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State of the Art in Inductive Charging for Electronic Appliances and its Future in
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Article · January 2012

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 State of the Art in Inductive Charging for Electronic
Appliances and its Future in Transportation

Neha Chawla Sabri Tosunoglu

Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
Florida International University Florida International University
Miami, Florida, USA Miami, Florida, USA
786-419-0915 305-348-1091
nchaw002@fiu.edu tosun@fiu.edu

ABSTRACT allowed in the output of the system. Low maintenance required

Inductive charging is a method of moving power wirelessly. A thus decreasing the cost of the system comparatively. Inductive
power generating source system is placed near a power storing or charging makes charging mobile devices and electric vehicles
power transferring system. An electromagnetic field is generated more convenient; rather than having to connect a power cable, the
between the two objects and power is moved from one system to unit can be placed on or close to a charge plate.
the other. Inductive charging is a way of moving power from a
main system to a subsystem such as moving the power from the 1.2 Limitations:
power grid to a local transformer. It is applied to a wide variety of The main disadvantages of inductive charging are heat and power
systems from small hand-held devices to robotic platforms and consumption. It takes more power to inductively charge an item
electric vehicles. In this study, the working principle, advantages, than charge it through normal means. This is due to the power lost
disadvantages and limitations of inductive charging mats/pads to the electric field used to connect the coils. The process has the
used for electronic devices are discussed. The new advancements potential to generate immense heat indicating the amount of
in inductive charging for transportation are also reviewed in this electricity being lost in the process of charging. Inductive
study. charging also requires drive electronics and coils, increasing the
complexity and cost of manufacturing. Using high frequency
1. INTRODUCTION switches in electronic converters may cause interference in nearby
Inductive charging works on the basic principle in which two equipment. The system may not work or the losses may increase if
power systems are placed very close to one another. They need there is any metallic object in the middle of the magnetic
not to be exposed or connected to each other. Each of these power connection. Magnetic radiation is harmful for the user’s health. At
systems contains an electrical coil that stores electricity for the the frequencies of interest in IPT systems a maximum of 2.6 uT is
device’s use. The coils’ proximity to each other results in the allowed to be exposed to the body. This being an averaged
generation of a low power electrical field that connects them. This exposure limit and it has been described by Australian Radiation
field allows the transfer of electricity between the two systems. Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA). Newer
The two systems share electricity until they both have exactly the approaches reduce transfer losses through the use of ultra-thin
same amount of power. In inductive charging, one of the devices, coils, higher frequencies, and optimized drive electronics resulting
i.e., the sender, is constantly powered so that it can send power to in more efficient and compact chargers and receivers, facilitating
the receiver continuously until the receiver is fully charged. their integration into mobile devices or batteries with minimal
changes required.
1.1 Advantages: Table 1. Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of
Induction charging has several advantages over standard power Inductive Charging
transfer. One major benefit is that it is wireless. There is no
limitation on the number of devices that may be charged at once. Advantages Limitations
Hence, a single inductive charging mat can charge several devices • Wireless • More power
at the same time. Inductive charging carries a far lower risk of • A number of devices can be consumption
electrical shock when compared with conductive charging, charged at a time • Low efficiency
because there are no exposed conductors. • Electrically safe • Heat generation is more
• Can be used in harsh than traditional charging
The ability to fully enclose the charging connection also makes environments due to • Complex circuitry
the approach attractive where water impermeability is required; encapsulation • High cost of
for instance, inductive charging is used for implanted medical
• High power in output manufacturing
devices that require periodic or even constant external power, and
• Waterproof • Harmful magnetic
for electric hygiene devices, such as toothbrushes and shavers,
• Low maintenance radiations emitted
that are frequently used near or even in water. Due to
encapsulation it can be used in harsh environments. High power is • Charging is convenient

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 1 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
2. HISTORY inductive coupling to an electrical device, which then can use that
energy to charge batteries.
In 1901, Nikola Tesla used the principle of electrodynamic
induction to transfer electromagnetic energy without the need of There is a small gap between the two coils employed in each of
wires to construct the Wardenclyffe tower (Figure 1) to transmit the sender and receiver of the energy within the respective devices
power between America and Europe but was destroyed by US due to which inductive charging is considered a short-distance
government in 1917. wireless energy transfer, despite the fact that there are typically
more wires used with inductive charging than direct-contact
charging, because it frees the user from having to deal with wires
between the two devices.

