THE ENVIRONMENT

BY

DR (MRS) MARIAN ONWUDE AGBUGUI

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

EDO STAE UNIVERSITY UZAIRUE

1
THE ENVIRONMENT

An environment is the surrounding, natural habitat, the general normal conditions in which a

person or an organism (animal or plant) lives or carries out its daily function for survival. The

term survival is used because often times, the space of existence might be hostile or

favorable. Survival is defined as the ability of an organism to live optimally, derive nutrients

for growth and be able to reproduce it’s young for the next generation.

Components of the environment.

The living elements in the environment include the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving)

components. All biotic organisms include plants, birds, fishes, forest, animals, while all

abiotic elements include water, land, rocks, mountains, sunlight, moon and all naturally

occurring metals.

Types of environment.

The environment consists of various components which gives a basis for the classification of

the environment. The nature of the environment is primarily the factor determining the

condition for interactions between and within species. Interactions and relationships can

either be outside and organism or within the organism. The habitat in which organisms live in

the environment can be classified as;

a. Aquatic habitat: such as marine (all areas of salt water) fresh water (to include

rivers, lakes, streams,) brackish/ estuaries (a mixture of salt water and fresh water).

b. Terrestrial habitat: all areas on land or sand

c. Atmospheric environment: the air space

Features of the environment:

2
For any sort of environment to be in existence, there are basic features that must be present

these features make coexistence between and within organisms possible in relation to the

features of the environment in question possible. As earlier mentioned, the environment is

either the aquatic environment, land or air. The features listed below are crucial to making an

environment habitable.

1. Atmosphere (gases): methane (natural gas), CO2-carbondionoxide, SO2-

sulphurdioxide and O2- oxygen.

2. Temperature: this refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of the space; the

intensity of heat obtained in the habitat.

3. Light: this is the capacity present as the source of illumination, usually moonlight or

sunlight.

4. Food source: minerals richness in the soil or water body available to bring about

nutrients in for prey and predators alike.

5. Terrain: nature of the space/ habitat. It is either undulating, cervices, flat, clean, toxic

etc.

The environment and man: The environment give ample services that are unmeasurable.

Nature in itself is rich in resources that are sources of blessings to its inhabitants. The natural

environment as earlier stated for the purpose of this study is divided into Atmosphere (air),

Hydrosphere (water) and Lithosphere (land). All three sections clean our air, purify water,

produce food (plants by photosynthesis) animals produce young ones, herbs, medicine. A

clean environment is no doubt a gate way to maximum well being and optimal human health.

Benefits of nature’s rich environment

i. Food: a healthy rich natural environment has the capacity to sustain its inhabitants it

naturally provides food for wildlife vis the rich untapped variety of vegetation. The forest life

is rich flora capable of sustaining the fauna. The fauna could also be referred to as wildlife,

3
which composes of diverse species. Wildlife produces protein for man, the vegetation

provides carbohydrates and other beneficial nutrients.

ii. Habitat: A good habitat is an ecosystem to provide convenient and satisfying home

for the species of organisms it inhabits, a community where daily routine for survival is

carried out and neighborhood to improve social life. The habitat should importantly enable

optimal survival and the capacity to reproduce and care for young ones.

iii. Health: Nature is endowed with herbs gotten from vegetation and plants therein.

These herbs are potent sources for medicines used to treatments for mild and potent disease

and ailments. A clean environment increases immunity, green environment increases serenity

of the mind which spurs the mind for daily work.

iv. Hazards control (flood): The water holding capacity of soil types is such that it can

absorb, contain, hold and drain surface. But if the land holding capacity is filled the water is

rises and flows over to other naturally holding areas through runoff. This process helps to

control water ways and wetlands. The excess water from rainfall which is stored up as

reserves are gently released back into the community for use when needed.

Ways one can maintain a natural environment.

i. Encourage flood plains: these are lands with the capacity to absorb large amount of

water usually after rainfall and flood. Water from flooded communities are usually collected

and held here. Flood plains are commonly referred to as natures reservoirs because they are

low lands with soil that have high level of water holding capacity, with the capacity to draw

water from uplands. The water held in the flood plains could last for long till drought periods.

Government should put in policies in the country to ensure that such flood plains are not

bought off and converted to residential areas. This is often the problem with citizens with

affluence where natural resorts and natural habitats suitable for conservation areas are

requested for with huge sums only to destroy the natural plain of the environment.

4
ii. Diverting channels: Drains; these are either natural or man-made ways of channeling

water to other tributaries to reduce flooding. The channels and drains should be built and kept

clean and used as drains; free of blockages and obstacles to allow for free flow. The frequent

cleaning of the drains, channels and canals makes the drainage system more effective and

efficient for use.

iii. Reforestation: Plant a tree; Reforestation is the replanting of trees, this greatly reduces

the impact of flooding. Trees need water to grow, they absorb water in large quantities, as

such reduce flood and over flow of water. Most wetlands have large trees; serving as a good

habitat for terrestrial and aquatic animals. My favorite environmental slogan is “show me

your backyard” this is a simple way to encourage oneself to use up their house’s free space to

plant, or culture or raise some animals. If I am successful with tending and culturing my

backyard” a neighbor, colleague, friend and community could find it interesting and follow

suit. Its bores down to simply encouraging ourselves for the need to plant a tree, grow the

nation, imbibe the attitude to produce something at home no matter how small. In addition to

this, aesthetic values will eventually make our neighborhood and community nature friendly,

conserved and preserved. Moreover, spending time at such ‘backyard’ could help reduce

stress which will in turn impact positively on our health. Health experts have said that caring

for farms at home improves the value of your space, improves your serenity, takes kids away

from streets and keeps them away from bad neighbors and friends. As a biologist, with the

passion for my immediate environment, I am constantly thinking of how I can revive my

environment, what natural remedies can I put back into the soil (chemical, biological

substance) that can make it sustainable, and add economic value to it. The desire for a garden

and little farm at home to produce house hold immediate needs such as a small animal farm

to provide some protein. In order to achieve these, the environment must be constantly fed

with nutrient to deliver and satisfy its desire. In essential, the environment has to be happy

5
and rich enough to deliver. One can achieve this using small buckets and containers to plant

various plants species of desired plants, herbs, spices, fruits and flowers. Size-able tanks are

good or fish ponds and cages, racks and pens for small animals. Kids love to take advantage

of this opportunity

iv. To Restore bush lands, forest and wetlands. Communities should embark on global

movement to keep the environment clean and safe. Furthermore, to Imbibe the

environmentalist and conservationist attitude which is to recognize aesthetics and ethical

values of the environment which involves environmental sanitation, indiscriminate dumping

of refuse, recycle and reforestation. This enhances the human relationship with the

environment to sustain while extracting natural resources from the environment that does not

negatively affect the environment.

