Rationale:

Earth and life sciences cover all aspects of life on earth such as the complex and
dynamic processes in solid earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, the natural world and
organisms, including humans.
Earth science is the study of the Earth and the physical components that make it
up: the constitution of the atmosphere, the seas, the land and how those things are tied
together. Life science is the study of living organisms, including microorganisms, plants,
animals and human beings. It is an integrated study of the Earth's history, composition, and
structure, its atmosphere and oceans, and its environment in space.
Knowledge of Earth Science is important because most human activities are related to
interaction with the planet Earth. Scientific research in the earth and life sciences is wide-
ranging and relevant to current tissues.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
 Describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression,
pulling apart, and shearing
 Explain how the movement of plates leads to formation of folds and faults
 Describe how layers of rocks are formed
 Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions
of geologic time
 Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides

Objectives:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties;
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic;
 Identify the minerals important to society
 Identify different geological processes and hydro meteorological phenomena
 Describe the various hazards that may happen in the events of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, landslides and hydro meteorological phenomena

1
Chapter II: Earth Materials and Processes

Earth materials include minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are the naturally
occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our
global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic
components for life, agriculture and industry.
Earth's surface is the only habitat available to the human race. Understanding
the processes by which that habitat has been created and continually altered
is important to determine the causes of environmental degradation, to restore what is
degraded, and to guide policy decisions toward a sustainable Earth surface.

LESSON 1: ROCKS AND MINERALS

Have you ever seen rocks close enough and wondered

what they are made of? Believe it or not, the rocks that you see
are actually made up of crystalline materials, called minerals.
But what are minerals? Are they the same as the minerals we get
from food in order to grow and perform bodily functions? In this
section, we will discuss what minerals and understand their role
in the formation of rocks, the processes that lead to their
formation, and their importance in our everyday lives. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/
what-is-the-difference-between-a-rock-
and-a-mineral.html

What is it!
Rocks
Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. The types and
abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in which the rock was
formed. Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms
74.3% of the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock.
Rocks are classified according to the characteristics:
1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. and particle size.
These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks.
Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by

2
the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of
rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
The Rock Cycle
Rocks undergo processes that transform
them from one type to another (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic). The processes that
these rocks undergo would dictate the type that
they will be transformed in to and is a factor of the
environment where the rocks are located. To help
you understand the rock cycle better, you can think
of it as similar to the water cycle. With each
component (e.g., water, water vapor, and clouds)
and the processes that transform them (e.g.,
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation), the
whole cycle proceeds with no beginning or ending
point (hence, a cycle) and at the same time, can go
forward or be reversed. The following table will help
us understand the rock cycle better by going
through each component and rock type and the
https://www.sfcollege.edu/rockcycle/the-rock-cycle/
processes involved in their transformation. index

TYPES OF ROCKS

IGNEOUS
• Rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma
or lava
• Magma is molten rock with associated solid
materials and gaseous phases (e.g., sulfur dioxide or
water vapor); lava is magma that has reached the surface https://www.worldatlas.com/what-are-igneous-
• It takes around 600-11,000 Celsius to melt common rock-forming minerals rocks.html

• Crystallization or cooling: the process that transforms magma into solid igneous rock
• Types: volcanic rocks (formed on the surface) or plutonic rocks (cooled beneath the
surface)
• Textures: features (e.g., mineral/grain size) observed in rocks that are dependent on the
environment where they are formed
• Classification based on texture
a. Phaneritic texture: rocks having mineral grains that are easily identified with the
naked eye or with the help of a hand lens

3
 b. Aphanitic texture: rocks having mineral grains that are difficult to be identified
with the naked eye

• Classification based on mineral composition

a. Ultramafic rocks: characterized by the abundance of ferromagnesian minerals
and are usually dark green to black in color; comprise majority of mantle
material, making them the most abundant rocks in the Earth by volume; e.g.,
dunnites and pyroxenites
b. Mafic rocks: produced by mid-ocean ridges; e.g., gabbro and basalt
c. Intermediate rocks: no longer ultramafic nor mafic but not yet achieving felsic
composition; e.g., diorite and andesite
d. Felsic rocks: dominated the continental crust and represented the final stages of
crust formation; e.g., granite and rhyolite
Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or magma) into
solid form. If the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive or plutonic igneous
rock. If the cooling occurs on the earth's surface, the rock is an extrusive or volcanic igneous
rock.

