i

IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON GROUNDWATER IN KARAPAKKAM VILLAGE

A THESIS

Submitted by

R. SUBALAKSHMI
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

CENTRE FOR WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025 MAY 2011

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ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report titled IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON GROUND WATER IN KARAPAKKAM VILLAGE is the bonafide work of Ms. R. SUBALAKSHMI (Roll No. 2009262018) who carried out the work under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr. K. ILAMPARUTHI Professor and Head Department of Civil Engineering Anna University Chennai - 600 025.

Mr.V.LENIN KALYANA SUNDARAM Assistant Professor Centre for Water Resources Anna University Chennai - 600 025.

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ABSTRACT

Urbanisation in India has resulted in population increase and infrastructure development which in turn have led to a large demand for water. The demand for water and population growth has increased exponentially in Karapakkam, whereas water availability (surface and ground water potential) has decreased. Most of the agricultural lands have rapidly converted in to hotels and IT sectors. During the last 8 years, over exploitation of groundwater for industrial, domestic and irrigation purpose has occurred in a large scale. An attempt has been made to study and delineate the land use changes for the selected years and to study the impact of urbanisation on groundwater quality and quantity using Remote Sensing and GIS. Land use and land cover classification is applied to delineate entire study area with the help of ground truth verification. Groundwater potential is calculated using long term trend analysis method. Ground water quality assessment is an important factor to ensure safe and sustainable use of water. Groundwater quality of the surrounding area is analysed for physical and chemical parameters. Water quality index is calculated based on the water quality parameters. Based on these index values, groundwater quality index map was generated. Land use changes, groundwater quality and groundwater potential are used to assess the environmental changes which affect the livelihood of people. Focus group discussions and questionnaire survey are used to evaluate the livelihood changes.

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The results indicate that the effects of urbanisation has affected agriculture, groundwater condition and livelihood changes. In 2002, 38% of the land was used for agricultural purpose whereas now, there are no agricultural activities in the village. This is because of scarce water sources, agricultural labour and demand of agricultural land for urban uses. Urbanisation has greatly affected the groundwater condition. Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan Street wells were unfit for drinking purpose, because these two wells are located nearby Okkium Maduvu River, which is very near to Pallikaranai swamp. The contaminant from the Pallikaranai swamp passes through this river and drains at Buckingham canal. In 2002, the well water condition was very good. Now, 78% of the well water is not fit for drinking purpose. 51% of people are using portable water and others use panchayat water and water from nearby villages. On the other hand, urbanisation has created many employment opportunities. 66% of people are now earning more than Rs. 7000 and 21% of people earn more than Rs. 10000 From the results, urbanisation has led to a great economic growth and growth of commercial actives but unplanned urbanisation has led too many problems and pathetic situations such as flooding, traffic, unhygienic and poor environment. The groundwater resource has also witnessed a rapid decrease in quantity and quality. Management measures have to be adopted in order to conserve this resource. Also, opportunities should be created within rural areas to prevent migration to cities and minimize the urbanisation effects and increase the benefits.

, . . , , .

. .

. . . . ,

. 2002 38%

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. . , .

. 2002 . 22% . , 51% . .

. 66% .7000 . .

. , .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost I am grateful to GOD ALMIGHTY for having given me a wonderful life and infinite blessings. My sincere and heartfelt gratitude to Mr. V. LENIN KALYANA SUNDARAM, Assistant Professor, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University for his expert guidance, valuable suggestions, continued help and constant encouragement. I express my sincere thanks to Dr. K. ILAMPARUTHI, Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. N. K. AMBUJAM, Professor and Director, Centre for Water Resources for their keen and continued interest during my project work. I would like to express my special thanks to, Dr. S. RAVICHANDRAN, Professor in-charge, Integrated Water Resources Management,

Dr. N. G. ANUTHAMAN, Associate Professor, Mr. M. BALAMURUGAN Assistant Professor, Dr. R. SARAVANAN Assistant Professor and

Dr. PRAKASH NELLIYAT, Research Co-ordinator, Centre for Water Resources, for their illuminating suggestions and constructive criticisms. I express my heartfelt and deep sense of gratitude to all our Department staff members, also I extend my thanks to The Government of Netherlands and SaciWATERS for the fellowship provided. And I would like to thank Karapakkam Village People for their supports. Finally I express my gratitude to my FAMILY MEMBERS and FRIENDS for their valuable support and encouragement during this project work. SUBALAKSHMI R

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) ABSTRACT (TAMIL) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

iii v vii xi xii xiv

INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERAL 1.1.1 Groundwater 1.1.2 Characteristic of Groundwater 1.1.3 Urbanisation 1.1.4 Urbanisation in India 1.1.5 Urbanisation in Tamil Nadu 1.1.6 Effects of Urbanisation 1.2 1.3 1.4 NEED FOR THE STUDY OBJECTIVES ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

1 1 1 1 2 2 3 5 6 7 7

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 GENERAL 2.1.1 Urbanisation 2.1.2 Groundwater

9 9 9 9

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CHAPTER NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

2.1.3 Water Quality 2.1.4 Livelihood 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 LAND USE CHANGES GROUNDWATER QUALITY GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT SUMMARY

9 10 10 11 14 16 18

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 3.2 GENERAL STUDY AREA 3.2.1 Climate and Rainfall 3.2.2 Description of the Study Area 3.3 METHODOLOGY 3.3.1 Reconnaissance Survey 3.3.2 Data Collection 3.3.3 Data Analysis 3.3.4 Land Use Changes 3.3.5 Groundwater Quality 3.3.6 Groundwater Potential 3.3.7 Livelihood Assessment

19 19 19 19 20 22 23 24 25 25 26 28 30

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 4.2 4.3 GENERAL CHANGES IN LAND USE PATTERN GROUNDWATER QUALITY 4.3.1 Temporal Variation of Groundwater Quality Parameters

31
31 31 36

36

CHAPTER NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

4.3.2 Water Quality Index (WQI)

36

4.3.3 Generation of Water Quality Index Map 39 4.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL 4.4.1 Analysis of Water Level 4.4.2 Groundwater Quantity 4.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT 4.5.1 Source of Drinking Water 4.5.2 Analysis of Groundwater Quality 4.5.3 Agricultural Status 4.5.4 Economic Status 4.5.5 Sanitation and Health Status 4.5.6 Impact of Urbanisation 42 42 44 47 47 48 51 51 52 53

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 5.1 5.2 SUMMARY CONCLUSION

55 55 56

REFERENCES ANNEXURE

58

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

Table 1.1 Table 3.1 Table 4.1

Urban Population of Tamil Nadu Categories of Water Quality Index Land use Pattern for the Years 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010

4 28

32

Table 4.2

Water Quality Parameters, BIS Standards and Weighting factor 37

Table 4.3

Water Quality Classification based on WQI of September 2010, January, February and March 2011 38 42

Table 4.4 Table 4.5

Water Level Data for the Years 2002 and 2006 Groundwater Quantity for January and February 2011

46

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

Figure 1.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4 15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19

Effect of Urbanisation Index Map of Karapakkam Village Details of Study Area Flowchart for Methodology Flowchart for Land Use Changes Well Location Map of Karapakkam Village Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2002 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2004 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2006 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2008 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2010 Water Quality Index Map-September 2010 Water Quality Index Map-January 2011 Water Quality Index Map-February 2011 Water Quality Index Map-March 2011 Water Level Fluctutation Water level Contour-January 2011 Water level Contour-February 2011 Water level Contour-March 2011 Theissen Polygon Map Groundwater Quantity Sources of Drinking Water Amounts Spend for Drinking Water Reasons for Water Quality Deterioration Water Quality Map- 2002

6 21 22 23 26 27 33 33 34 34 35 40 40 41 41 42 43 43 44 45 45 48 48 49 49

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FIGURE NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25 Figure 4.26

Water Quality Map- 2005 Water Quality Map- 2010 Agricultural Status Economic Status Sanitation Facility Status Health Impact Major Health Problem

50 50 52 52 52 52 53

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

BGL GIS GWQI MCM MoHA MRC OIF SOI WQI WTF HCO 3 Ca CO3 ERDAS E EC ha Km Mg s/cm mg/l N % pH Na TDS TH

Below ground level Geographic Information System Groundwater Quality Index Million Cubic Meter Ministry of Home Affairs Master Recession Curve Optimum Index Factor Survey of India Water Quality Index Water Table Fluctuation Bicarbonate Calcium Carbonate Earth Resources Data Analysis System East Electrical conductivity Hectare Kilometer Magnesium Micro-siemens/cm Milligram per litre North Percent Potential of hydrogen ions Sodium Total Dissolved Solids Total Hardness

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

1.1.1

Groundwater In India, groundwater plays a crucial role in increasing food and

productions, providing drinking water and facilitating industrial development. Groundwater is a major source of water which meets agricultural, industrial and drinking water requirements. Groundwater forms one of the important sources of water supplies in many areas, as it is believed to be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria and from suspended matter. The pace of groundwater withdrawal in many fertile regions is increasing phenomenally due to the fast pace of population growth accompanied by agricultural and industrial development. 1.1.2 Characteristic of Groundwater i) It is almost universally available, with variation in levels, quality and quantity. ii) It is common property resource as no single person or organisation can own it. iii) It is dynamic equilibrium between rain water, surface water bodies including ponds, lakes, wetlands, rivers, tanks and groundwater.