Causes of environmental issues:

From the beginning of creation and the existence of man, the consistent, persistent and

optimal dependence on the environment has resulted in overexploitation, misuse and

contamination of the environment meant to protect man. This increasing dependency by man

on the environment have satisfied man’s needs for survival but posed danger to man and his

environment at a global level. One can look at globalization, modernization and research as

key ways where man has made optimal use of the environment yet from such use caused

negative effects to the environment. Within the environment, there are environmental factors

easily identified that affect the daily operation of the components of the environment leading

to increase or decrease in survival. As earlier defined, survival is the ability of an organism to

feed, grow, reproduce and carry out its daily function. It can also be loosely said also that

environmental factors are the things in the environment that change the natural state of the

environment to either improve or deter a better condition. The interactions between the

6
environmental factors and humans within the environment, brings about significant impacts

(directly or indirectly) on the health status of human and inhabitants of the environment.

For the purpose of this book, let us look at environmental issues under three broad groups.

1. Pollution

2. Solid waste

3. Environmental Protection

1. Pollution

This is defined as the presence of unwanted and unsafe substance. Elements in the

environment that makes it unsafe for its residents, this is either caused by natural events like

flood, forest fires, earthquakes, landslides, forms of energy- light, sound and heat; or

emission by man-made elements such as emissions from nuclear waste, factories, industries,

automobiles, domestic waste- effluents and globalisation (human needs for natural resources).

The substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. The different types of pollution are

listed below of which a few will be discuss.

Radioactive
pollution

Air Noise
pollution pollution
Types of
pollution

Soil Water
pollution pollution

7
 1a. Air Pollution: this is the release of harmful contaminants (chemicals, toxic gases,

macro and micro-molecules of organic matter, particles) into the earth surrounding. Air

pollution could also be referred to as any change in the chemical, physical and biological

state of the air by harmful gasses, dust macro and micro elements that affects plants and

animal alike. The presence of these introduced substances above the permissible tolerable

level to living organisms causes an imbalance in the survival of organisms in the

environment. This could be the atmosphere, lithosphere or hydrosphere. Most of these

contaminants are detrimental to the maximum operating state of the environment, the optimal

functionality of the ecosystem and most of all, detrimental to the healthy living state of

organisms. A number of causes bring about air pollution. They are listed below.

i. Burning of fossil fuels: Sulphur (iv) oxide SO 2 is the major component

released by the burning of fossil fuels. Another element is the CO 2 which is also released

through incomplete combustion. These gases released are not advantageous to the living

healthy status of animals and plants hence causing delitorious effects in due time. Recently,

the World Health Organization (WHO) has put forward important pathways in preventing

diseases through environments. In a study by WHO, in the Europe region, it is reported that

12-18% of sudden deaths are linked to environmental stressors with 20-35% of diseases by

environmental pollutants in the air and waters. The report by the 8 th Environmental Action

Programme (EAP) (2005). aims to achieve a zero-pollutant environment by protecting the air

water and soil and to eventually provide wellbeing and health for humans.

Although the use of fossil fuels has assisted in making the survival of mankind most

achievable. Fossil fuels are used to move automobiles, fossil fuel generates electrical energy,

in large amounts. Overtime the use of fossil fuels are most effective but over time, the

increasing demand for use has brought about emission of SO 2, CO2 leading to acid rain and

greenhouse effect. SO2 combines with H2O to cause acid rain. SO2(aq) + H 2O(l)→

8
H2SO3(aq). H2SO3 is a major component of acid rain since it is easily mixed with water vapor

in the atmosphere to the form Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). SO2 and NO2, are leading sources

identified to cause health problem such as asthma and respiratory problem. Scientist and

medical experts are exploring novel ways to reduce acid rain through des sulfurization and

sulphuric acid contaminations since sulphuric acid is known to trigger asthma, in certain

individuals. Researchers have gone to the extent of notifying the public on the presence of

sulphuric dioxide on some meat, wines, soft drinks and other food products with codes “E220

and E221” as additives and bleaching agents (UESEPA 2002).

Another cause of air pollution is the illegal and indiscriminate burning of fossil fuels

resulting to the uncontrolled release of soot.

The identified causes of soot in the environment include; the activities of illegal oil thieves

and the inappropriate burning of these illegal refineries. In Port-Harcourt, the Rivers State

capital and its environs, popular called the garden city, experienced concentrations of fine

particulate matter (≤ PM2.5) that blacken the air; with thick black smoke billowing constantly

in the sky on a daily basis. This made the atmosphere foggy, makes the sky look grey, the

environment looks dirty, presents poor air quality and even increases the chances of health

hazards. Residents had to avoid wearing light colored clothes to prevent sight of deposited

black soot on clothings, wear nose mask to avoid inhaling the soot because the soot could

easily be inhaled by those who do not wear mask, and covering food items and food stuff to

prevent contamination (Obiezu, 2022). In the effort to curb the effect of this menace, the

Government of Rivers State in 2019 carried out an investigation led by the state’s

Commissioner for Environment, Prof. Roseline Konya, where the investigation of 22,077

cases of respiratory diseases related to the presence of soot in the city was carried out. Other

conditions that have been documented by medical researchers in academic journals include

deformation at birth, cancerous growths, miscarriages, and irritations of the eye, to the nose

9
aggravating asthma, bronchitis, throat, and skin, triggering heart disease and even cancer

(Alikor, 2022). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), while particulate matter

(PM) with a diameter of 10 microns or less (≤ PM 10) can penetrate and lodge deep inside the

lungs, those with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less, (≤ PM 2.5) can penetrate the lung barrier

and enter the blood system. Asides from the potential for cancerous and non-cancerous

illnesses, the soot problem poses a severe risk to the environment and could result in

imbalances in the ecosystem.

Soot is acidic in nature, if it can cause harm to humans then it should have the potential to

cause harm to crop yield through acid rain, it also reduces the source of good water supply

from streams and lakes.

ii. Mining Operations: This is a process whereby the valuable minerals below the earth

surface are extracted. The mining sector includes oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal

ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining support activities. The

basic process of mining involves exploration, discovery, development, production and

reclamation which by all inevitable means quickly raises dust particles into the atmosphere,

polluting the air and causing health implication to firstly the miners and then the

communities, the dust released from the mining is readily deposited and accumulated in the

lungs, respiratory tracts of such miners hence reducing life expectancy (Lin et al., 2022).