SEDIMENTARY
• This type of rocks form by breaking larger rocks into
smaller pieces.
 Sediments
• sedimentary processes

 weathering: the process of breaking down

rocks physically or chemically
 erosion: the process of eating away rocks from their source
https://www.dkfindout.com/us/earth/rocks-
 transport: the movement of the sediments from one placeand-minerals/sedimentary-rocks/
to another
 deposition: the settling of the sediments in an area before they are finally
lithified to form sedimentary rocks
 diagenesis: the group of processes-compaction, cementation, recrystallization,
and bioturbation- responsible for the transformation of sediments into
sedimentary rocks

• classification

 detrital sedimentary rocks: dominated by the resistant minerals and rock

fragments such as quartz and clay minerals; further classified into
conglomerates/breccias, sandstones, siltstones, clay stones
 chemical sedimentary rocks: derived from the precipitation of solutions rich in
mineral components.

4
  sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.
a. Detrital rocks are formed by the compaction of separate particles, or
sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been dissolved
in water and precipitate out, forming a solid rock.

 METAMORPHIC

• metamorphism: the transformation of one rock (igneous,

sedimentary, or metamorphic) to a metamorphic rock
• the unique thing about metamorphic rocks is that the
processes take place in the solid state
• factors that induce metamorphism
 heat: rocks exposed to an increase in temperature (e.g.,
when an intruding magma is nearby; without melting)
will undergo recrystallization in order to form larger https://www.mindat.org/min-
crystals 51421.html

 pressure: rocks undergoing pressure are subject to deformation in the same way
when we compress or stretch some materials
 chemically-active fluids: when under pressure and increased temperature, water or
any other fluid dissolve minerals which may not possibly happen under normal
surface conditions

• classification

 foliated metamorphic rocks: subjected to differential pressure which becomes

evident in the rock as alignment of minerals, rock fragments, and structures; further
classified into slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss
 non-foliated metamorphic rocks: may be difficult to distinguish from igneous rocks
in the absence of foliation; most common examples: marble and quartzite
 Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and
pressure, usually deep below the earth's surface. These conditions change the
original minerals of the rock into new minerals.

How rock type can be changed? Rock can be changed through the processes of
weathering, heating, melting, cooling, and compaction. Any one rock type can be changed
into a different rock type as its chemical composition and physical characteristics are
transformed. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human
civilization.

5
Minerals
 A mineral is naturally occurring. It should be made by natural processes without the
aid of any organism.
 A mineral is inorganic. The process to produce a mineral by natural means is
extended further by making sure that no organic material (or what was once pan of
an organism) be considered a mineral.
 A mineral is a homogenous solid. It is uniform in appearance and is in the solid state
of matter.
 A mineral has a definite chemical composition.
 A mineral must also possess uniformity in its chemical composition. This means that
a mineral should have definite chemical constituents’ minerals that share a common
chemical composition are considered polymorphs.
 A mineral has an ordered internal/ crystalline structure.
 A crystalline material is something that has its elemental components arranged in
an ordered fashion. This means that the material repeats this order in a three-
dimensional framework that can extend virtually in to infinity.
 Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
 They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical
composition and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal
structure.
 Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
 The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the Earth's
crust, include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A few elements may
occur in pure form. These include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead,
tellurium and carbon.

Rock Forming Minerals: The physical properties of minerals, such as their hardness,
luster, color, cleavage, fracture, and relative density can be used to identify minerals.