Forest and trees are part of this system as both forests and trees play crucial role in groundwater recharge. iv) Many aquifers are to offer natural protection from contamination, so untreated groundwater is usually cleaner and safer than its untreated surface water equivalent. v) Groundwater is relatively easy and cheap to use. It can be brought on stream progressively with little capital outlay and boreholes can often be drilled close to where the water supply is needed. vi) It is a resource that is organisationally easy to develop. 1.1.3 Urbanisation Urbanisation refers to a process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities and change in land use from agriculture to human settlements, commercial sectors and industries. In developing country urbanisation and population pressure are two main challenges to water resource management especially in cities of developing countries. The interaction between urban development and demand to water are affecting the quantity and quality of groundwater. Generally the change in groundwater quantity and quality are caused by increase in groundwater abstraction and the existing new sources of recharge. 1.1.4 Urbanisation in India India is the most populous country in the world after China. Population of India is 1.14 billion (MoHA, India 2008). All developmental sectors are in growing state, villages which once did not have the basic amenities for water and electricity even after several years of independence are being provided with these facilities in recent years through several government-sponsored programs. Despite these efforts to improve rural facilities, there is a rapid migration of rural

population to urban areas possibly for better work opportunities and living conditions. The urban areas are fast getting densely populated and are expanding rapidly to adjoining areas putting unwanted stress on the natural resources. Agricultural lands around the urban areas are rapidly decreases and converted to hotels and tall buildings. Value of these lands is also increasing and the environmental health around these areas is on the decrease. The improvement in infrastructural facilities and increase in trained manpower, several small to large-sized industries are being rapidly established with no proper disposal facilities for their effluents. It creates an environmental chaos especially in the rapidly expanding towns and cities across the country. Groundwater quality is soon getting deteriorated due to seepages from unlined sewerage lines and effluent channels. The impact of urbanisation on the groundwater in an urban area depends on geographical location and the economic status of the city or even the country (Naik et al. 2005). 1.1.5 Urbanisation in Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu is the first urbanisation state among the fifteen major states in the country. Urbanisation has been increasing since 1961. Tamil Nadu has emerged as the state with the highest level of urbanisation (43.86 percent) in the country. The total population of Tamil Nadu is 6.21 cores according to 2001 census. Out of the total population 2.72 core people are living in urban areas. Urban population of Tamil Nadu require a wide range of urban services including water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and streets as well as social infrastructure like schools, hospitals, markets and so on. Urban population of Tamil Nadu listed in Table 1.1. Tamil Nadu has a much dispersed pattern of urbanisation with municipalities in virtually every district (excluding Ariyalur and Perambalur). The boundaries of Chennai District are contiguous with the Chennai Municipal Corporation. However, the Chennai Metropolitan area is a larger area which

includes several municipalities and town panchayats in Tiruvallur and Kancheepuram Districts. Table 1.1 Urban Population of Tamil Nadu No.of Urban Urban Decadal growth (%) 27.98 19.59 42.79 Annual growth rate (%) 2.47 1.79 3.56

Year 1981 1991 2001

towns population population (%) 434 469 832 159.5 190.77 272.42 32.95 34.15 43.86

Source: (Census of India, 2001) The spatial distribution (by district) of the six corporations, 104 municipalities and 611 town panchayats, clearly illustrates that urbanisation is not limited to anyone part of the State. However the urban population is concentrated along certain urban corridors. Poor persons are estimated during 1999-2000 as 49.97 lakhs in the urban areas according to census of India. i) Water supply An increasing urban population has been creating a huge gap between demand and supply of water every year. According to 2001 census, 30 percent of urban towns have not access to safe drinking water. The minimum per capita supply of water required in urban areas varies from 70 lit/day to 130 lit/day and this requirement of water supply varies according to the land use classification of the towns. The government spends 141.69 cores to urban water supply on 2003 -2004 (TWAD, 2005). ii) Pollutants Due to high influx of population in urban areas the consumption patterns, unplanned urban and industrial development has led to the problem of

air and water pollution. Many urban centres and industrial units are located in densely populated areas. The large industries have very high aggregate pollution potential. Due to these aspects the large numbers of people are affected. Due to increase in urbanisation the density of motor vehicles per km 2 has increased from 22 to 52 percent in 1996 to 2004. This has led to traffic congestion and release of many toxic air pollutants into the atmosphere. Particularly, the growth of two wheelers is increasing in a steep manner and contributing to 50.6 percent of the pollution load. Results of poor maintenance of vehicles are spewing out of noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Apart from the concentration of vehicles in urban areas and the other reasons for increasing vehicular pollution are the types of engines used, age of vehicles, congested traffic, poor road conditions and outdated automotive technologies and traffic management systems. Vehicles are a major source of pollutants in major cities. 1.1.6 Effects of Urbanisation Due to urbanisation flood can be occurred and create more pollution. The pollutions are air pollution, water pollution, solid pollution and congestion. Air pollution is particularly noticeable in rapidly urbanising villages, where industry tends to be located within or adjacent to the settlements. In the absence of industrial electricity, low-grade coal is used to fire the furnaces, which causes many factories to emit black smoke. Traffic is considered the most important source of air pollution. Water pollution is caused by industry and households. Main problem was lacking of good sewage system. Some villages still have open sewage drains, even though the population densities are becoming very high. Solid pollution is including households and industries waste. Household wastes are mostly organic and contain few toxic substances; industrial wastes are more dangerous. Hence more drainage facilities have to be constructed with proper

planning. The extraction of water in urban areas is more compared to rural areas. Figure 1.1 shows that the effect of urbanisation. Less recharge More floods

Urbanisation

More water use Compare to rural

More drainage More pollution

Figure 1.1 Effect of Urbanisation 1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY Water resources are vital inputs to livelihood production activities in a wide variety of ways. Urbanisation and population pressure are two main challenges to water resource management, especially in cities of developing countries. Urbanisation reduces infiltration of groundwater due to the impermeable nature of the catchments by paved areas, buildings and roads. The runoff from the increased pavement goes into storm sewers, which then goes into streams. Usually this runoff is used to soak into the ground. But now due to urbanisation it goes to the streams and causing flood. Changing a stream channel can cause flooding and erosion along the stream banks. Also more sewage is discharged into the streams. The groundwater recharge may be decreased as a result of urbanisation. Groundwater recharge is often linked with dry-season flows and groundwater contributes as much of the river discharge during the dry season. Also the groundwater is recharged from waste water, sewage mixed water and septic

tank, so groundwater gets polluted. People cannot access that water for drinking purpose. Chennai and urban villages have faced continuous drought leading to a serious decline in the water table and water yields. Urbanisation has created serious livelihood problems in the villages. As far as groundwater is concerned it is mentioned that urbanisation affects both the quantity and quality of groundwater systems and livelihood impact of the people in the village. Remote sensing and geographical information system have been used for a long time to study land use patterns, groundwater quantity and quality and collecting spatial information. 1.3 OBJECTIVES Due to increasing population most of the lands are converted to infrastructure for urbanisation. Unplanned urbanisation creates the problem in groundwater quality, quantity and livelihood. Objectives are framed in order to study these problems. The objectives of the study are: i) To delineate the land use changes for different periods using satellite imagery; ii) To study the impact of urbanisation on groundwater quality and quantity; and iii) To assess the environmental changes which affect the livelihood of people through questionnaire survey. 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

i)

Chapter 1 includes introduction, need for the study and the objectives framed for the present study.

ii)

Chapter 2 describes the previous work done by various researchers in the relevant field that come within the scope of the present study and the earlier studies carried out in the study area are also considered.

iii) Chapter 3 deals with the methodology adopted in the present

study for attaining the objectives which was based on the literature survey. Also the location and background information about the study area are also included.