Through all the processes, the mining process often leads to abandonment, decommissioning

and destruction of the environment. Little or no effort is made to repurpose, and reclaim the

mine, land or environment for use. A mine can impact social and environmental systems in a

range of positive and negative, and direct and indirect ways. During mining, heavy metals are

released into the environment over top soil and in water and in turn influence other systems

such as wellbeing of local communities and biodiversity in a negative manner. Ground water

get contaminated with heavy metals which in turn affects all biodiversity depending on the

10
water source. Plants use up the water from the polluted reservoirs; get accumulated with

heavy metals, growth becomes stunted and crop yield reduces. Wildlife and fauna

biodiversity get affected, reduced growth, decreased reproductory ability poor production and

most of death from excess limits of metal accumulated in the living organism (Lin et al.,

2022). Researchers are currently involved in the use of bioremediation practices to reclaim

and preserver mine-destroyed land. Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that employs

the use of living organisms, like microbes and bacteria, in the removal of contaminants,

pollutants, and toxins from soil, water, and other environments. Another mean of reclaiming

destroyed and polluted ecosystems is by use of Phytoremediation of contaminated land is also

an area of active research.

iii. Exhaust gases: Factories and Industries: Waste and exhaust from automobiles,

factories and industries are released from their exhaust pipes. The waste are residual

substances of dust, carbon dioxide (CO 2), Sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and carbon

monoxides (CO), hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, water vapour and heavy metals.

These heavy metals and other chemicals are released into the air, many a times with black

coloration thus, causing deterioration of the natural quality of air and its subsequent use. The

exhaust gases released are in particles of small sizes usually called particulate matter PM 2.5-

PM10, the small sizes of the particles make them easily absorbable by body surfaces and into

the blood stream. CO readily degrades the quality of O2 taken up by any living organism

causing significant health problems including asthma, bronchitis and heart attack. Mild

exposure to CO can cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, fatigue while excess of CO

in the blood can lead to choking and then death.

iv. Domestic sources: pollutants from domestic sources include house hold cleaning

agents, paints, effluents and affluent, discharge from the chemical agents in the cleaning

agents are often releases into the air. These released chemicals do not only pollute the are

11
instantly but remains in the air space for some time affecting breathing an inhalation process,

settling on surfaces of both abiotic and biotic components of the environment. The numerous

pollutants causing air pollution makes the effects of air pollution a complex one. A few

include the

a. acid rain: this is the release of harmful gases such as SO and NO in the air. The gases

combine with evaporated rain or water droplets, becomes acidic and then fall as rain which

damages human, plants, animal life. The acid particles corrode metals and cause paint to

deteriorate quickly. The acid rain damages the surfaces of roof tops and makes the surface of

building and structures such as statues, carvings and monuments look dirty. The SO 2 and NO2

gases react with the atmosphere to form fine particles of nitrate and sulphate that people can

inhale into their lungs. Studies have revealed that particles of acid rain affect cardiovascular

patients, resulting in difficulties in breathing, asthma, induces heart attacks, affects lung

function.

b. Ozone layer depletion: the ozone layer is a thin region in the earths stratosphere that

contains large amount of ozone (O3) which protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet

(UV) radiation coming from the sun. This ozone is unfortunately thinned out by the release of

chloroflorocarbons CFC into the atmosphere. The depletion happens by the combination of

chlorine and bromine atoms released from the earth with the ozone layer bringing about

destruction of the ozone layer. Table 1. Gives a short presentation of ozone depleting

substances and the sources.

Table 1. Ozone layer depletion

Elements/metals Sources

1 CFC Refrigerators, air conditioners, solvents, cleaning

agents, dry cleaners

2 Halos Fire extinguishers

12
 3 Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguisher solvents

4 Methyl chloroform Adhesive aerosols

5 Hydro-chlorocarbons Fire extinguishers, air conditioners, solvents

c. Disease: Direct and indirect exposure to air pollution by man, animals and plants is

harm full. UV light causes alarming health issues such as skin cancers, sun burns, cataract.

Fumes, dust and acid gases in air, dust particles cause lung cancers, weak immune system and

cardiovascular diseases, saturated growth of living organisms, disruption of food chain.

Accumulation of toxic chemical and metal in organisms in the aquatic environment causing

death to certain organisms thus destroying the food chain. These actions increase the risk of

cardiovascular diseases, respiratory problems to human and livestock.

d. Hazards to wildlife and life stock: Wildlife and domestic animals are victims of air

polluted substances caused by hazardous substances in the air. The suspended particles in the

air and water bodies are also taken up by terrestrial animals and aquatic life. The excess

substances present and accumulation of deleterious substances makes living things abandon

their habitat or die off from exhaustion. In the case of forest fires, the animals are consumed

by fire, smoke and as such also deposited in their lungs. Organisms in various habitats are

either faced with unhealthy living conditions, loss of habitat, weak from exhaustion and most

of all, extinction of endemic species.

1b. Water Pollution

Just like air pollution, water pollution is the pollution of water by pollutants.

Pollutants are the causes of pollution. So, water pollution is said to occur when the harmful

substances usually chemicals and microorganisms contaminate water bodies such as streams,

13
lakes, rivers, ocean, estuaries, ground water or aquifer thus making it not consumable or

healthy for use by man, animals, plants and the environment.

Water (H2O) is a universal solvent that can accommodate and sustain life as such

water is generally referred to as life. The essence of water is numerous and cannot be

overemphasized however, the rise in population and the effects or rise in population and

globalization has brought about an increased the rate of water pollution.

Water bodies can be polluted by a variety of substances, including pathogenic

microorganisms, putrescible organic waste, fertilizers and plant nutrients, toxic chemicals,

sediments, heat, petroleum (oil), and radioactive substances.

On a general view, water pollutants are gotten from point source or non-point source.

A point source is a passage or pipe or channel that are used for collecting waste and discharge

from an industrial facility or a city sewage system. A nonpoint source is a large unconfined

“no mans’ land” location from which a variety of small amount of pollutants from different

sources enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural waste (fertilizers,

herbicides and insecticides), domestic waste, industrial waste, oil and grease from refinery

waste, sand and sediments from construction sites and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and

energy production. Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than non-point

sources, because the contaminated water has been collected in a confined space where it can

be easily managed and treated whereas non-point source of pollution is difficult to manage

because it easily sips and pours into nearby environments causing more environmental

damage.

Sources of water pollution/pollutants

14
 These pollutants causing pollution often comes from different sources such as

domestic uses (homes) agricultural paths (farms) factories, town and end up in water bodies.

Some pollutants are listed in the chart below.

domestic
sources

Oil spill agricultural

pollution sources

sources of
pollutants

Natural Industrial
sources sources

1. Domestic sources:

Domestic water pollution is caused by the sewage, sludge and solid waste produced and

released from households. It is also said to be the domestic sludge containing organic

substances and soaps.

Sewage and sludge: Sewage is the waste water and excrement conveyed in sewers from

homes or industrial facilities. Sludge are muddy deposits produced from processed water,

water treatment or on-site sanitation. Domestic sewage and sludge are the elementary sources

15
of disease-causing agents popularly known as pathogens. These pathogens are deposited in

sewage when passed out through feaces. The pathogen in the sludge get used up as manure,

are deposited at dump sites or even in bushes, of cities and villages which end up becoming a

huge treat to the general public. During rain fall, most of the pathogens and organic

substances present in the sludge are deposited onto land surfaces, some get washed off into

water bodies and some are leached into reserves of underground and surface waters. This

process endangers the quality of the water bodies in the environment as well as the water for

consumption. The bacteria present in the sludge are sources of health issues to man and

aquatic life. The bacteria and pathogens tend to reduce the production of oxygen in water

bodies hence deprive the organisms especially aquatic life ample source of oxygen that is

necessary for survival, growth and development (Roper 1999). In the same vain however,

domestic sewage is a good source of nutrition providing mainly nitrates and phosphates.