Common rock-forming minerals: These are specimens of minerals from the

University of Auckland's collection. Along with the common rock-forming minerals,
including apatite, corundum, diamond, fluorite, topaz and talc to illustrate minerals used in
Mohs’s Scale of Hardness.

COMMON ROCK- DESCRIPTION

6
 FORMING MINERALS

Apatite Apatite is a phosphate mineral (and is the most abundant

phosphorous-bearing mineral). The name actually covers
three different minerals (fluorapatite, chlorapatite and
hydroxyl apatite) depending on the predominance of either
fluorine, chlorine or the hydroxyl group. These ions can
freely substitute in the crystal lattice and all three are
usually present in every specimen, although some
specimens have close to 100% in one or other. The three
https://
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
are usually considered together due to the difficulty in
rocks_minerals/minerals/apatite.html distinguishing them in hand samples using ordinary
methods.

Apatite is widely distributed in all rock types

( igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic), but usually as
small disseminated grains, or cryptocrystalline fragments.
Large, well-formed crystals can be found in certain contact
metamorphic rocks.
Augite Augite is a member of the pyroxene group of simple
silicates, in which the SiO 4 tetrahedra are linked by sharing
two of their four corners to form continuous chains. For this
reason, they are often referred to as single chain silicates.

Pyroxenes are subdivided into those with orthorhombic

symmetry (orthopyroxenes), and those with monoclinic
symmetry (clinopyroxenes), with augite being the most
https://
common of the clinopyroxenes.
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
rocks_minerals/minerals/augite.html
Augite is commonly found in igneous rocks such
as gabbros, basalts and andesites, and high
grade metamorphic rocks (granulites).

Biotite Biotite is a member of the mica group of silicates (sheet

silicates), like chlorite and muscovite. It occurs in more
geological environments than any of the other micas. It is a
common rock forming mineral, being present in at least
some percentage in many igneous rocks
https:// (e.g. granite and rhyolite), and metamorphic rocks
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ (e.g. schist, gneiss).

7
Calcite Calcite is the only common non-silicate rock forming
mineral, being instead calcium carbonate. It has two
refractive indices causing a significant double refraction
effect - when a clear calcite crystal is placed on an image, a
double image is observed; See the sample below.

Calcite will fizz when dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on it.

It may be fluorescent, phosphorescent, thermoluminescent
and triboluminescent (see fluorite for definitions of these
properties).

https://
Calcite is one of the most ubiquitous minerals, being an
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ important rock forming mineral in sedimentary
rocks_minerals/minerals/calcite.html
environments. It is an essential component of limestones,
and occurs in other sedimentary rocks. It also occurs
in metamorphic and igneous rocks, and is common in
hydrothermal environments. Calcite is a common vein
filling mineral in many rock types.
Chlorite Chlorite is a member of the mica group of minerals (sheet
silicates), like biotite and muscovite.

Chlorite is widespread in low grade metamorphic rocks

such as slate and schist, in sedimentary rocks, and as a
weathering product of any rocks that are low in silica
(especially igneous rocks).
Corundum
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ Corundum is the second hardest natural mineral known to
rocks_minerals/minerals/chlorite.html
science (1/4 the hardness of diamond). Gem varieties are
sapphire and ruby.

Corundum may occur on a large scale in some pegmatites. It

https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
rocks_minerals/minerals/corundum.html is also found in silica-poor hornfelses (a contact
metamorphic rock).
Diamond Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral, topping
Mohs' Scale of Hardness with a relative hardness value of
10.

Diamond is a polymorph of the element carbon,

and graphite is another. While the two share the same
chemistry, C (elemental carbon), they have very different
structures and properties. Diamond is hard, graphite is soft

8
 (the "lead" of a pencil). Diamond is an excellent electrical
insulator; graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
https:// Diamond is the ultimate abrasive (its most important use),
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ graphite is a very good lubricant. Diamond is transparent,
graphite is opaque. Diamond crystallizes in the isometric
system; graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.
However, at surface temperatures and pressures graphite is
the stable form of carbon. In fact, all diamonds at or near
the surface of the Earth are currently undergoing a
transformation into graphite, although this reaction is
extremely slow.