iv) Chapter 4 covers the results of the analysis done and the
discussions carried out in this regard.

v)

Chapter 5 gives the summary and conclusions for this study.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 GENERAL This chapter describes the previous work done by various researchers in relevant field that comes within the scope of the present study and the earlier studies carried out in the area under consideration. Review of literature helps to frame the methodology to be adopted towards the attainment of objectives which is discussed in this chapter. The basic definitions of few important terms are given below. 2.1.1 Urbanisation According to the United States Postal Service, Urbanisation is an area, sector or development within a geographic area. Urbanisation is the name for the movement of people from rural to urban areas, and the resulting growth of cities. Urbanisation is a process that has occurred, or is occurring, in nearly every part of the world that humans have inhabited. 2.1.2 Groundwater Groundwater is one of the most valuable natural resources, which supports human health, socio - economic development and functioning of ecosystems (Zektser 2000). 2.1.3 Water Quality The quality of water is defined in terms of its physical, chemical and biological parameters, and ascertaining its quality is important before use for

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various intended purposes such as potable, agricultural, recreational and industrial water usages, etc ., (Sargaonkar 2003) 2.1.4 Livelihood A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. (Scoones 1998). 2.2 LAND USE CHANGE Generally population growth is increase and the availability of land resources is limited. So land use planning is essential. Aim of land use planning is achieve a systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and the economic and social conditions required to select and adopt the best land use options. Effective land use planning often involves local communities, scientific information on land resources, appropriate technologies, and integrated evaluation of resource use Following papers are describes the various land use planning done various places Palaniyandi et. al, (1997) had detected the change in land use in Chengai MGR district, Tamil Nadu, using IRS- 1A-LISS II digital data of 1990, Landsat 5 TM digital data of 1986 and SOI toposheet and other secondary data. He observed build-up area and agricultural land use, forest and waste land has delineated each category using Remote Sensing and GIS technique. Using digital planimeter each category area has been calculated. Jaiswal et. al, (1999) had detected the change in land use mid-western part of Gohparu Block, Shahdol district, Madhya Pradesh using IRS- 1C-LISS III digital data of 1996 and Survey of India (SOI) toposheet 1967 and other

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secondary data. From visual analysis of satellite imagery and reconnaissance survey, major vegetation types and land cover classes were mapped. He had analysed post-classification comparison techniques. Brahmabhatt et. al, (2000) used Remote Sensing and GIS technique to analyze the land use pattern in Mahi Right Bank Canal (MRBC) command area in Kheda district of Gujarat using Survey of India (SOI) toposheet. Preinterpretation field visits and reconnaissance survey, crop types, crop condition, extent of salinity, water logging, and land cover classes were mapped. Area of various land cover classes was measured using electronic planimeter. Jayakumar et. al, (2003) had detected the change in land use in Kolli Hill, Tamil Nadu, using IRS- 1C-LISS III digital data of 1999, Landsat TM digital data of 1990 and SOI toposheet and other secondary data. He had analysed the changes in the cropping pattern and causes for the changes. Matrix technique was used to interpret the maps in GIS Interpreting module in ERDAS Imagine Software. Raturi et. al, (2004) had used Remote Sensing and GIS technique in Rudraprayag district of Uttaranchal to analyze the vegetation pattern over a period of time. IRS-1C-LISS III was overlaid on the survey of India (SOI) toposheet. From visual analysis of satellite imagery and reconnaissance survey, major vegetation types and land cover classes were mapped. Interpretation was made based on the tonal variation and textural pattern. The areas sensitive to landslides, the degraded forest zones that needed special attention during the developmental activities were identified. 2.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY Groundwater is very important natural resources. Due to urbanisation the groundwater quality is rapidly changed. Various methods are used to

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evaluate the groundwater quality. Some of the papers are described below about groundwater quality. Landwehr et. al, (1974) studied an objective of water quality index. He described, it is an interesting application of Kendalls nonparametric classification procedure for the development of a water quality index. The authors are completely analysing of results from a survey taken in the fall of 1973. That work shows old and new experts rate water quality was same. Again ratings were given by experts from different regions. It should be noted that the form of water quality index as it was published by Brown et al, and the author has been changed. That form of an index was an excellent estimator of the mean opinion of the panal. Graniel et. al, (1999) studied the groundwater quality in the city of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, where dependence on groundwater supply is 100%, is affected by urbanisation. In this study, sampling was carried out in 1991 of 39 samples and recorded the water level. Groundwater samples were analysed by laboratory techniques. Analytical results provide a baseline to compare with the earliest available chemical data for 1970. After comparison he suggests, that the most affected areas coincide with urbanisation. Anbazhagan et. al, (2004) assess the groundwater quality of Panvel Basin, Raigarh district, Maharashtra, India using the Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS based groundwater quality mapping has been carried out in the region with the help of data generated from chemical analysis of water samples collected from the basin. In this area the groundwater samples show quality of groundwater was exceedence in terms of chloride, hardness, TDS and salinity. These parameters indicate the level of quality of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. Piper diagram is used to understand the problems concerning the geochemical of groundwater. Idrisi 32 GIS software was used for generation of various thematic maps and for spatial analysis and

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integration to produce the final groundwater quality map. In this study, the concentration of chloride for post monsoon (390 mg/l) exceeds the desirable limits (250 mg/l). He suggested groundwater quality is desirable and undesirable for drinking and irrigation purposes. Sarkar et. al, (2006) assessed the water quality of a groundwater basin in Bangladesh for irrigation use. The objectives of the study were to determine different water quality constituents in groundwater in the study area and to assess in Pabna district which belongs to the Ganges river floodplain. Common problems for quality irrigation water were cited and the water quality parameters indices determined were precisely evaluated and interpreted. From the analytical result it was observed that the compositions of the groundwater samples were within the permissible range of irrigation use, except increased chloride values responsible for toxicity problem. Standard water quality parameter indices like pH, EC, SAR, SSP, RSBC, TH were found within the acceptable range of crop production. RSC values were higher (3.26 to 4.16 meq/l) than the permissible limit (>2.5 meq/l) due to HCO3 content in the irrigation water that may induce some permeability problem. Arsenic was traced and at one location it was found (0.2 to 0.3 mg / l) above the danger limit (> 0.05 mg/l). However, except these minor discrepancies the groundwater of the study locations was categorized as excellent to good quality and seemed to be suitable for crop production. Hameed et. al, (2010) has assessed Evaluating Raw and Treated Water Quality of Tigris River within Baghdad by Index Analysis. Water quality index (WQI) is a single value indicator of the water quality determined through summarizing multiple parameters of water test results into simple terms for management and decision makers. In this paper, thirteen parameters were considered. On the basis of these data, raw and treated drinking water from Tigris River within Baghdad were analysed. Cluster analysis conducted on the WQI data in this area was applied to detect the fluctuation of water quality. This paper describes, WQI showed that Tigris water never reached Excellent levels

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nor fallen to Unsuitable condition, except in occasional untreated water samples. Effects of various sources of pollution were evident and the needs for intensive studies on WQI became evident. Machiwal et.al, (2010) has focused on a GIS-based assessment and characterisation of groundwater quality in a semi-arid hard-rock terrain of Rajasthan, western India using long-term and multi-site post-monsoon groundwater quality data. Spatio-temporal variations of water quality parameters were analysed by GIS techniques. Groundwater quality was evaluated based on a GIS-based Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI). A Potential GWQI map was also generated by Optimum Index Factor concept. Optimum Index Factor (OIF) was developed to select an optimum combination of three bands in a satellite image in order to create a color composite. The Potential Groundwater Quality Index was then computed by using rank maps of three parameters obtained from the best Optimum Index Factor (OIF) combination. The groundwater quality parameter group of Ca, Cl and pH were found to have the maximum value (6.6) of Optimum Index Factor (OIF). The most influential water quality parameters were identified by performing a map removal sensitivity analysis among the groundwater quality parameters. GIS analysis revealed that sulfate and nitrate ions exhibit the highest (CV > 30%) temporal variation, but groundwater pH is stable. He suggested the groundwater quality of the study area is generally suitable for drinking and irrigation (median GWQI > 74). 2.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL Due to urbanisation groundwater potential is varying place to place. Some places have more water table and some places have low water table. Some methods are used to estimate the groundwater potential. Following papers are described some of the methods are used to estimate the groundwater potential. Lenters (2001) studied the Long term Trends in the Seasonal Cycle of each of the Great Lakes (Lakes Superior, Michigan-Huron, Erie and Ontario)