Adequate amounts of these nutrients in the water and soil are necessary for growth of plant

life, other micro and macro-organisms on land and in water. Excess of such nutrients

(phosphates and nitrates) can however cause algal bloom. Algal bloom is the excess growth

of algae on water beds. The death of these algae sets a process leading to an oxygen deficient

habitat which in turn leads to death of living organisms in the habitat. This process is called

eutrophication.

2. Agricultural sources: Mechanized, sophisticated and improved means of farming is

the reason agriculture can meet the demand and sustain the ever-growing population of the

world. Today many framing practices are obtainable to satisfy survival of man, crops and

livestock. This shift from the natural process of farming to the sophisticated methods have

introduced the use of substituents, constituent and by-products to farmlands and varieties of

seedling and species for maximum production of agricultural produce, thanks to the modern

agricultural farming practices. This however, has caused degradation of the ecosystem, land

16
and environment, these can be from direct application of such substitute to land, from

agricultural runoff and its deposition. The application of agricultural substitutes to farms

primarily increases the nutrient levels. The nutrients provide nourishment for the plant to

grow well. Although when these nutrients become excessive in the soil or water body, the

survival of living organism can become affected (Rangarajan et al., 2000). The farming

substituents and compliments are sometimes made of chemicals (to include pesticides,

insecticides) ending up as pollutants. Once such chemicals are in the environment, these

pollutants can have direct effects in surrounding ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or

contaminating drinking water, and downstream effects such as dead zones caused by

agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

Remedies to agricultural sources of pollution:

i. Applying fertilizers in the proper amount, at the right time of year and with the right

method can significantly reduce how much fertilizer reaches water bodies.

ii. Keeping animals and their waste out of streams keeps nitrogen and phosphorus out of

the water and protects stream banks.

iii. The use of biosurfactants as Bioinoculants which are formulations comprised of

microbes to eat up heavy metals and pollutants in the soil thereby preventing, remedying and

reducing the level of pollution in the soil. The biosurfactants have low molecular weight

surface-active compounds widely produced by bacteria, yeast and fungi. These biosurfactants

can be widely exploited in areas related to agriculture for enhancement of biodegradation of

pollutants to improve the quality of agriculture soil, for indirect enhancement of plant growth

because biosurfactants have antimicrobial activity with the capacity to increase the plant

microbe interaction beneficial for plants (Sachdev and Cameotra 2013). These biosurfactants

can replace the harsh surfactant presently used in pesticide industries as these natural

surfactants are found to be utilized as carbon source by soil inhabiting microbes.

17
 3. Oil Pollution

Oil pollution is the release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment

especially the marine ecosystem due to human activities that cause pollution. The oil is

released into the marine ocean but often spills into land surfaces. It occurs also when

pipelines break, big oil tankers ships sink or drilling operation go wrong. Oil pollution are

major disasters. The oil spill has negative effect on flora and fauna as the oil film covers the

surface of the water preventing the inlet of oxygen and light penetration. While on land, it

reduces soil fertility, smothering economic trees and crops (Gast and Holt 2000). The plants

oxygenate sea beds and allow other organisms like fish to thrive well. The effect of the oil

spill can continue in wild life long after the spills have disappeared. Aquatic life especially

when exposed to oil pollution may experience reduced growth, enlarged livers, cause changes

in the heart operation and respiratory rates, fin erosion, reduced reproductory capacity,

mutilation and mutation of the reproductory organs, impaird growth in fingerling and

juveniles of fish species. With regards to the environment, the spills contaminate land, the air

and water surface. Animal studies reveal that contact with the crude oil produces in Nigeria

can cause infertility in animals, cancer, hemotoxic and hepatoxic health challenges (NCDC

2020).

4. Natural sources:

Signs of pollution.

The aquatic system quality and health indicators can be divided into four groups, let’s

begin with the first; which is the quality of water; these are referred to as the;

Physiochemical indicators. This represent the traditional water quality indicators. The

levels of these parameters indicate that the quality of water. They tell about what substances

are impacting on the water body. They include PH, temperature Dissolved oxygen (DO),

salinity, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Others are chemicals, toxicants, pesticides and

18
physicochemical. These parameters give us information on the standard of quality of the

water body and how productive the water body can be. The physical, chemical and biological

properties of any water body confirm the productive state of the given water body. For fish in

particular to grow well, an ideal water condition is a must for survival. Water quality is

essential for drinking water irrigation, fish production, recreation and for domestic uses.

Agbugui and Deekae 2014; Agbugui and Abe 2022 stated that the deterioration of water

quality comes from eutrophication, acidification, deposition of industrial and domestic waste,

heavy metal contamination and obnoxious fishing practices. Another way to assess the level

of water purity is to look at the biological indicators.

Biological indicators: this measures the healthy living sate of all living organism (both

plants and animals) in the aquatic environment. Fish, fisheries, macro and micro invertebrates

are the commonest forms of biological indicators used to measure water quality. In other

water bodies such as estuaries, marine habitat, the coral reefs, seagrass and even planktons

are often used to measure water quality. The quality of water in the aquatic habitat tells a lot

about the state of the aquatic habitat. One can deduce if the habitat is degrading, declining in

fauna and flora diversity and also if the natural state of the environment is declining either

from fresh water to marine, estuaries as well as the flow pattern of the body of water (Boyles

2022). One key way the water body is effectively monitored is the use of biological

indicators. The indicators expose information on the trace metals accumulation, food chain

and cycle.

Habitat indicators: these are indicators of a habitat condition which affects the basic

needs of a species (food, water and shelter). The habitat indicators are key components to

establish an organisms’ survival and distribution potential. (EPA 2002). And population

abundance and survival (Fahrig and Merrian 1994). The topography (slope, terrain, land

relief and elevation) of the habitat has great influence on the weather and climate. A habitat

19
close to a water source will experience milder climates; milder climates positively influence

the abundance and distribution of vegetation, terrestrial and aquatic species in addition to the

type of food available in the habitat, quality of the food, the quality of water, the availability

and amounts of DO, temperature, pH of aquatic medium, presence and absence of toxins and

heavy metals. A habitat should provide optimal heat, nutrients and water for survival and

maturity to reproductive capacity.

Shelter: the dimension (area), pattern, of the habitat. Does the shelter represent a good

environment for animals, carrying capacity of such a habitat, can it hold various species, can

it accommodate changes and stand the test of weather and environmental factors, is it a

complex habitat to sustain different species of diversity with competition?