Facts about diamond:

 Diamond is transparent over a larger range of

wavelengths than any other substance, from the
ultra-violet into the far infra-red.
 Diamond conducts heat better than any substance -
five times better than the next best element, silver.
 Diamond has the highest melting point of any
substance (3820 degrees Kelvin).
 Diamond's atoms are packed closer together than
the atoms of any other substance.

Diamond is only formed at high pressures. It is found in

kimberlite, an ultrabasic volcanic rock formed very deep in
the Earth's crust. The extreme pressures needed to form
diamonds are only reached at depths greater than 150km.

Fluorite Fluorite is frequently fluorescent, i.e. it will glow under

ultra-violet light. This occurs because certain electrons in
the mineral absorb the energy from the ultra-violet light
and jump to a higher energy state. The fluorescent light is
emitted when those electrons jump down to a lower energy
state and emit a light of their own.

Rare examples of fluorite may exhibit phosphorescence, i.e.

https:// they will continue to glow when removed from the ultra-
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
violet light source. This occurs because electrons in the
mineral have stored energy from the ultra-violet light which

9
 they then emit on a delayed basis.

Rare examples of fluorite may exhibit thermoluminescence,

i.e. they will glow when heated. This occurs because the
mineral may contain chemical bonds that emit light when
thermal energy (heat) is applied.

Garnet Garnet is a more complex orthosilicate (than olivine, for

example) in which the SiO 4 tetrahedra are still
independent.

Garnet is commonly found in highly metamorphosed rocks

and in some igneous rocks. They form under the same high
temperatures and / or pressures that form those types of
https:// rocks. Garnets can be used by geologists to gauge the
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ temperature and pressure under which a particular garnet-
rocks_minerals/minerals/garnet.html
bearing rock formed.
Gypsum Gypsum has a very low thermal conductivity (hence its use
as an insulating filler). A crystal of gypsum will feel
noticeably warmer than, for instance, a crystal of quartz.

Gypsum is one of the more common minerals in

sedimentary environments. It is a major rock forming
mineral that produces massive beds, usually from
https://
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
precipitation out of highly saline waters.
rocks_minerals/minerals/gypsum.html
Hornblende Hornblende is a member of the amphibole group of more
complex silicates, in which the tetrahedra are linked to form
a continuous chain twice the width of the pyroxene chains.
For this reason they are often referred to as double chain
silicates. Like the pyroxenes, they can be subdivided into
those with orthorhombic symmetry (orthoamphiboles) and
those with monoclinic symmetry (clinoamphiboles).
Hornblende is the most common of the clinoamphiboles.
https://
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ Hornblende is commonly found in metamorphic rocks such
rocks_minerals/minerals/
hornblende.html
as schists and gneisses, and igneous rocks such
as diorites and dacites.

10
Ilmenite Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium. It is similar
in appearance to magnetite, but has a different crystal form
and if it is magnetic then it's not as strongly so as magnetite.
It will become magnetic when heated.

Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral in

https:// many igneous rocks and also found as a detrital mineral (in
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
sands).
Magnetite Magnetite is a natural magnet, hence its name. This is a
distinguishing characteristic of the mineral.

Magnetite is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks

and is also found as a detrital mineral, particularly on the
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
rocks_minerals/minerals/magnetite.html
beaches west of Auckland (black sand).
Muscovite Muscovite is a member of the mica group of silicate
minerals (sheet silicates) in which the base of all of the
SiO 4 tetrahedra lie in one plane and three corners of the
base are shared with the neighbouring tetrahedra. This
creates a strongly layered sheet-like structure, hence the
term sheet silicate (the sheets are weakly bound together
by layers of potassium ions).
Muscovite, biotite and chlorite are all common mica group
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/
rocks_minerals/minerals/ minerals.