Induction chargers typically use an induction coil to create an

alternating electromagnetic field from within a charging base
station, and a second induction coil in the portable device takes
power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into
electrical current to charge the battery. The two induction coils in
proximity combine to form an electrical transformer.

Wireless charging is an emerging trend for mobile and portable

devices with various products appearing in the market by
providing significant user convenience. Magnetic resonance based
charging is a technique that provides support for charging
multiple receivers with the same transmitter. Wireless charging
has been popular since 2009 with products like Palm Pre., Dell
Latitude, PowerMat and many other similar products.

The technologies for wireless charging can be either magnetic

induction or radio frequency or optical or conduction. Magnetic
Figure 1. Wardenclyffe Tower induction converts electrical energy to magnetic energy. It allows
transmission over an air gap and is typically short to midrange.
For microwave or radio frequency, the parabolic dish focuses
Andre Marie Ampere discovered 200 years ago that a magnetic radio waves which are typically long range waves towards
field is created around the wire if electricity is transmitted down a intended target. They can also include low power receivers for
wire. Then Michael Faraday developed the fundamental law of energy harvesting. For optical or infrared, the laser light is
induction, a process that enables the transfer f power from one focused on photovoltaic cells that convert light energy to power.
wire to another using magnetic field. Later the Maxwell equation In conduction, the power transfer occurs due to metallic contact
was established, which is the basis of several everyday devices between transmitter and receiver. Compared to inductive coupling
including electrical motors and generators. The basic technique and RF radiation, wireless power transfer via strong coupled
used by Tesla earlier is now used in any situation where batteries resonance is more suitable for wireless power transfer in a range
are being charged without physical contacts. It is used in from a few centimeters to a few meters for mobile consumer
recharging electric toothbrushes or wet/dry electric shavers. devices. Many researches have been conducted to investigate the
Induction cooktops that transfer energy directly to a pot’s metal principle and design of wireless power transfer via strong coupled
bottom but remains cool to touch also uses the same principle. resonance. A wireless charger prototype based on strong coupled
magnetic resonance was presented and emphasis was put on
In 2007, MIT researchers proposed the wireless power design considerations and experiments for real wireless power
transmission based on strong coupled magnetic resonance and transfer applications based on this technology.
successfully lightened a 60 W bulb over 2 meters with a transfer
efficiency of 30%. In 2008, Intel demonstrated an experiment Magnetic induction has two categories namely magnetic induction
setup to lighten a 60 W bulb over 1 meter with the transfer coupling and magnetic resonance coupling. In inductive coupling,
efficiency of 70 %. the source drives a primary coil creating a sinusoidally varying
magnetic field which induces a voltage across terminals of
3. INDUCTION CHARGING MATS/ PADS secondary coil, thus transferring power to load. This type of
mechanism is used in transformer where the magnetic field is
confined to high permeability core. Magnetic resonance coupling
Induction powers the charging mats that wirelessly transfer energy is more advantageous since it has an extended range, alignment
to the devices and allows them to be recharged by simply placing insensitivity and potential to support multiple receivers. The gain
them on the top of the mat. Inside the mat there is an inductive is over a very small range implying that very accurate tuning is
coil through which the electricity runs and the power is transferred required for magnetic resonance coupling.
to a second coil attached to the device. Inductive charging uses an
electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects. This
is usually done with a charging station. Energy is sent through

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 2 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
 5. MULTIPLE RECEIVER CHARGING

Figure 2. Magnetic Resonance Coupling Circuit Model [8]

Figure 2 shows the circuit model for magnetic resonance. The

transmitter (source) is the charger and the receiver (load) is the
device to be charged. The source and load are inductively coupled
to the resonant circuits to remove the effect of loading (parallel
impedances), which results in a high Q of the circuit.