Types of water pollution

Chemical Pollution: This is the common form of water pollution. The chemical

pollutants come from the pesticide, insecticide fertilizers which leach into the underground

water sources of the earth. Most of these chemicals also come from agro products for farming

practices. Other sources of chemical pollutants are from the industries and detergents from

domestic use.

Microbial pollutants:

This form the pollution results from the presence of harmful microorganisms that find

their way into the water bodies of the organisms. For instance, bacteria, viruses, protozoans.

Clostridium perfringes a bacterium causing food poisoning; Escherichia coli a bacteria

causing diarrhea. These microorganisms get into water bodies and cause diseases as

mentioned earlier. The presence of biological indicators are signs of pollution in water. E.g.

the density of frogs present in shallow fresh water or terrestrial habitat is an indicator of the

quality of the environment and the changes occurring in the habitat. Another example is the

density of algae and lichen present in any given habitat, low density is an indication that the

20
water is polluted. Fish and fisheries are strong pointers to tell about the environment (Boyles,

2022). The microbiological organisms are mostly abundant in places of low hygiene,

inadequate environmental sanitation and most importantly inadequate supply of clean water.

Lack of safe water turns out to affect the health of humans making them susceptible to

diseases.

Nutrient pollution: Nutrients are substances used by organisms for survival, growth

and reproduction. The nutrients are basic requirements obtained from the environment, food

and water. Sources of nutrients gotten from water include fertilizers, manure, chemicals and

some microbiological nutrients (Maitra et al., 2022). However, if the threshold present in the

water body exceeds that which is required, this can then in turn be harmful to human and the

organism consuming it (Agbugui and Abe 2022). Excess of these nutrients cause algal bloom

which blocks the penetration of sunlight in the aquatic habitat thus inhibiting growth and

survival of other essential organisms on the ecosystem (Ajuzieogu et al., 2022). Furthermore,

when the rate of algal bloom is excess, organisms begin to compete for oxygen, the ability for

sunlight to penetrate the water is inhibited so lack of sunlight leads to lack of oxygen

production and supply. This means that organisms that depend of oxygen for survival will be

deprived of such thus leading to suffocation and death.

Agricultural Pollution: Agricultural pollution comes from three main sources:

agricultural residues, fertilizers, animal husbandry and excess salts for applied irrigation

water. Pollutants from agriculture greatly affects water, land and air, but most importantly

water quality of lakes, rivers, wetlands estuaries and ground water. Agricultural air pollutants

come in the form of the release of ammonia, which is released into the air as a gas from

heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste (Annon 2022). Example is the pig farm.

Agriculture can contribute to nutrient pollution when the fertilizer is animal manure and soil

erosion are not managed responsibly. When fertilizer and animal manure are rich in both

21
nitrogen and phosphorus, pollution can occur. Pollutant from farming include sediments,

pathogens, salts, metals, pesticides, excess nutrient. These pollutants invariably find their way

into the water bodies either through, rainfall, erosion, leaching of the top surface, and end up

in aquifers, streams, lakes, roves and ponds causing harmful effect to the water (Golovan et

al., 2001).

Impact of water pollution:

Polluted water has great impact on the health of humans and all life around them.

Unsafe water causes numerous diseases that have been identified by WHO. The common

ones are diarrhea, cholera and food poisoning. With unsafe water, it is impossible to attain

proper sanitation, and hygiene. Personal hygiene is minimally attained because energy the

simplest procedures such as the basic hand washing will cause diseases. Data from Nigeria

A report from UNICEF in 2021 says that in Nigeria, 70% of water at the point of

consumption is contaminated and that children are the most affected, with 117,000 children

left to die in Nigeria each year due to water-related illnesses - the highest number of any

nation. Water pollution causes vast problems, it is the second most difficult problem of

pollution after air pollution. The challenges from water pollution extends to farm lands, run-

off into aquatic environments causing bioaccumulation of heavy metals and unwanted

substances in aquatic life and plants, biomagnification, death of aquatic life subsequently loss

of food chain and total loss of diversity.

The impact of drinking water pollutants on cancer is complex. Epidemiological studies

have shown that drinking water contaminants, such as chlorinated by-products, nitrates,

arsenic, and radionuclides, are associated with cancer in humans (Cantor, 1997). Pb, U, F-

and no3- are the main groundwater pollutants and one of the potential causes of cancer (Kaur

et al., 2021). In addition, many other water pollutants are also considered carcinogenic,

including herbicides and pesticides, and fertilizers that contain and release nitrates (Marmot

22
et al., 2007). A case from Hebei, China showed that the contamination of nitrogen

compounds in well water was closely related to the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture,

and the levels of three nitrogen compounds in well water were significantly positively

correlated with esophageal cancer mortality (Zhang et al., 2003).

1c. Land Pollution

This is the deposition of harmful materials in the environment. It is the contamination

of land because the deposition of waste materials, both liquid and solid that affects the land,

ground water and all that it encompasses.

Sources/ causes of land pollution: Some common sources include

1. domestic garbage or refuse

2. Compost

3. Letterings form water bodies (boats, oil rigs, sewage plants)

4. Urbanization and industrialization

Increase in population leads to increase in the use of materials to sustain life. This

includes space, construction, use of forest materials. More construction increases the demand

for timber, cement, paints, roads, food.

Increase in Agriculture: as human population grows, agricultural produce increases,

agricultural waste also increases. The waste definitely has to increase because it is a by-

product of production. The wastes are let out regularly dumped on land, water sheds in large

amounts. Improper deposition and conversion of organic waste to other useful products cause

devastating problems to mankind. The use of agro chemical to boost production also pollutes

the land when they are washed onto soil. Residues of these pesticide in soil have long term

effects especially on the land, plants growing in the soil. Aquatic vegetation around such land

areas and the residues of the chemicals used also leeches through the soil surface and

underground water to surrounding aquatic habitats (RCEP 1979).

23
 Industrial activities. A look into the mining, gas, petroleum industries also pollute the

land mass. Others include power industry, food processing, cement, open caste mining,

Effects of land Pollution

1. Destroys wild life

2. Acid rain kills plants and animals

3. Pesticides damage crops, fish and other aquatic life

4. Causes a change in nature, destroys food chain and food web

Control of land pollution

1. Reforestation

2. Encourage organic farming by the use biofertilizers/ manure. The substituting with

biosurfactants are highly encourages in agriculture. Other methods could be the use of bio

predators to kill pest of crops on farm lands

3. Recycle waste

4. Proper disposal of garbage

5. Reduce use of fertilizers and also substitute with biosurfactants

6. Efficient utilization of resources to reduce waster

1d. Radioactive Pollution:

Radioactive pollution also called radioactive contamination is the presence, deposition,

introduction and ccontamination of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids,

liquids, or gases, their presence could be intended or unintended, and their levels desirous or

not desirous where in any form or state, the pollution is harmful to life through its emission of

ionizable substances. Such radiations are harmful and cause irreversible damage to air, water,

land, nature and live along its cause. The cells, tissues, DNA and genes of organisms could be

affected causing mutation and change in genetic makeup of organisms (Hussain and Kecil

24
2020). The cause of radioactive pollution is from nuclear power plants. Radioactivity can

occur in one of two ways:

 Naturally occurring radioactivity

 Man-made radioactivity

Natural radioactivity occurs naturally in the environment. This occurs from certain elements

of Radionuclides such as 238

U, Th,
232 222
Ra, and 87
Rb (uranium, thorium and carbon-14)

respectively. that are deposited in rocks and soil, sediments in trace amounts. These elements

naturally get emitted into the environment (Kónya, and Nagy, 2018).