Muscovite is commonly found in metamorphic rocks such

as schists and gneisses, sedimentary rocks (as the fine
grained variety sericite), and in igneous rocks such
as granite.
Quartz Quartz is a complex silicate in which all the oxygen atoms of
the SiO 4 tetrahedra are shared between two tetrahedra,
leading to complex 3-dimensional frameworks. For this
reason, quartz is referred to as a framework silicate.

Quartz is among the most common of all rock forming

minerals and is found in
many metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks, and
https:// those igneous rocks that are high in silica content such
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ as granites and rhyolites. It is a common vein mineral and is
often associated with mineral deposits.
Talc

11
 Talc is the softest mineral, demonstrated by its position at
the bottom of Mohs' Scale of Hardness with a relative
hardness value of 1. It has a soapy, greasy feel.

Talc is formed by the hydrothermal alteration of ultrabasic

rocks, or low-grade thermal metamorphism of siliceous
dolomites.

https:// Most people know talc as the primary ingredient in talcum

flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ powder. However, talc is an important industrial mineral.
Its resistance to heat, electricity and acids make it useful for
lab counter tops and electrical switchboards. It is an
important filler in paints, rubber and insecticides.
Topaz Topaz is a common gem stone. Topaz crystals can reach
very large sizes, with crystals in pegmatites occasionally
measuring several meters long and weighing several
hundred kilograms.

Topaz occurs mainly in felsic igneous rocks such as granite,

https://
granite pegmatite and rhyolite, and is often found in veins
flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/ and cavities in such rocks.

Classification and Identification of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition
1. Definite fixed composition,
Quartz is always SiO , and calcite is always CaCO .
2. Form both by inorganic and organic processes
For example, calcite (CaCO) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also a shell-
forming material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin conforms to the above
definition except for the requirement that it be inorganic
3. "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually
classified as minerals. Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks a crystal
structure due to its liquid state, and Opal, which also lacks a crystal structure as well
as a definitive chemical formula. Despite the fact that these mineraloids lack certain
essential characteristics of minerals, they are classified as minerals in most
reference guides including the acclaimed Dana's System of Mineralogy.

4. Organic minerals are another unique category of minerals

12
 While this term is technically an oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral
requires it to be inorganic, there are several naturally occurring rare organic
substances with a definitive chemical formula. The best example of this is Whewellite.
Most reference guides and scientific sources make an exception to these substances and
still classify them as minerals.

LESSON 2: EXOGENIC AND ENDOGENIC PROCESSESS

What is it!

Exogenic process includes geological phenomena and processes that originate

externally to the Earth’s surface.
Generally related to the:
 Atmosphere,
 Hydrosphere
 Biosphere, and
 Therefore, the processes of:
- weathering,
-erosion,
-transportation,
-deposition,
-denudation etc.
Exogenic factors and processes could also have sources outside Earth, for instance
under the influence of the Sun, Moon, etc.
The above-mentioned processes constitute essential landform-shaping factors.
Their rate and activity very often depend on local conditions, and can also be accelerated
by human actions. The combined functions of exogenic and endogenic factors influences
the present complicated picture of the Earth’s surface.

Mountains, valleys and plains seem to change

little, if at all, when left to nature, but they do change
continuously. The features of the Earth’s surface
temporary forms in a long sequence of change that began

13

https://geographical.co.uk/nature/
geophoto/item/3140-mountains-spring
when the planet originated billions of years ago, and is continuing today. The process that
shaped the crust in the past are shaping it now. By understanding them, it is possible to
imagine, in a general way, how the land looked in the distant past and how it may look in
the distant future. Landforms are limitless in variety. Some have been shaped primarily by
streams of water, glacial ice, waves and current, movement of Earth’s crust or volcanic
eruptions.
These are landscapes typical of deserts and others characteristic of humid regions.
The arctic makes its special mark on rock scenery, as do the tropics. Because geological
conditions from locality to locality are never quite the same, every landscape is unique.
Rock at or near the surface of the continents breaks up and decomposes because of
exposure. The processes involved are called weathering.