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water levels from 1860 -1998. objectives of the study is to find out monthly changes in water level (L), to find the monthly changes in the Great Lakes water level varied over the period since 1860, to find the variations imply regarding the seasonal cycle of Great Lakes water levels and find out the differs from one lake to another. The monthly changes in water level L were calculated for all the months from the year 1860 -1998 and for all the four locations and plotted against time. Few plots of L as a function of time over the 139 year period exhibited significant striking trends. It was found that significant positive trends in one month were nearly balanced by significant negative trends in another month. This indicated important changes in seasonality of L over time, but with little or no change in the annual mean L The author mentioned that there were a number of times where monthly lake level changes exhibited considerable decadal scale variability but with no significant linear trend over the 139 year period. Therefore the linear trend presented in the study are only meant to approximate the real long term changes and more extensive time series analysis for precise inter annual to decadal variations are left for future study. Delin et. al, (2007) he describes the Ground-water recharge was estimated across Minnesota using a water-table fluctuation method as part of a recent U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Groundwater Resources Program recharge study (Delin and others, 2006). Water-level data used in the water

table fluctuation (WTF) method. Data were collected from various sites across Minnesota. The USGS has conducted intensive, long-term research at five sites that yielded 1 to 10 years of continuous water-level data were obtained from the Minnesota Department of Resources (MDNR) observation well network. Thirtyfour MDNR wells at 31 sites met these criteria, with most of the data collected before 1980. Where data were available only in analog form, one value from every fifth day was entered manually into a database.

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The Master Recession Curve (MRC) approach used in the WTF method is an automated or semi-automated procedure for calculating DH (tj) from waterlevel data. MRC can be used to predict the slope of the hydrograph in the absence of recharge. Once the MRC is established, positive deviations of the hydrograph from the MRC are attributed to recharge, allowing recharge to be quantified even during periods of falling groundwater levels. Naik et. al, (2008) assess Impact of urbanisation on the groundwater regime in a fast growing city,solapur,in central India. Objective of this paper is find out the groundwater quantity and quality. Groundwater recharge is estimated from four basis. i) ii) Recharge due to rainfall infiltration, Recharge due to transmission losses,

iii) Recharge due to irrigation from wastewater and iv) Recharge due to percolation from surface water tanks Hill piper diagram (piper 1944) is used to estimate the groundwater quality. He suggested Urbanisation has thus increased the groundwater recharge in Solapur city. The groundwater recharge estimated in 1980 was 5.33 MCM (Million Cubic Meter), while in 1994, it is estimated at 5.60 MCM and he estimated future demand on water. Solapur is expected to have a groundwater recharge of 41 MCM during 2020 as estimated previously. 2.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. Livelihood depends upon access to many different types of assets. The assets are human, physical, financial, social and natural. To understand this well, assess the livelihood and all the diverse assets it depends upon skills, access to transport, equipment, telecommunications and the social networks. Following papers are described about the livelihood assessment.

17

Quang et.al, (2005) describes impact of urbanisation on agricultural in Hanoi. He conducted interviews with district and municipal officials to analyse the impacts of urbanisation on agricultural livelihood, used timeline analysis to identify the changes that took place over the period of urbanisation. And he used seasonal calendar to know about the cultivation of crops in a year by the people who still continue to be in farming activity. During group discussions, tools such as mapping timelines, pie chart, free listing, ranking, transect walking and Venn diagram were used for analysing the impacts of urbanisation. This paper describes urbanisation brings about better living conditions for those living nearby newly urbanised areas by giving opportunities to higher cash income jobs compared to work in agriculture. Anantha et al, (2010) had described the impact and potential opportunities of groundwater irrigation on rural farm households. He focused on the size and pattern of the groundwater economy in selected villages located in the hard rock areas of Karnataka, India. He consists of 225 farmers selected from different categories based on their degree of dependency on groundwater based agriculture. Using participatory rural appraisal (PRA), wells (both functional and non-functional), well depth, distance between wells, farm size and farmers names were mapped in each village. The information gathered includes, among other things, a socio-economic profile, details of irrigation wells, information on access to groundwater irrigation and information about agricultural inputs and outputs. He suggested that the groundwater scarcity affects the livelihoods of rural communities based groundwater economy and agricultural economy. Mandere et. al, (2010) assess the livelihood change and household income in Nyahururu, Kenya. Objective of this paper is to assess the impact of the peri-urban development dynamics to household income. The data for this study was collected through questionnaires and interviews with individual households in the peri-urban Nyahururu and local government officers to get details about that village. From the study peri-urban development to accomplish

18

a reduction in poverty for the households not only depends on the infrastructural developments but rather the socio-economic opportunities that arise from the developments, which will be dependent on the developers involved and the government policy. 2.6 SUMMARY The literature review provided guidelines as to what methods are available for performing analysis related to this study and also give an idea of the various data required for the same. Also it could be seen that groundwater problems quantity, quality and livelihood changes due to urbanisation are seen throughout the world. Review of the above literatures helped in framing the methodology of this study. The land use pattern was delineated using superimposing method and the water quality index map was generated through GIS contouring method. Long term trend analysis method and water level fluctuation method was used to calculate groundwater potential. Finally questionnaire survey and focus group discussion were used to evaluate the livelihood changes.

19

CHAPTER 3

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1

GENERAL This chapter discusses with the description of the study area, its

location, climate and rainfall and the methodology adopted for this study. The methodology shows the input information, analysis method and output. 3.2 STUDY AREA Kancheepuram is in the northeast coast of Tamil Nadu and located adjacent to the Bay of Bengal. It is bounded in the west of Vellore and Thiruvannamalai districts, north by Thiruvallur and Chennai districts and in the south by Villupuram district. The district has a total geographical area 439,337 ha with a coastal line of 57 km. For administrative reasons, it has been divided into 4 revenue divisions comprising of 10 taluks with 1137 revenue villages. For developmental activities, the district has been divided into 648 village panchayats. Level of urbanisation in Kancheepuram is 53.48% according to 2001 census. 3.2.1 Climate and Rainfall Kancheeepuram has a tropical climate with a uniform temperature round the year. The maximum temperature during summer is 36.6oC and minimum is 21.1 oC respectively and the same are 23.7oC and 19.8 oC during winter respectively. The pre monsoon rainfall is almost uniform throughout the district. The coastal taluks get more rainfalls rather than the interior regions. This district mainly depends on seasonal rainfalls. Distress conditions prevail in

20

the event of the failure of rains. Northeast and southwest monsoons are the major sources of rainfall with 54% and 36% contributions each to the annual rainfall. 3.2.2 Description of the Study Area The study area selected for the study is Karapakkam village. Karapakkam village is located on Sholinganallur taluk, of St.Thomas mount block of the Kancheepuram district in Tamil Nadu at 1254'51.01"N latitude and 8013'45.77"E longitude. The village has Injampakkam, Pallikaranai, Okkiam Thoraipakkam and Sholinganallur as its boundaries in the East, West, North and South respectively. There are three wards which hold three members and all are female. The total village extent is 244.48 ha with 1500 households. The total population of this village as per 2009 census is 7565 comprising of 4265 most backward classes, 2479 backward classes, 593 scheduled caste and 56 scheduled tribes. It is about 10 km away from Thiruvanmiyur. Karapakkam have one Government well, which is under the control of Public Work Department and it has nine panchayat well under the control panchayat. Buckingham canal flows on eastern side of the village. There are few private engineering colleges located nearby village. In this area agricultural activities was done before 8 years where paddy was cultivated in this area. Land owners are sold the agricultural lands to IT sector due to inadequate water for irrigation purpose. So the people are not intersested to make agricultural activities. Karapakkam has a secular religious mix. Hindus, Muslims and Christians live side by side. Like all other Indian regions Hindus are more in number than Muslims who are slightly more than Christians. Figure 3.1 depicts the location of Karapakkam village at India level. Figure 3.2 depicts the location of Karapakkam village.

21

Figure 3.1 Index Map of Karapakkam Village

22

Figure 3.2 Details of Study Area 3.3 METHODOLOGY The objectives of the study as mentioned earlier in Section 1.3. The methodology has been framed and showed in flow chart as indicated in Figure 3.3. The stepwise procedure followed to achieve each objective of this study is explained in this section.

23

Study area visit

Survey of India toposheet No: 66D/1 and D/5

Village map

Study area delineation

Image

Collection of well water Samples

Land use changes

Water level fluctuation method

Groundwater Analyses of Water Quality Parameters Groundwater Quality index Map Quality Map Groundwater Quantity

Focus Group Discussion Questionnaire survey Measures for livelihood changes

Figure 3.3 Flowchart for methodology 3.3.1 Reconnaissance Survey

As an initial step, a reconnaissance survey was carried out to ascertain a prehand knowledge of the study village. From the walk through survey, the land use patterns and the agricultural lands, where the impact of urbanisation on groundwater were identified through physical observation and also from people through informal interviews.

