 1

Offset at this point = yi = 0.125 × 752/502 = 0.281m

Tangent level 75m from T1 = 150.375 – 0.563 = 149.812m 100m ----0.75m

Curve level = 149.812 + 0.281 = 150.093m 75m……..0.563m

END