The four processes – weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition work together to
modify the earth’s surface.

Weathering
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks
and minerals at the Earth’s surface. Once a rock has been broken
down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and
minerals away. Water, acids, salt, plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering and erosion.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering

Erosion
Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks and minerals by
moving water, wind, glaciers and gravity.

https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/418381/Soil-
The Work of Weathering erosion-in-Iran-2-5-times-the-world-average

Weathering produces some landforms directly, but is more effective in preparing

rocks for removal by mass wasting and erosion. Weathering influences relief in every
landscape.

Freezing and thawing

 Water expands when it freezes.
 If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes,
its expansion pushes the rock apart and the
process is called frost wedging.
 In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/
and thaw during the day. resources/rockcycle/page3561.html

 Ice cements the rock temporarily, but when it melts, the rock fragments may
tumble from a steep cliff.

14
  Large piles of loose angular rocks, called talus slopes, lie beneath many cliffs.
These rocks fell from the cliffs mainly as a result of frost wedging.

Temperature changes
Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so rapidly over warmer rock
beneath that it flakes or grains break off. This happens mostly in deserts, where intense
daytime heat is followed by rapid cooling after.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS

 Endogenic processes include tectonic movements of the crust, magmatism,

metamorphism, and seismic activity.
 Endogenic processes have been responsible for shaping the earth’s relief and the
formation of many of the important mineral resources.
 The principal energy sources for endogenic processes are heat the redistribution of
material in the earth’s interior according to density.
 With the proper combination of materials, temperature, and pressure, chambers
and layers of partial melting may occur at certain depths within the earth.
 The asthenosphere, the primary
source of magma formation, is such
a layer in the upper mantle.
Convection currents may arise in the
asthenosphere and they are
hypothesized to be lithosphere.
 In the zones of the volcanic belts of
the island arcs and continental
margins, the principal magma
chambers are associated with super
deep dip faults, slanting beneath the
continents from the ocean side to
http://www.tendencias21.net/El-manto-terrestre-podria-contener-tanta-agua-como-
depths of about 700 km. el-oceano-Pacifico_a39232.html

 Under the influence of the heat flow or under the direct influence of the heat carried
by rising abyssal magma, magma chambers form in the crust itself. Reaching the
near surface parts, the magma is intruded into them in the form of variously shaped
intrusive bodies or is extruded onto the surface, forming volcanoes.
 Gravitational differentiation has led to the stratification of the earth into geospheres
of varying density.

15
  Is also manifested in the form of tectonic movements, which, in turn, lead to the
tectonic deformation of crustal and upper mantle rocks.
 The accumulation and subsequent discharge of tectonic stresses along active faults
causes earthquakes.

It is hypothesized that a combination of these processes leads to the temporal

unevenness of the release of heat and light matter toward the surface, which, in turn, can
be explained by the occurrence of tectonic magmatic cycles in the history of the earth’s
crust. The spatial irregularities of the same abyssal processes may explain division of the
crust into more or less geologically active regions, for example, into geosynclines and
platforms.

CHAPTER III: NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATON, AND ADAPTATION

Throughout the history of this planet, natural

hazards have had great impact. From the prehistoric to
biblical hazards to the tragic events of recent times,
humanity has been afflicted by natural disasters.

https://wiseias.com/courses/disaster-management-
study-material/lessons/2-natural-hazards/

Lesson 1: GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

Geological processes are dynamics at work in the earth’s landforms and surfaces. It
involved landslide, volcanic eruption, and earthquake that are in some points destructive
and in others constructive.