24

3.3.2

Data Collection The data required for this study has been collected under two

subdivisions, namely primary data and secondary data. The field data collection, questionnaire survey and GPS survey are conducted through survey. Some of the water level, water quality data, maps and other information are collected from government and NGO which presented in detail the following sections. i) a) Primary Data Collection Fieldworks As a first step, observation wells were selected randomly. Fieldworks were carried. Fieldworks included water level measurement, collection of water sample and measure elevation of the well. Water samples were analyse physical and chemical parameters in the laboratory. b) Questionnaire survey Second primary data was collected through questionnaire survey. The questionnaire is attached in the Annexure. The information collected based on the people occupation, changes in land use pattern, drinking water source, groundwater quality and quantity, agricultural status and health aspects their opinion regarding the changes in groundwater condition and livelihood due to urbanisation. The information like occupation status, its income with respect to change in land use pattern was gathered from village people. c)
GPS survey

The GPS was used to survey the Karapakkam village. During the survey, the readings were taken at all observation wells and temples in different places. It is necessary to know about the geographical location and elevation of the well to calculate groundwater quantity.

25

ii)

Secondary Data Collection Survey of India toposheet number: 66D/1 and D/5 were obtained and

Village map was obtained from Karapakkam Panchayat office. Images were downloaded from Google earth for 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 with the help of time line tool. Water level and water quality data for the period 2000 2009 were collected from Public Work Department and Central Groundwater Board at the respective offices. 3.3.3 Data Analysis The primary data thus obtained from the questionnaire were analysed using the Microsoft excel. It was used to encode and analyse the quantitative data and qualitative data information converted to numerical data. Data and information are presented in appropriate charts to answer clearly the research questions. 3.3.4 Land Use Changes Images were downloaded from Google earth for 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 with the help of Google Earth Timeline option. Village map was obtained from Karapakkam Panchayat office. ArcGIS was used for the analysis and display of land use map. Geo referencing was done the five images using GIS tool. The process of geo referencing was done using Survey of India (SOI) topo map by giving the coordinates, create base map. Land use/ land cover status was visually interpreted for current year and delineate the land use changes, but the current year map will be finalized after ground truth verification. The base map and delineate land use maps was superimposed to delineate present study area map. Finally the land use/ land cover map of 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 were digitized and incorporated into GIS domain for change analysis. The methodology for delineation of land use was framed and showed in flow chart as indicated in Figure 3.4.

26

Survey of India toposheet No: 66

Village Map

Image

Field visit and mark

Geo referencing

control points for

Geo referencing and create Base map

Delineate the land use changes

the current year

Superimposing Map

Land use map change for different periods

Figure 3.4 Flowchart for Land use Changes 3.3.5 Groundwater Quality The groundwater quality parameters of Karapakkam village such as pH, EC, TDS, Turbidity, CO3, HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3 for the years 2000, 2009 were collected from the respective departments. For the year 2010 and 2011, eleven groundwater samples were collected in the domestic wells from the Karapakkam village during the month of September 2010, January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011. The well location map is presented in Figure 3.5. The groundwater quality parameters was analysed in the laboratory following the standard procedure (APHA 1997) for pH, EC, TDS, Turbidity, CO3, HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3. The pH, EC and TDS were measured by using pH meter and conductivity meter, respectively. Total hardness and calcium hardness were determined by titration with EDTA. Magnesium hardness obtained from subtraction of total hardness and calcium hardness. Estimation of alkalinity and chlorides were determined by titrimetric method. Sulphate and nitrate were estimated by spectrophotometer. Sodium and

27

potassium were estimated by flame photo meter and turbidity was measured by turbid meter.

Figure 3.5 Well Location Map of Karapakkam Village

i)

Analysis of water quality index for drinking purposes The procedure adopted by Landwehr (1974) by developing Water

Quality Index (WQI) to determine the suitability of groundwater. WQI is a very useful tool for communicating the information on overall quality of water. The WQI is computed by adopting the following formula, WQI = aiTi( pi )
i 1
n

(3.1)

Where,
ai
Ti

the weight of the ith parameter, a function that transforms the measured value of ith parameter into a quality rating, the measured value of the ith parameter,

pi

28

Based on the WQI values, the groundwater quality are rated as excellent, good, poor, very poor and unfit for human consumption as presented in Table 3.1. Based on the above procedure, WQI is calculated for the study village and checked for its usefulness. Table 3.1 Categories of Water Quality Indices Description Excellent Good Poor Very Poor Unfit for drinking

Water Quality Index 0-25 26-50 51-75 76-100 >100

ii)

Generation of water quality index map The various thematic layers were generated using GIS contouring

methods. The natural neighbourhood interpolation method was used for generating the contour needed for creation of thematic layer. WQI values for each sample was calculated using equation 3.1. Based on the WQI values WQI map was derived in GIS environment. 3.3.6 Groundwater Potential The groundwater potential was calculated in Karapakkam village. Water level was monitored from each well. To study the changes in the water level the procedure followed by Lenters (2001) is also adopted to study the long term trend of water fluctuation and change in storage. The period taken for the study is from 2002 to 2010.

29

For determining the temporal variation, the monthly changes in the water level, L was calculating using equation 3.2. L = Lt+1 Lt, Where, Lt - Monthly water level of the current month (m) Lt+1- Monthly water level of the following month (m) For a particular location, the L will be calculated for all the months of the year i) Then the net (annual) L is calculated by summing up the L of the individual months. ii) The same procedure is then carried out on the data of the remaining years i.e. 2002-2010. iii) Then the L obtain for each month and the net (annual) L is plotted against month (January, February, and March 2011) from which a number of striking trends were noticed. The steps described above to calculate L will be performed using the Excel spread sheet. Graphs are drawn between the L obtained for each month and time. Theissen polygon was created to find out the area corresponding to each well. Well elevation found out from the GPS survey. Based on the well elevation, calculate groundwater level. The monthly changes in the water level L were calculating using equation 3.2. Groundwater quantity was calculated using water level fluctuation method. (3.2)

30

Groundwater quantity is calculated by water level fluctuation method adopting the following formula, Q = A*L* Sy Where, Q = Volume of water (m 3) A = Influence area of well (m2) L= Water level fluctuation (m) Sy = Specific yield of the well (6% for clayey soil according to Report of the Groundwater Resource Estimation Committee, 2009). 3.3.7 Livelihood Assessment Livelihood assessment was analysed based on land use changes, groundwater quality and groundwater potential. Focus Group Discussion and questionnaire survey was used to analyse the livelihood changes. Questionnaire survey is an essential tool, which can give details of actual situation of the study area. The survey was conduct to study the socio economic impact of groundwater quality and quantity due to urbanisation and also to understand the status of groundwater quality and quantity changes. The questionnaire format has been prepared mainly aiming for a comparison of change of groundwater quality and quantity in pre and post monsoon over a period of time. The questionnaire addresses the following aspects: i) ii) Sources of domestic water including drinking water. Socio and economic status of the people. (3.3)

iii) About the groundwater quality and quantity conditions in the wells. iv) Uses of well water at different places. v) Health problem in the area due to urbanisation, land use changes, deterioration of water quality, drainage facilities, etc.,

31

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL This Chapter discusses the results of the analysis carried out on i) changes in the land use pattern between 2002 and 2010 ii) changes in groundwater quantity and quality variation over the years and (iii) assess the livelihood changes due to land use pattern, groundwater quantity and quality through the focus group discussion and questionnaire survey. 4.2 CHANGES IN LAND USE PATTERN The static land use / land cover distribution for each study year as derived from the maps are presented in the Table 4.1. Figure 4.1 to Figure 4.5 shows the land use map 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 respectively. From this Table 4.1, it is clear that the Residential area was increased from 4.51% in 2002 and also increased a little to 6.31%, in 2010 it was about 10.4%. The reason was that increase in land value, due to proximity to the city, induced the conversion of cultivated land as residential plots. In past years, Karapakkam village is an agriculture oriented village, in 2002, the agricultural land was 38.1% at that time the area of cultivation was more when comparing this in 2006 to that of 2008 it was reduced to 30.4% and 7.81%. The reason for the decline in agriculture was labour scarcity; the landless agricultural labourers went to the nearby city for want of employment and the land value was raised. Fallow land was increased from 4.97% in 2002 and also increased a little to 6.78%, in 2010 it was about 36%.