4. SINGLE RECEIVER CHARGING

Figure 4. Multiple Receiver Charging [8]

Figure 4 shows the multiple receiver charging. A split resonant

peak is caused by the coupling to the first receiver when a second
receiver comes close to the transmitter. The receiver detects the
loss in power transfer due to multiple receiver coupling which is
Figure 3. Single Receiver Charging [8] reported to the transmitter by receiver. After the information of
the loss is received, the transmitter estimates the reasoning behind
The single receiver charging system consists of a transmitter and power transfer loss. It first searches for alternate receivers in
receiver designed to operate at a frequency for resonance power vicinity using its communications interface. It then sweeps from
transfer as shown in Figure 3. The frequencies of transmitter (f1) frequency fc to fd with stepsize s = (fd – fc)/N where N is the
and receiver (f2) may deviate due to process, voltage and number of steps in the sweep. If other receivers are detected then
temperature variations inside the components of a device or due to each receiver receives the sweep and notes the frequency sweep at
the presence of metallic elements in or near the device. The which maximum power was transferred. Maximum power transfer
frequency tuning is done by changing the capacitance or occurs at different frequencies for each receiver. Results of the
inductance values via a shared communication interface between sweep are communicated back to the transmitter via
transmitter and receiver by frequency sweep which can be communications interface.
performed by finely adjusting the resonant circuit at transmitter
over the desired range of operation. Assuming the mobile to be The transmitter contains multiple resonance structure to
stationary, the maximum power transfer from transmitter to communicate with multiple receivers. The number of
receiver occurs at frequency f2; i.e., the operating frequency of simultaneous receivers supported by this method is dependent on
receiver. Receiver keeps the record of the power level received for the number of resonance structures available at the transmitter.
each of the sweep steps. The sweep step is then reported to the The transmitters can time-multiplex between the multiple
transmitter by the receiver where maximum power transfer occurs receivers and retune to operating frequency of each receiver
back to transmitter via communications interface. The transmitter which allows supporting charging a greater number of receivers
then tunes its circuit to frequency f2 and transmits at f2 for than the number of resonance structures available at the
maximum power transfer efficiency. transmitter. The time multiplexing is dependent on the current
charging status for each receiver and the transmitter and allocates

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 3 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
more time to the receiver which is less charged. Time charged, saving on unnecessary power use or overcharging your
multiplexing helps reducing coupling between the receivers and is batteries. Duracell have implemented touch sensitive safety
used when the coupling is very strong and the resonant peaks are procedures that power off the device when it comes into contact
outside the tuning range of the transmitter. with your fingers or inappropriate metallic objects.

6. PRODUCTS AVAILABLE IN MARKET

Various products available in the market for inductive charging
6.3 Energizer Inductive Charger
are discussed below.

6.1 PowerMat 3X

Figure 7. Energizer Inductive Charger [10]

Energizer Inductive Charger as shown in Figure 7 is based on Qi
Figure 5. PowerMat 3X [9] Technology and aims to be the next-generation charging solution
PowerMat 3X as shown in Figure 5 is a sleek, slim three position for many devices. The Energizer Inductive Charger conveniently
wireless charging mat for home and office. A magnetic attraction charges up to three of your devices at one time. Two inductive Qi
between every receiver and each access point on every Mat charging zones are located on the top surface of the pad for
assures that alignment is precise and the most efficient charging simple, easy charging. For both Qi and non-Qi devices, the USB
occurs. Communication between the Mat and the Receiver allows port on the back is ideal for charging additional phones, headsets,
the mat to deliver an exact amount of power for the proper length mp3 players, cameras, GPS devices, and any other device up to 5
of time so that the transfer of power is safe and efficient and no watts. The charging pad offers two stations to charge devices.
energy is wasted. When the device reaches full charge, power is Additionally, the two LEDs above each station will illuminate in a
shut off to that device, which avoids overcharging of the device's neon blue color to indicate that it actively charges the device.
battery as well as saves energy. Once full power is achieved and Even though the charging pad slopes down at an angle, devices do
the Auto Shut Off has occurred to save energy, the system will not slide or move around. On the back, there is the proprietary
monitor the status of the battery in the device. If the battery is charging port and a standard USB port, which allows the user to
used, the system will again initiate charging and return the battery charge other devices.
to a full charge.
6.4 WildCharge Pad
6.2 Duracell MyGrid

Figure 6. Duracell MyGrid [11] Figure 8. WildCharge Pad [12]

The Duracell MyGrid Charging Pad as shown in Figure 6 is a flat Pure Energy Solution’s WildCharge Pad as shown in Figure 8
square with a single raised edge. It measures 8 by 6.5 by 0.75 wireless phone charger offers comparable features and output
inches at its largest point and fits easily on a desk or bedside table. capabilities. The WildCharge Pad provides 15 watts of output
It consists primarily of 12 magnetic strips, which carry the actual power, enough to charge multiple devices simultaneously. It
charge to the devices. With a maximum power output of works through the traditional contact-point transference principle
15VDC/1A, it's a very efficient device, charging all four gadgets where two conductive materials transfer electricity to charge the
in more or less the same amount of time as by using their bespoke battery.
power adapters, all the while saving around 15% on energy
consumption. The myGrid switches off once each device is fully