Man-made radioactivity. An increase in the release of these naturally radiation levels are

from human activities such as mining, handling and processing of radioactive materials,

handling and storage of radioactive waste, as well as the use of radioactive reactions to

generate energy (nuclear power plants), along with the use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-

rays) and research. But what about microwaves, cell phones, radio transmitters, wireless

devices, computers, and other common commodities of today’s life? (Kónya, and Nagy,

2018).

Growth in population has led to the need for increasee in technology, energy and power. The

inability of existing resources to meet the need and demand of the energy produced by

technology has increased the importance of nuclear energy. In addition to nuclear power

plants where radioactive element (137Cs, Pu,

239
Am,
241
Sr, and
90 91
Y) are processed from

nuclear weapon factories, waste of radioactive materials play an important role in radioactive

pollution (Udiba et al., 2019). Radioactive substances are not only active in the test area but

also affect the air and water, they have the ability to cause damage to cells tissues and genes

causing mutation and changes that linger for decades in the environment and living

organisms. The world’s worst nuclear disasters occurred in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine and

in 2011 in Fukushima, Japan. Thousands of people died due to the radiation released from the
25
nuclear plants (Hussain and Kecil 2020). However, various radionuclides such as radiocarbon

(14C) and tritium (3H) have both artificial and natural sources (released by both nuclear

explosions and cosmic radiation). Furthermore, based on the frequency with which it occurs,

radioactive pollution can be continuous, occasional or accidental. Surprisingly weather it is

by cosmic radiation, natural or anthropogenic source of radioactive pollution, they are all

dangerous causing carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk to living organisms (Akpanowo et

al., 2021). Hence, the concentration of heavy metals and radionuclides in water, land, and air

tell the information of the potential radiological risk. These emissions are either inhaled,

dermally absorbed or accidentally swallowed. This is the reason why the environment and

water bodies should be regularly assessed for pollution in order to preserve and protect man

and his environment. In Anka, North-West area of Zamfara State Nigeria, the report of death

and illnesses among children in the mining and mineral processing communities was made. It

was suspected that a high concentration of lead (Pb) resided in the blood of the victims in the

lead rich area. It was further reported that the significant health risk to the children and young

adults from the ingestion of Pb contaminated water in the study area was the major

contributing factor of risk to health. Children with lesser body weight and mass were mostly

affected, they have more sensitive cells, tissues and organs hence are easily affected

(Akpanowo et al., 2021).

The most important issue in radiation accidents is the urgent and sensitive detection of

radioactive pollutants in the surrounding waters. The radiation transmitted to the water passes

directly to the plants which leads to the continuous release of the radiation. The water of the

radiation-contaminated area is extremely dangerous not only for drinking, but also for

agricultural products.125 The vegetation and animal life, fish and fisheries in water

accumulates dissolved radioactive isotopes. The accumulation depends on the composition of

water and the species present. The humus formed from the decomposition of the vegetation

26
also uptakes the radioactive isotopes, which transfers to the lithosphere. The most important

natural radioactive isotope in the hydrosphere is 40K, which, in the form of a potassium ion, is

mostly found dissolved in water. Because of the lower salt concentration, the radioactivity of

rivers is much less than that of seawater. Form the aforementioned it is evident that

radioactive pollution is a serious matter that should be handled critically.

The Effects of Radioactive Pollution

Depending on the amount of radiation to which we are exposed and the sensitivity of

each exposed person, the effects of radioactive pollution can vary significantly between

individuals. While the exposure to high amounts of radiation generates almost immediately

chronic diseases, cancer or even sudden death in rare cases of extreme pollution, small

amounts of radiation can cause diseases that are not so serious and develop over the course of

time. The risk of developing cancer increases with the dose of radiation, but lower doses of

radiation can also cause cancer after years of exposure. Other radioactive materials can

generate neurological, reproductive or heart problems (Ahmed and Ismail, 2018). These may

or may not be followed by cancer. If the parents are exposed to radiation before or during

pregnancy, genetic birth defects and retardation may occur in the foetus from mutation and

change of genetic makeup which may be inherited from one generation to the next.

2. SOLID WASTE

Solid waste is any material that is no longer in use by man. It could be solid, liquid, or

gas. Solid waste comprises of house hold garbage, sludge, compost, office trash, electronic

waste, construction and demolition waste, metal scraps, textile pieces, farms waste and

market remain. Waste can again be said to be, any abandoned material or substance, that

cannot be recycled, not in use, already used or treated for disposal. Everything we do, leaves

27
behind some kind of waste. The improper disposal of solid waste is the major cause of land

pollution, water pollution and air pollution.

Several studies reveal that solid waste generated yearly in Nigeria are in large quantities.

A Unido report reveals that Nigeria generates about 32 million tonnes of solid waste

annually, of which 2.5 million tonnes is plastic waste. Most of the volume of the plastic are

somehow moved from land to end up in the water bodies especially in the oceans. In other

developing and developed countries, municipal solid waste that are created come mainly

from households (55–80%), followed by market or commercial areas (10–30%) being

generated from streets, institutions, textiles, glass industries and many others (Roper 1999;

Ansari and Akhmatov, 2020). Solid waste pollution is unsightly and damaging to the health

of aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife directly. Many solid wastes, such as plastics and

electronic waste, break down and leach harmful chemicals into the water, making them a

source of toxic or hazardous waste.

Numerous significant health problems can be created form solid waste not properly discarded

or managed in the environment. If not properly dispose of, waste can become breeding sites

for vectors for example tyres become breeding sites for mosquitoes, leftover food become

delicacies for rats, rats draw near snakes, and the transmission of the diseases they spread are

numerous.

Waste around our environment has a way of reducing the morale of an individual. This

affects the living state and of a person, can make an individual gradually become tidy. The

effect of living in an unhygienic and untidy environment may lead people to become

demoralised and less motivated to improve conditions around them. Waste attracts more

waste and leads to less hygienic behaviour in general.

Management of Solid Waste

28
 Industrialization and urbanization have made the creation of solid waste a huge

problem. More of solid waste are generated in urban centers that remote villages. Solid waste

are heterogenous in nature, that is, derived from various sources. They have varying physical

and chemical characteristics. With waste being created and generated from food, plastics,

wood, metals, papers, rubbers, polythene, leather, batteries, inert materials, textiles, slaughter

houses, distribution points, medical centers, paint containers, demolishing, electronics, and

construction materials, it is difficulty to combine the waste for disposal (yang and Lin, 2020).