32

Table 4.1
2002 Land use categories Area (ha) Agricultural land Aquifer recharge zone Fallow Land Buckingham canal Cemetery Collage Grass land Industries Pond Residential Area School Small industries Temple Total Area 93.24 24.59 12.15 10.24 1.85 1.26 7.01 11.72 1.17 11.03 0.71 0.26 0.74 244.48

Land use Pattern for the Years 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010
2004 Area (%) 38.14 10.06 4.97 4.19 0.76 0.52 2.87 4.80 0.48 4.51 0.29 0.11 0.30 Area (ha) 80.47 24.59 13.64 6.86 1.85 1.41 4.32 14.22 1.18 12.82 0.71 0.35 0.77 244.48 Area (%) 32.92 10.06 5.58 2.81 0.76 0.58 1.77 5.82 0.48 5.24 0.29 0.14 0.31 2006 Area (ha) 74.39 24.59 16.56 6.86 1.85 1.41 3.29 14.46 1.62 15.42 0.71 0.44 0.82 244.48 Area (%) 30.43 10.06 6.78 2.81 0.76 0.58 1.35 5.91 0.66 6.31 0.29 0.18 0.33 2008 Area (ha) 19.10 24.59 70.24 5.40 1.85 1.41 2.65 20.50 2.43 18.58 4.03 0.50 0.86 244.48 Area (%) 7.81 10.06 28.73 2.21 0.76 0.58 1.08 8.38 0.99 7.60 1.65 0.20 0.35 2010 Area (ha) 0.00 24.59 87.99 5.10 1.85 2.01 2.10 25.22 1.84 25.52 4.03 0.55 0.92 244.48 Area (%) 0.00 10.06 35.99 2.09 0.76 0.82 0.86 10.31 0.75 10.44 1.65 0.23 0.38

32

33

Figure 4.1 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2002

Figure 4.2 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2004

33

34

Figure 4.3 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2006

Figure 4.4 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2008

34

35

Figure 4.5 Land use Map of Karapakkam village-2010 There is no change in the Aquifer recharge zone and Cemetery. Regarding the water bodies the Buckingham canal area was reduced from 4.19% to 2.09%. In 2002, the Industrial area was increased from 4.8% and also increased 5.91% in 2010 it was about 10.3%. Colleges, schools, and temples

36

were slightly increased. Small industries also slightly increased. Grass land was slightly reduced. 4.3 4.3.1 GROUNDWATER QUALITY Temporal Variation of Groundwater Quality Parameters Groundwater quality parameters were analysed in the laboratory for four month. Groundwater quality parameters are pH, EC, TDS, Turbidity, CO3, HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3 for which WHO has prescribed maximum desirable limits for drinking purpose were analysed. The pH of the water samples in the study area ranged between 6.0 to 8.0. The desirable limit of Electrical conductivity was 2000s/cm. The water quality in Kalaimagal nagar is within the desirable limit. The concentration of total dissolved solids in most of the areas exceeds the permissible limits except at Kalaimagal nagar, which has found to be below 1000 mg/l at all the months.TDS in groundwater also originate from natural sources, dense residential area, sewage, urban run-off and industrial wastes. The concentration of Chloride in most of the areas is within the permissible limits except at Near Okkium Maduvu, Mahatma Gandhi Street, and Sadagopan Street. High concentration of Total Hardness is found in Rangasamy street, Indragandhi street and Near Okkium Maduvu. The other samples showed a moderate range of hardness values which is of common contamination from dense residential human activities and weathering and leaching of salts into the groundwater. In all the month, samples shows moderate range of Sodium and Potassium values which is due to natural geology. The other parameters like Bicarbonates, Nitrates Sulphates and Turbidity were found to be within the permissible limits. 4.3.2 Water Quality Index (WQI) To analyse the groundwater quality changes in the study area, water quality index was developed. WQI was computed by weighted index method to

37

determine the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose. The estimated quantitative values of water quality parameters and their standards are used to calculate water quality index using equation 3.1. The WQI calculated by Landwehr (1974) was used for assessing the suitability of groundwater for drinking purposes, which is found to be more appropriate for the current study. Based on the procedure as explained earlier, indices were calculated for the month of September 2010, January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011. The calculated Weighting factors (ai) are shown below in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Water Quality Parameters, BIS Standards and Weighting factor (ai)
Parameters pH TDS (mg/l) Turbidity (NTU) HCO3 (mg/l) Ca (mg/l) Mg (mg/l) Cl (mg/l) Na (mg/l) K (mg/l) SO4 (mg/l) NO3 (mg/l) BIS Standards 8.5 500 50 500 75 30 250 200 20 250 45 Weighting factor (ai) 0.24 0.0041 0.41 0.0041 0.027 0.0681 0.0082 0.0102 0.102 0.0082 0.045

It is inferred that, during the month of January 2011 in most of the places the quality of water seems to be good compared to other months. During September 2010, February 2011 and March 2011 few places of poor quality water are identified. The Water quality classification is done based on the WQI of September 2010, January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011 and presented in Table 4.3.

38

Table 4.3 Water Quality Classification based on WQI of September 2010, January, February and March 2011
ID Well 1 Name Renganathan street Near Okkium Maduvu Indragandhi street Kupusamy street Kalaimagal nagar Government well Muthamil nagar Mahatma Gandhi street Vendraai amman kovil steet Rangasamy street Sadagopan street Latitude and Longitude 12 55' 14.74"N, 80 13' 51.09"E 12 55' 7.07"N, 80 14' 2.33"E 12 55' 1.01"N, 80 13' 55.37"E 12 54' 54.04"N, 80 14' 2.15"E 12 54' 48.69"N, 80 14' 4.60"E 12 54' 50.47"N, 80 13' 55.19"E 12 54' 54.05"N, 80 13' 42.17"E 12 54' 43.34"N, 80 13' 48.06"E 12 54' 42.43"N, 80 13' 56.11"E 12 54' 41.55"N, 80 14' 2.15"E 12 54' 37.63"N, 80 13' 58.22"E WQI (Sep) 95.8 WQ Rating Very poor Unfit for drinking purposes Poor Poor Poor Poor Very poor Good Very Poor Very Poor Good WQI (Jan) 61.84 WQ Rating Poor Very poor Poor Poor Good Good Very poor Good WQI (Feb) 113 WQ (Rating) Unfit for drinking purposes Unfit for drinking purposes Very Poor Poor Good Poor Very Poor WQI (Mar) 125 WQ Rating Unfit for drinking purposes Unfit for drinking purposes Very Poor Poor Poor Poor Unfit for drinking purposes Poor Very Poor Very Poor Good

Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 Well 5 Well 6 Well 7

141 63.6 62.9 54.7 52.3 100

77.31 42.73 56.3 42.4 49.3 82.7

112 93.3 66.8 49.4 58.8 93.78

121 99.8 69.6 56.8 62.3 101

Well 8

45.3

32.4

42.9

Good

56.2

Well 9 Well 10 Well 11

87.6 73.5 49.8

64.3 62.6 39.34

Poor Poor Good

91.46 71.8 43.1

Very Poor Poor Good

99.3 76.8 49.6

38

39

Hence the quality of water samples in the study area was found to vary from good to very poor in the January 2011 and good to unfit for drinking purposes in the September 2010, February 2011 and March 2011. In January 2011, it was found that water quality in general, related to quantum of rainfall received, in good. The improvement in groundwater quality, during this month may be due to the rainfall in the previous month. This may have an impact on the dilution of salts. 4.3.3 Generation of Water Quality Index Map Water quality index values revealed that the groundwater at two wells were good quality with the WQI ranging in between 0-50 and therefore can be used for human consumption. Four samples were having poor quality with WQI ranging between 50-75 and three samples were having very poor quality and cannot be used for domestic purposes. The WQI was found to be above 100 in areas like Near Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan Street. These two well has heavy contamination. The municipal solid waste were dumping in pallikaranai area. The leachats from this area have seeped though the soil and contaminated the nearby wells. Okkium Maduvu well is locate from the nearby Pallikaranai swamp water was passed through the Okkium Maduvu to reach the Buckingham canal. The WQI map is shown in Figure 4.6, Figure 4.7, Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9.