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 4 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
 Table 2. Comparison of the Various Induction Charging Products Available in the Market

Energizer
Comparison Points PowerMat 3X Duracell myGrid Wild Charge Pad
Inductive Charger
Overall Rating
Device compatibility: This section
rates the wireless chargers on their
Excellent Good Fair Good
compatibility with select mobile
devices
Specifications: This section rates
each wireless charger on its output
Excellent Fair Good Fair
capacities including output watts
and device features
Durability/Ability to endure
Excellent Fair Good Fair
damage
Help and support provided by the
Excellent Fair Good Good
manufacturer
Features
Compatible with Compatible with Compatible with Compatible with
iphone4, 3G/3GS, iphone4, 3G/3GS, Iphone 3G/3GS and Iphone 3G/3GS,
Ipod Touch, Ipod Touch, Blackberry curve Ipod Touch,
Blackberry Curve, Blackberry Curve, Blackberry Curve,
Blackberry tour, Blackberry Tour, Blackberry Bold,
Device compatibility Blackberry Bold, Blackberry Bold, Blackberry Pearl,
Blackberry Pearl, Blackberry Pearl, Nintendo DS/DSi,
HTC EVO 4G, Motorola DROID X
Motorola DROID
X, Nintendo
DS/DSi,
Maximum no of devices the
wireless charger can power at 3 4 3 4
once
Power output (Watts): No of watts
18 15 15 15
that the wireless charger produces
Internal battery: It allows the
devices to charge mobile gadgets Does not have Does not have Does not have
Has internal battery
without the pad being plugged internal battery internal battery internal battery
into the wall
Full charge shutoff: This feature
This feature is This feature is not This feature is This feature is not
stops sending power to devices
available available available available
once they reach full charge

disadvantage of using cable and connector type is the risk of

electrocution especially in wet and hostile environments since it
7. INDUCTIVE CHARGING IN delivers 2- 3 times more power than standard plugs at home. Long
TRANSPORTATION wires also pose a tripping hazard and are also aesthetically poor.
Transportation sector is the largest consumer of fossil fuel In harsh climate locations that have snow and ice, the plug-in
worldwide and thus important factor in reducing fossil fuel charge point may become frozen onto the vehicle. Thus in order to
demand. Pollutant emissions and oil consumption are caused by eliminate the above disadvantages, the inductive charging has
transportation sector. Currently the transformation in automobiles been developed which can charge the batteries wirelessly. Road
from internal combustion engines (ICE) vehicles to hybrid fuel electrification as shown in Figure 9 can be developed so that the
cells vehicles (FCV). The limited availability of fossil fuel and to power is transferred to the vehicle as it moves along the electrified
reduce the emissions in transportation sector, the development of section of the roadway. It would eliminate the problem of range
electric vehicles worldwide over the past decade has been with EVs as the required power by the vehicle travelling on
initiated. The price of EV is nearly twice than that of ICE freeways can be supplied by the grid directly through the roadway
vehicles which is largely due to the limitation of battery but the infrastructure cost is high.
technology. The charging time of EV is very long when compared
to ICE car.

Currently, plugin connections are used in EVs for charging where

the user inserts the plug into the receptacle of the car to charge the
batteries. It has the following disadvantages. The major

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 5 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
 compensates the reactive part of total impedance by increasing the
power transfer efficiency. Battery charger controls the charging
process and changing voltage to the levels accepted by each type
of battery. The magnetic linkage and resonant circuit are the most
important parts of the IPT system.