There therefore has to be strategies to manage, control, treat and destroy this waste since it is

no longer for use to man.

The waste management processes include basically fractioning, sorting, treatment and

recycling. Furthermore, for solid waste to be effectively managed, the general public has to

be aware, and involved in the management process, without this the effective waste

management can hardly be successfully attained. The business of waste management is also a

means of economic income. Waste management and recycling can help boost the health

service system, improve agriculture, and make shit construction works.

Waste is considered toxic if it is poisonous, radioactive, explosive, carcinogenic (causing

cancer), mutagenic (causing damage to chromosomes), teratogenic (causing birth defects), or

bio- accumulative (that is, increasing in concentration at the higher ends of food chains).

Sources of toxic chemicals include improperly disposed wastewater from industrial plants

and chemical process facilities (lead, mercury, chromium) as well as surface runoff

containing pesticides used on agricultural areas and suburban lawns (chlordane, dieldrin,

heptachlor) (Yang and Lin 2020.

The purpose of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste in the

environment and maintain human health. Waste management practices could differ from

community to community. In some communities, bush burning could be the order, in some,

29
burring of waste, in some incineration, in some collection and allocation. The essences of the

waste management to decrease the amount of non-useable materials the environment. With

the growing population and increased release of waste, recycling is topmost on the minds of

any environmentalist or conservationist prior to recycling. the process of waste management

requires from inception to final disposal includes; collection, transportation, sorting treatment

and disposal. In between the sorting and treatments, the five Rs have been introduced by

Shelby Bell 2020, to explain the following.

R1=Refuse waste: this is to say refuse to by non-reusable products. Refuse the use of

materials that cannot be reusable. One should learn to say no to collects products that will be

reusable. For example, at work places, the office practice could be to go paperless unless the

need cannot be avoided. Refuse product packaging and returnable containers.

R2= Reduce: Reduce the use of harmful, non-recyclable products e.g disposable cups, 3D

objects

R3= Reuse: one can imbibe the culture of reusing items. The use of one item for multiple

uses. We can do away with the disposable plastic crazy era and reintroduce the ceramic

wares. Cloth bags can be made worthy rather than polythene bags.

R4= Repurpose: making one item have many purposes. Old tyres can be used as

Old buckets as flower containers, old cups as pencil cases and many more.

R5= Recycle: this involves the complete change of old items to another new product.

Managing waste is essential for building sustainable and live able cities. However, this act is

a big challenge for developing countries.

ENVIRONMETNAL PROTECTION

30
 The rise in urbanization, industrialization and civilization has led to tremendous

growth and development in our communities but has also led to negative impacts in our

climate and, land, environment and our lives. While we are faced with the magnitude of the

ever well-being challenges on the level of pollution in the environment one must gradually

begin to see the environment, we live in an environment we must save and manage. After all

we depend on the environment for what we get to survive. The environment gives us back

what we put in it. Making small steps and adjustments in your daily routine will give you a

sense of success and a yearning to attempt more. Industrial pollution has continued to be a

major factor causing degradation of the environment around us, affecting the water we use,

the air we breathe, and the soil we live on. The exponential increase in industrialization not

only consumes large areas of agricultural lands but also simultaneously causes serious

environmental degradation of soil. Water originating from various industries finds its place in

agriculture. The challenge is to properly incorporate the disposal of the wastes in a controlled

management program so that the applied industrial solid wastes do not contribute pollution to

soil, soil microbes, or the environment. To stop pollution and prevent metal toxicity, there is

a clear need for an overall waste treatment strategy with the goal of eliminating priority

pollutants at their source. This can be achieved by indigenous microorganisms found in

various industrial effluents that can be used as an indicator of pollution and to resist, process,

metabolize, and detoxify chromate-polluted wastewater (Karthica and Nagarathinam 2022).

A few ways to routinely save and protect our environment are outlined below.

1. Avoid bush burning: It is the act of setting fire (intentionally or accidentally) on

bush, forest, weeds, to clear out the vegetation. The bush can be set on fire for agricultural

purpose, to clear the land for planting, to eradicate diseases and pest, crop rotation or for

hunting purposes. Bush fires also happen during draught, accidentally by wind, lightening,

accidentally by a lit cigarrete, and even fireworks. Bush burning causes a variety of

31
environmental hazard sus as air pollution, loss of nutrient in the soil, loss of wild life and

variety of wild species, (especially in Europe), the excess of bush burning can lead to

deforestation.

2. Avoid Open Defecation: Open defecation is the human practice of defecating

outdoors ("in the open") rather than into a toilet. People may choose fields, bushes, forests,

ditches. It is believed that open defecation is practiced by all age limits in man, occurs among

communities with inadequate water, low income settlements and rural areas. Open defecation

is one factor that increases the rate of communicable diseases transfer in Nigeria. According

to the latest report by UNICEF 2000, open defecation is practiced by over 34 million

Nigerians. Open defeacation (OD) contaminates the environment and spreads disease

(diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid, dysentery). Apart from bringing a negative social stigma to

Nigeria, which is touted as the Giant of Africa and the most populous black nation in the

world, open defecation also poses obvious environmental, health and economic problems for

Nigeria and its nationals. It pollutes the environment and exposes children and adults to

critical health problems like diarrhoea (hence leading to untimely deaths). Economically,

Nigeria’s Minister of Water Resources, Engr. Suleiman H. Adamu declared: ‘As per a World

Bank Report (2012), Nigeria loses NGN 455bn or US$3bn annually due to poor sanitation.

This works out to US$20 per capita/year and constitutes 1.3 per cent of Nigeria's GDP.

According to the same report, open defecation alone costs Nigeria over US$1bn a year. The

market potential of sanitation in the country is huge. If the 46 million people that defecate in

the open at present opt for a toilet, the demand for material and labour, on a conservative

estimate, will work out to NGN 1250bn or over US$8bn Eliminating open defecation has to

be a paramount decision by the Government and community members. This can be carried

out by changing social behaviour and building basic and well-managed sanitation systems in

poor communities if we must maintain a protected environment

32
 3. Save our waters- Protect aquatic life: stop global warming, acid rain, ocean

acidification, Limit Your Use of Plastics, Disposables and Single-Use Projects, participate in

clean ups, eat eco-friendly aquatic products, use friendly fishing gears and fishing methods,

preserve and protect areas of the water bodies for fish growth and aquatic life.