40

Figure 4.6 Water Quality Index Map-September 2010

Figure 4.7 Water Quality Index Map-January 2011

41

Figure 4.8 Water Quality Index Map-February 2011

Figure 4.9 Water Quality Index Map-March 2011

42

4.4 4.4.1

GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL Analysis of Water Level Table 4.4 shows that the water level in government well has a maximum

depletion of 0.87 m below ground level (BGL) in the pre-monsoon of 2002 and 0.15 m, (BGL) in post-monsoon. In 2006, the depth to water level was 2.15 m, (BGL) in the pre-monsoon and in the post-monsoon it was 1.25 m, (BGL). In the month of March 2011 the water level has a maximum depletion of 3.8 m, (BGL) and in the February 2011, the water level has decreased to 10.5 m, (BGL). The reason for the lower levels in a well may be due to the indiscriminate pumping over extraction of groundwater. The change in storage was calculated based on the water level fluctuation method using GEC norms (eqn. 3.2). Figure 4.10 shows that the water level fluctuation during January 2011 to March 2011 in the study area. Figures 4.11 to 4.13 show the spatial distribution map of water level variation. Table 4.4 Water Level Data for the Years 2002 and 2006 Period 2002 2006 Pre monsoon in ( m ) Post monsoon in ( m ) 0.87 0.15 2.15 1.25

Figure 4.10 Water Level Fluctutation (m)

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Figure 4.11 Water level Contour-January 2011

Figure 4.12 Water level Contour-February 2011

44

Figure 4.13 Water level Contour-March 2011 From the water level contour map, the groundwater flows were identified. The groundwater movement was northwest dirction to southeast direction. Because Renganathan street, Okkium Maduvu, Indragandhi Street has higher level and Rengasamy street lower level. Mahatma Gandhi street and Muthamil nagar has higher level than Kupusamy street, Sadagopan Street, Government well and Kalaimagal nagar. 4.4.2 Groundwater Quantity Groundwater quantity was estimated by adopting the water level fluctuation method using equation 3.3. Area of influence was calculated by using Theissen polygon method and shown in Figure 4.14. Figure 4.15 shows the groundwater quantity for the month of February and March 2011. The change in groundwater storage for January 2011 to February 2011 was shown in Table 4.5.

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Figure 4.14 Theissen polygon map

Figure 4 .15 Groundwater Quantity(m3)

46

Table 4.5 Groundwater quantity for January and February 2011

Well No Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8 Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Name Renganathan street Near Okkium Maduvu Indragandhi street Kupusamy street Kalaimagal nagar Government well Muthamil nagar Mahatma Gandhi street Vendraai amman kovil steet Rangasamy street Sadagopan street Latitude and Longitude 12 55' 14.74"N, 80 13' 51.09"E 12 55' 7.07"N, 80 14' 2.33"E 12 55' 1.01"N, 80 13' 55.37"E 12 54' 54.04"N, 80 14' 2.15"E 12 54' 48.69"N, 80 14' 4.60"E 12 54' 50.47"N, 80 13' 55.19"E 12 54' 54.05"N, 80 13' 42.17"E 12 54' 43.34"N, 80 13' 48.06"E 12 54' 42.43"N, 80 13' 56.11"E 12 54' 41.55"N, 80 14' 2.15"E 12 54' 37.63"N, 80 13' 58.22"E Area (m2) 290200 512100 128700 126600 589300 81570 213100 125700 48840 275900 43930 Change in Water Level (L) (m) Groundwater Potential (m3) Jan Feb Jan-Feb Feb-Mar -0.75 -0.7 -0.6 -0.7 -1.1 -1.2 -1.1 -0.9 -0.8 -1.3 -0.9 -1.25 -1.05 -0.75 -1.15 -1.35 -1.6 -1.45 -1.05 -1.2 -1.9 -1.3 -13059 -21508 -4633.2 -5317.2 -38894 -5873 -14065 -6787.8 -2344.3 -21520 -2372.2 -21765 -32262 -5792 -8735 -47733 -7831 -18540 -7919 -3516 -31453 -3427

Note: -ve sign indicate the water level depletion

46

47

Analyzing the reasons for the fluctuation in the water level, it was found that urbanization in the recent years is one of the reasons for the decline. Due to the increase in impervious layers, paved areas and induced changes in land use causing compaction of the top sub-soil, the natural rainfall recharge has very much reduced. Thus, it could be inferred that in the recent years, in spite of the good amount of rainfall, the water level position has not increased substantially indicating that the surplus rainfall would have gone as waste in the form of runoff. The rapid increase in urban development, the demand for water has increased in many told. Hence the groundwater potential is under a great threat, and it has to be protected. The construction of rainwater harvesting structure will increase the water level and also controlling the over extraction of water, may improve the water level. 4.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT The questionnaire survey and Focus Group Discussion was conducted with the people living in the Karapakkam village. It was conducted to determine the reasons for water quality variation in the village. The data were obtained in terms of employment, income, age group, housing type, year of living on the village, source of drinking water and health impact. The obtained data were analysed with the help of Microsoft excel. From the analysis, statistical data results were obtained which are given below. Sample size of the study is 53 in which 42% of people were living in rented house and 58% of people living in own house. 4.5.1 Source of Drinking Water Figure 4.16 shows the sources of drinking water in present status. In 2002, the sources of drinking water were well water and pond water. In 2010, the sources are well water, Panchayat water, portable water and collecting water

48

from Sholinganallur and Nellur villages. There is a drastic change in the group of people using well water for drinking from 2002 and now. 76% of the respondents were used well water for drinking purpose in 2002 and it is reduced to 4% in 2010 because of the groundwater quality deterioration. The septic tanks are constructed near to their wells, so the groundwater gets polluted and unfit for use. In 2002, portable water is not used for drinking purpose, but now 51% of the respondents used portable water. Presently, almost 13% of the respondents are using the Panchayat water for drinking and they are boiling the water only during the monsoon season. Figure 4.17 Shows that the amounts spend for drinking water.

Figure 4.16 Sources of Drinking Water

Figure 4.17 Amounts spend for Drinking Water

4.5.2

Analysis of Groundwater Quality From the questionnaire survey, the groundwater quality data were

collected on four different categories namely Excellent, Good, Moderate Poor and Very Poor. The data were analysed in GIS software at specially for all the observation well during 2002, 2005, 2010. From the people observation, before 2005, mostly the well water was excellent and good. After 2005, the quality of the water gets too deteriorated.

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The reason for the quality deterioration was extraction of more water, lack of improper drainage system and natural geology. Figure 4.18 shows the reason for water quality deterioration. Figures 4.19 to 4.21 show the water quality map for the years 2002, 2005 and 2010 respectively.

Figure 4.18 Reasons for Water Quality Deterioration

Figure 4.19 Water Quality Map for 2002

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Figure 4.20 Water Quality Map for 2005

Figure 4.21 Water Quality Map for 2010

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From the rating of water quality map, it is inferred for that Renganathan street, Near Okkium Maduvu and Muthamil nagar wells, the water quality was very poor. The trend of change in water quality for both calculated water quality index map and from peoples response map on water quality are similar. Hence this study has given very good opinion about the peoples understanding of groundwater in this area. 4.5.3 Agricultural Status In the past, 42% of respondents had own agricultural land and involved in agricultural activities, but 34% of respondents work as a agricultural labourers. In present year no agricultural practise were done. But urbanisation has turned these agricultural lands into built-up area and fallow land thus affecting the livelihood of the people who were dependent on agriculture. The reason is that the agricultural labourers moved to other places for jobs, as they are getting more income on non-agricultural jobs which resulted in labour scarcity and wage rise. The land and house owners have rented out their properties to the employers of IT companies, making huge income, which in turn is improving their living standards. Figure 4.22 shows the agricultural status of the study area. 4.5.4 Economic Status As seen in Figure 4.23, among people of different income groups, 13% of the people, who earn low income (< Rs.5000) are mostly affected by urbanisation. Earlier they were working as an agricultural labourer. In this study it is found that 21% of the people earned high income due to IT companies, petty shops and hotels.

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Figure 4.22 Agricultural Status 4.5.5 Sanitation and Health Status

Figure 4.23 Economic Status

Based on the response, in the year 2010, arround 69% of residents have sanitation facility. Figure 4.24 shows the sanitation facility status and Figure 4.25

shows the health impact of peoples in Karapakkam. Figure 4.26 shows the major problems faced by the people due to water stagnation such as health disease. In this 64% of people are highly affected by health problem and 36% of people are not affected. Out this 64%, 54% of residents are affected by cold, 33% of residents were affected by fever and 13% of residents were affected by skin disease such as allergy, psoriaris etc.,

Figure 4.24 Sanitation Facility Status

Figure 4.25 Health Impact

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Figure 4.26 Major Health Problem 4.5.6 Impact of Urbanisation Positive Impacts The positive impacts from many people are, a) b) Some of them joined in good jobs. Few have their own petty shops and hotels.

i)

Due to IT companies most of the people was benefited. Some of the people were working in Housekeeping, construction labourer, Bottle Company, Lathe works and catering etc., People has a sense of awareness towards education, due to IT companies. Also land value is increased in recent years, because of the demand for land. The land and house owners have rented out their properties to the employers of the IT companies and making huge income, which in turn is improving their living standards. The land owners sold out the land completely and welcome urbanisation because the faith in agriculture is decreased and they feel that it might bring benefits to the next generation. During the discussions with women from the

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land owning families, it was noticed that they were tempted towards urbanisation and wanted to move out of agricultural, considering it as inferior job. Increasing land price and urban style make them comfortable with increase in urbanisation.

ii)

Negative Impacts Most of the agricultural land was sold to IT company and some of the

lands were converted to fallow land.