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of
strain in the earth's interior. The sudden release of
strain occurs because the strength of the straining
material is exceeded by the strain that has
accumulated within that material.

There are two main causes of earthquakes:

https://www.clearias.com/earthquakes/
1. Explosive volcanic eruptions
2. Tectonic activity associated with plate margins and faults

Effects of an Earthquake
The destruction caused by an earthquake depends largely on its magnitude and
duration. The destructive effects of an earthquake can be classified into primary and

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 secondary effects. Primary effects are the immediate damage caused by the quake, such as
collapsing buildings, roads and bridges, which may kill many people.

Myanmar 6.9 magnitude earthquake (April 2016) Nepal 7.8 magnitude earthquake (April 2015)

https://www.ibtimes.com/myanmar-69-magnitude-earthquake-sends-tremors- https://phys.org/news/2016-06-afterslip-april-nepal-earthquake-buildup.html
across-india-multiple-injuries-reported-2353180

Secondary Effects are the after-effects of the earthquake, such as fires, tsunami, landslides
and diseases.
 Fire- earthquakes destroy gas pipes and electric cables, causing fires to spread.
 Landslides- earthquakes often cause landslides, especially in steep river valleys and
areas of weak rocks.
 Disease and famine- fresh water supplies are often cut off causing typhoid and
cholera. Lack of shelter and food causes much suffering.
 Soil liquefaction- when soil with high water content, are violently shaken they lose
their mechanical strength and behave like a fluid and so buildings can literally sink.
 Tsunami- earthquake can cause huge underwater waves called tsunami. Rock
slipping along a fault under the ocean causes it.

On March 11, 2011, a magnitude-9 earthquake shook

northeastern Japan, unleashing a savage tsunami

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LANDSLIDE
Landslide, also called landslip is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a
slope. They result from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are
driven by the force of gravity.
Landslides can be triggered by natural causes or by human activity. They range
from a single boulder in a rock fall or topple to tens of millions of cubic meters of material
in a debris flow
Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a variety
of resources.
Human activity, such as agriculture and construction, can increase the risk of a
landslide. Irrigation, deforestation, mining and water leakage are some of the common
activities that weaken the slope.

On September 20, 2018, a landslide caused by heavy rainfall and quarrying operations
by Apo Land and Quarry Corporations in Naga, Cebu, Philippines, killed 78 people. Five
others are missing.

Volcanic eruption
Begins when pressure on the magma
chamber forces magma up through the
conduit and out of the volcano’s vent. It
varies considerably. Eruptions may be
violent, mild or quiet. Magma composition,
magma temperature, and the amount of
dissolved gases in the magma are the
primary factors that determine whether a
volcano erupts violently or quietly. Volcanic

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eruptions can cause serious impacts on living things, the economy as well as in the
environment. It is both beneficial and destructive.

Benefits of Volcanic Eruption

1. Agricultural Benefits - after volcanic eruption, the lava can turn into one of the
most fertile soil. Places near the volcanoes have a fertile soil favorable for the
farmers. The biggest plantation of abaca in the Philippines is in the foot of Mt.
Mayon. The Rice Granary of the Philippines in Central Luzon is located in the
surrounding area of Mt. Pinatubo.
2. Economic and Recreational Benefits- volcanoes can promote tourism. Hot
springs in the surrounding places of volcanoes are one of the favorite recreational
destinations of many people.
3. Energy Benefits - volcanoes provide resources for energy extraction, also
known as geothermal resources. With enough supply of water and steady source of
heat, steam can be generated to power turbines that can spin generators to
produce electricity.
4. Industrial Benefits - volcanoes contain minerals, a good source of chemical
and industrial materials.

Harmful Effects of Volcanic Eruption:

1. Volcanic ashes pose potential hazards to living things, agriculture and properties.
2. Volcanic eruption contributes to global warming.
3. Massive flow of lahar can destroy properties and lives of many people.

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