4. Bioremediation of destroyed lands and polluted areas: Bioremediation relies on

using microbes that feed on heavy metals deposited in the environment. The process is

engineered by stimulating the growth of particular microorganisms that have the ability to eat

up pollutants such as oil, solvents, and pesticides for sources of food and energy; in the

process, the contaminants are converted into small amounts of clean water and harmless

gases like carbon dioxide. For bioremediation to be successful and complete within the

specified time, the right temperature, nutrients, and foods must be present. The absence of

these elements may prolong the clean-up of contaminants (Mitchelle 2022). Where any of the

condition is unfavorable, augmentation of the process could be attained and improved by

addition of amendments such as molasses (vegetable oil, or simple air) to the environment.

These amendments optimize conditions for microbes to flourish, thereby accelerating the

completion of the bioremediation process (Simpson et al., 2001; Mitchelle 2022).

The strategies and approaches for the careful control of radioactive pollutants released into

the environment should be the same for anthropogenic and natural radionuclides according to

the guidelines of the International Commission on Radiological Protection.

5. Replace disposable items with reusable: A lot of the disposable items we purchase

and use are not often readily degradable. The shelf life of such materials could be decades.

There so these substances spend time in the environment causing nuisance and fill up land

spaces as dirt and non-useful material simple adjustments you can make to decrease the

number of disposable items in your daily life.

33
 6. Recycle: Implementing recycling habits into your daily life is one of the most

effective ways to help lessen landfill waste, conserve natural resources, save habitats, reduce

pollution, cut down on energy consumption, and slow down global warming.

REFERENCES

CDC (2020). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and

Zoonotic Infectious References

USEPA (2005). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Protecting Water Quality from

Agricultural Runoff. March 2005. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/Ag_Runoff_Fact_Sheet.pdfCdc-pdfExternal [PDF – 120 kb].

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002). National Water Quality Inventory: Report to

Congress, 2002 Reporting Cycle: Findings, Rivers and Streams, and Lakes, Ponds and

Reservoirs. Available at http://www.epa.gov/305b/2002report/report2002pt3.pdfCdc-

pdfExternal.

Roper, T. (1999). Producer’s Guide to Reducing Microbial Contamination of Fresh Produce.

University of Wisconsin Extension, 1999. A3701.

Gast, K and Holt, K. (2000). Minimizing Microbial Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables,

Agricultural Water, Kansas State University, 2000 Dec. 4, p. MF-2479.

Rangarajan, A., Bihn, E., Gravani, R., Scott, D. and Pritts, M. (2000). Food Safety Begins on

the Farm: A Grower’s Guide. Cornell Good Agricultural Practices Program, 2000.

Boyles, S. (2022). Livestock and Water. Ohio State University Extension. Front. Environ.

Sci. Available at http://beef.osu.edu/library/water.htmlExternal. Sec. Water and Wastewater

Management https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.880246

34
Obeizu, T. (2022). Vanguard Media Limited, Nigeria. Vanguard Newspaper 21 November

2022 . ://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2022/01/24/menace-of-soot-in-rivers/

Alikor V. (2022). Alikor, V. (2022). The disturbing impact of soot on public health and

economy of Port Harcourt. VOA VOICE OF AFRICA. https://www.voanews.com/a/unicef-

nigeria-warns-millions-at-risk-of-water-contamination-ailments/6494928.html.

Annonymous (2022). Envirotech OnlineInternational Labmate Limited

Oak Court Business Centre Sandridge Park, Porters Wood St Albans Hertfordshire AL3 6PH

United Kingdom https://www.envirotech-online.com/news/water-wastewater/9/breaking-

news/what-are-the-different-types-of-water-pollution/51055. Assesed 30 jan 2020

Sachdev DP and Cameotra SS. (2013). Biosurfactants in agriculture. Appl Microbiol

Biotechnol. 2013 Feb;97(3):1005-16. doi: 10.1007/s00253-012-4641-8. Epub 2013 Jan 3.

PMID: 23280539; PMCID: PMC3555348.

Simpson DR, Natraj NR, McInerney MJ, Duncan KE. (2011). Biosurfactant-producing

Bacillus are present in produced brines from Oklahoma oil reservoirs with a wide range of

salinities. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011;91:1083–1093.

Golovan, Serguei P; Meidinger, Roy G; Ajakaiye, Ayodele; Cottrill, Michael; Wiederkehr,

Miles Z; Barney, David J; Plante, Claire; Pollard, John W; Fan, Ming Z; Hayes, M. Anthony;

Laursen, Jesper; Hjorth, J. Peter; Hacker, Roger R; Phillips, John P; Forsberg, Cecil W

(2001). "Pigs expressing salivary phytase produce low-phosphorus manure". Nature

Biotechnology. 19 (8): 741–5. doi:10.1038/90788. PMID 11479566. S2CID 52853680

Ajuzieogu, A. C., Bertha, E. C. , Eromosele, A. S. , (2022). 'Plant-Microbe Interaction:

Prospects and Applications in Sustainable Environmental Management', in C. Hano (ed.),

Plant Hormones - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications, IntechOpen,

London. 10.5772/intechopen.10269

35
Annonymous (2019). Open defecation: Nigeria ranks Number 1 in the World – Minister’
(Punch, 28 October 2019), see https://punchng.com/open-defecation-nigeria-ranks-no-1-in-
the-world-minister/.
Cantor, K. P. (1997). Drinking Water and Cancer. Cancer Causes Control CCC 8 (3), 292–

308. doi:10.1023/a:1018444902486

Ahmed, S., and Ismail, S. (2018). Water Pollution and its Sources, Effects and Management:

a Case Study of Delhi. Int. J. Curr. Adv. Res. 7 (2), 10436–10442.

doi:10.24327/ijcar.2018.10442.1768

Ansari, Z. Z., and Akhmatov, S. V. (2020). Impacts of Water Pollution on Human Health: A

Case Study of Delhi.

Yang H. and Lin Li. (2002). Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease

Heterogeneity: A Review. www.frontiersin.orgLi Lin1, www.frontiersin.org

Haoran Yang1 and www.frontiersin.orgXiaocang Xu2

Cory, . M. (2022). Bioremediation.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bioremediation.asp
Hussain, C.M. and Keçili R. (2020). Environmental pollution and environmental analysis, in
Modern Environmental Analysis Techniques for Pollutants.
Kónya, J. and Nagy, N.M (2018). Environmental Radioactivity in Nuclear and
Radiochemistry (Second Edition)
Akpanowo, A.A., Bello, N.A., Umaru, I., Iyakwari, S., Joshua, E., Yususf, S. and Ekong,

G.B. 2021. Assessment of radioactivity and heavy metals in water sources from Artisanal

mining areas of Anka, Northwest Nigeria. Scientific African, 12, 2021 e00761.

Udiba, U.U., Akpan, E.R., Antai, E.E. Soil Lwad Concentrations in Dareta Village, Zamfara,

Nigeria. Journal of Health Pollution, 9. (23)

Karthika, V and Nagarathinam, K. (2022). Advances in bioremediation of industrial

wastewater containing metal pollutants in Biological Approaches to Controlling Pollutants,

2022

36
37