Previously the landless agricultural

labourers dependent only agriculture. Now they shifted to other jobs in the industries, construction works etc., 13% of the people were unemployed with comparatively lower living standard. In groundwater condition, Groundwater level gets decrease due to over extraction of groundwater. Groundwater quality also varied due to over extraction and improper drainage. During rainy reasons stagnation of water is more prevalent and causes among the people health problems.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1

SUMMARY The impact of urbanisation on groundwater in Karapakkam village is

carried out in many aspects to finding the changes in land use pattern, groundwater condition due to urbanisation and to assessing the livelihood changes. Actually livelihood is comprises of capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a meaning of living. The livelihood of people is often disturbed / changed due to the developments in the environment. The urbanisation status of village was found by considering the changes in the land use pattern, between the years 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010. By using the water quality indices the spatial variation of drinking water quality was found. Water level data were collected for January, February and March 2011 to analyse the changes in the water level. Also the questionnaire survey was conducted to the villagers to assess the livelihood changes in occupational characteristics, agriculture, water level and water quality before and after urbanisation. These primary data were analysed using Microsoft Excel and GIS software. The livelihood changes were discussed in various aspects to quantity the effects.

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5.2

CONCLUSION The present study gives an overall view of the status of urbanisation and

water resources in Karapakkam village and also it gives various details about the impacts of urbanisation on livelihood option. Due to urbanisation, the land use pattern was changed over the decades. In 2002, 38% of land was used to agricultural purposes. January 2010 most of the land was sold to corporate and Real estate companies, which have been converted in to IT company and residential areas. Due to this rapid development the demand for land has increased and all the agricultural lands are converted into urban development. Also the land value has increased alarmingly to many told in the last two decades. Some lands were converted to fallow land due to shortage of irrigation water source. As of now (2010) agricultural land was no move in Karapakkam village. Industrial area and residential area was increased from 4.8% to 10.3% and 4.51% to 10.4% in 2002 and 2010 respectively. But in other way, due to urbanisation, 21% of peoples are earning more than Rs.10000. Regarding the water quality and water level, it could be inferred that earlier the village had appreciable groundwater potential and the quality of groundwater was good for domestic purposes. But the water resources are declining day by day in terms of water level and also deteriorating in quality. Water Quality Index, questionnaire survey and focus group discussion was used to classify the well. From the classification Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan street well was unfit for drinking purposes, where the water quality index was found to be more than 100. The reasons attributed for the quality deterioration were over extraction and lack of proper drainage system. The decreasing availability of water coupled with pollution will result in acute scarcity of good quality water in the area. Due to the groundwater quality deterioration, 51% of people are using portable water for drinking purpose and 18% of people spend more than

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200 rupees per month for buying portable water. Groundwater stagnation was a major problem due to improper drainage and impervious layer, which causes health problem. It is arrived from the questionnaire that 66% of peoples are affected health disease such as fever, cold and skin disease. From the economic status 66% and 21% of peoples are living under good and moderate status. There are 13% of the people, who are mainly depends and work as an agricultural labourer in this area. Their livelihood was affected by urbanisation and no agricultural activities. The monthly income they earn is below Rs.5000. This study has been carried out and analysed on detail about the rapid urbanisation and techno economical aspects. Few important points raised by the people during the questionnaire survey and considered in the management of reasons effectively in an urban environment are given below. i) Urbanisation is a major challenge for water resources. Planned urbanisation gives positive impacts, but unplanned urbanisation creates more problems and complicates the situation, which in fact give more negative impacts. ii) Awareness must be created among the people about the urbanisation, over extraction of water and sanitation to conserve the water resources. iii) It is learned that most of people doesnt have enough knowledge about septic tank, disposal of sewage in water bodies and their advantages. iv) The people depends on agricultural labour are asking for some other water source to encourage agriculture, but it seems to be impractical for the present scenario.

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DOI 10.1007/s10661-010-1485-5. 14. Mandere N.M., Ness B. and Anderberg S. (2010), Peri-urban development, livelihood change and household income: A case study of peri-urban Nyahururu, Kenya, Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Vol. 2 (5), pp. 73-83. 15. Naik P. K., Tambe J.A., Dehury B.N. and Tiwari A.N. (2008), Impact of urbanization on the groundwater regime in a fast growing city in central India, Environ Monit Assess, Vol. 146, pp. 339373. 16. Palaniyandi M. and Nagarathinam V. (1997), Land use / Land cover mapping and change detection using space borne data Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Vol.25, No.1, pp. 27-33.

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ANNEXURE

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEASURING THE LIVELIHOOD CHANGES DUE TO URBANISATION

General information 1. Person identification: i) Name: ii) Address:

2.

Respondent profile: i) Sex: ii) Age Male Female

3.

Monthly income detail: a) <5000 b) 5000-10000 c) 10000-15000 d) >15000

4.

Family education and occupation status Family members Education Name Relation Occupation

5.

Ownership of house: a) Owned b) Rented c) Living with relative

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6.

How long are you living in this house?

Groundwater Condition 7. Did you find any changes in ground water condition early and now? (Yes/No) i) If yes, what are the change occurred? (specify year and reason also) 1. Ground water level __________________________________ _________________________________________________ 2. Ground water quality ________________________________ _________________________________________________ 8. Is there any remarkable change in quality of ground water during peak summer? (Yes/No) i) If yes, what are the changes? ______________________________ 9. Domestic water sources Source Own well Panchayat water Cane water

Purpose Drinking Cooking Bathing Washing Gardening Cleaning

10.

Do you have own well? (Yes/No) i) If yes, when did you construct the well? 1. What is the depth of well? 2. Well water condition and usage of well

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Well water condition Periods (Very good, Good, Moderate, Bad, Very Bad) Early ( Now ( ) )

Well water usage

3. If well water is not sufficient, what is the alternate source?

ii) If No, what is the source of domestic water?

11.

What is the source of Panchayat water supply?

12.

Availability of Panchayat water i) Frequency _____________ ii) Quality _______________

13.

How you are getting the Panchayat water? a) Own connection b) Public connection

i) If the tap is public, how far from your house? (specify in metres or kilometres) 14. 15. How much time you are spending for collecting the water? How much money do you spend to purchase can water (monthly)?

Sanitation Facility 16. Do you have toilet facility? (Yes/No) i) If yes, whether you are using owned/public toilet? a) Own toilet b) Public toilet

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1. If you have own toilet, what type toilet facility a. Pit toilet b. Flush toilet

ii) If no, what is your defecation practice? 17. 18. How frequently you are cleaning the toilet? What type of sewage collection system do you have? a) Lined septic tank 19. 20. b) Unlined septic tank

How far the septic tank is located from your well? (specify in metres) Is there any solid waste collecting system in your area? (Yes/No) i) If yes, how will collect? (specify frequency) ii) If no, how do you dispose the solid waste?

Health Problem 21. Is there any health problem due to ground water? (Yes/No) i) If yes, what are the problems? ________________________________ 22. Is there any disease frequently affect your family? (Yes/No) i) If yes, specify type of disease ________________________________ 23. Are you getting any health support through Primary Health Centre? (Yes/No) i) If yes, what are the supports? Economic Status 24. Any changes occurred in your occupation? (Yes/No)

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i) If yes, what are the changes? 1. Early__________________ 2. Now __________________ 25. Did you modify your house? (Yes/No) i) If yes, what type of modification? _______________________________________________________ Agricultural Status 26. Did you involved in agricultural activates? (Yes/No) i) Early ___________________ ii) Now ___________________ 27. What are the types of crops cultivated? i) Early___________________ ii) Now __________________ iii) What type of fertilizer you used/using? (Organic/Inorganic) 28. If you are not involved in agricultural activities? (specify the constraints)__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 29. Is the land value increases in this village? i) If yes, how much? (Sq.ft) 1. Early__________________ 2. Now __________________