Charging of lithium battery for portable electronic products and

concept of common charging applies contactless power
transmission technique. Charging platform comprises of several
pot type cores with array structure, allowing circuit to be charged
within a permitted region of displacement on charging platform.
Poor power transmission efficiency occurs since a larger air gap
Figure 9. Electrified Road (Efficiency can be kept high if the exists in contactless structure compared to other contact
magnetic field is only turned on at the instant the vehicle is structures.
travelling over it [5])

First, high frequency alternating currents are produced by the

power supply in transmitter pad that inductively transfers power
to receiver coil. The receiver electronics converts this high
frequency power that was received via induction to DC which is
suitable for charging. These systems are mostly loosely coupled;
hence resonance and high frequency operation is required.
Figure 12. The Framework of Contactless Inductive Charging
Adoption of an inductive power transfer system (IPT) as shown in Platform [5]
Figure 10, to charge the batteries on board the electrical vehicle
has been proposed by A. Neves et Al. It is known as wireless Hung-Yu Shen et Al. aimed at providing convenient and uniform
electrical charger for the inexistence of physical contact between charging method for portable electronic products using contactless
the source and the load. inductive charging. Figure 12 shows the framework of contactless
inductive charging platform. Upon designing contactless inductive
charging system, the analysis of magnetic allocation for inductive
structure is the first consideration, relying on the result of analysis
to obtain appropriate inductive structure and to consider the
impact of current direction of array core on the allocation of
magnetic fields. Next, closed-loop control structure is applied,
enabling the system to work in the domain of high efficiency. The
structure of contactless inductive charging platform proposed in
this research is shown in Figure 12. It shows that the converter
transforms AC into DC and then the inverter again transforms the
DC into AC for driving inductive core of the primary. In the
secondary, the inductive core picks up power from primary and
Figure 10. Inductive Charging System [5] the power is then rectified in order to charge the lithium battery.
The charging scheme utilized in the research was constant current
and constant voltage. Their research analyzed the magnetic field
allocation of different core and considered the impact of induced
magnetic field on other electronic equipment.

The charging platform was then designed by several pot type

cores with magnetic enclosure due to the analysis results. The
influence of current direction of the coil on allocation of magnetic
Figure 11. Main Blocks of an IPT Vehicle Charging System: field was investigated to choose appropriate induced structure and
(1) Power Source, (2) Magnetic Link, (3) Resonant Circuit, current direction of the coil. Microprocessor control circuit is
and (4) Battery Charger [5] utilized to adjust input power when the secondary is removed
from the charging platform and reduces energy depletion. The
Basic circuit of an IPT vehicle as shown in Figure 11 constitutes coupling effect of each part of the charging platform was shown
of 4 major blocks namely a power source, a magnetic link, a to provide the best position to place the secondary. Additionally,
resonant circuit and a battery charger. Power source is for the induced structure was implemented leading to plane circuit.
connection between magnetic link and power grid and is Result of experiment showed that the contactless inductive
composed by and rectifier followed by an inverter. The current charging platform was able to charge a battery with charging
amplitude and frequency can be controlled by allowing power current of 200mA under the condition of a gap 2.5mm between
flow of the system. The magnetic linkage transfers the power the secondary and the charging platform. The highest transfer
between battery charger and power source and is composed of 2 efficiency was found to be 55% between primary and secondary
coils that have either an iron core or no core. The resonant circuit was able to work normally within a large enough displacement.

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 6 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012
 Part of energy was lost in leakage inductance of induced structure. Qualcomm Halo WEVC has developed an inductive charger that
Transfer efficiency can be improved by overcoming the above consists of two parts: a charging plate that attaches to the bottom
weakness and by other type of induced structure and magnetic of the vehicle and a charging mat that can be placed on or below
material added to increase the coupling coefficient. the ground. Inductive charging uses magnetism to transfer power
up to 3.5 kilowatts at greater than 90 percent efficiency. Their trial
will be in London and will span over a period of 2 years and
8. STATE OF THE ART OF INDUCTIVE involve about 50 cars.
CHARGING FOR TRANSPORTATION
Magne Charge inductive charging was employed by several types
of electric vehicles around 1998 but was discontinued after 9. CONCLUSION
California Air Resources Board selected SAE J1772 in 2001 or Wireless energy transmission technology has been developed in
Avcon conductive charging interface for electric vehicles in June which electrical energy is transmitted from power source to an
2001. In 2009, Evatran, began development of Plugless power for electrical device without using wires. The limited fossil fuel
proximity charging system for electric vehicles. With the availability throughout the world has allowed the electric vehicles
participation of the local municipality and several businesses, to develop over the past decade. The technology has improved
field trials were begun in March, 2010, on the system scheduled to sustainability but still consists of various drawbacks which need
be available in fourth quarter 2010. to be researched upon in order to commercialize it.

Researchers at Korea Advanced Institute of Science and 10. REFERENCES

Technology have developed an electric transport system where
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electricity."

2012 Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics 7 Boca Raton, Florida, May 10-11, 2012

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