Chapter 18

Stationary waves
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Objectives

The waves we have considered so far in Chapter 15,

Chapter 16 and Chapter 17 have been progressive hyperlink
waves; they start from a source and travel outwards. A destination
second important class of waves is stationary waves
(standing waves). These can be observed as follows.
Use a long spring or a slinky spring. A long rope or
piece of rubber tubing will also do. Lay it on the floor
and fix one end firmly. Move the other end from side to
side so that transverse waves travel along the length of Figure 18.1  A slinky spring is used to generate a
the spring and reflect off the fixed end (Figure 18.1). If stationary wave pattern.
you adjust the frequency of the shaking, you should be
able to achieve a stable pattern like one of those shown Nodes and antinodes
in Figure 18.2. Alter the frequency in order to achieve What you have observed is a stationary wave on the
one of the other patterns. long spring. There are points along the spring that
You should notice that you have to move the end remain (almost) motionless while points on either
of the spring with just the right frequency to get one side are oscillating with the greatest amplitude. The
of these interesting patterns. The pattern disappears points that do not move are called the nodes and the
when the frequency of the shaking of the free end of points where the spring oscillates with maximum
the spring is slightly increased or decreased. amplitude are called the antinodes. At the same time,
it is clear that the wave profile is not travelling along
the length of the spring. Hence we call it a stationary
wave or a standing wave.

fixed free
hyperlink
end end
destination
Amplitude

Distance
antinode
node
Amplitude

Distance
Amplitude

Distance

Figure 18.2  Different stationary wave patterns are possible, depending on the frequency of vibration.

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

We normally represent a stationary wave by

drawing the shape of the spring in its two extreme hyperlink T = period of wave
positions (Figure 18.3a). The spring appears as a destination
Displacement λ
series of loops, separated by nodes. In this diagram, resultant
point A is moving downwards. At the same time, t=0
Distance
point B in the next loop is moving upwards. The wave moving to right
s
phase difference between points A and B is 180°. T
t= x
Hence the sections of spring in adjacent loops are 4 ‘Snapshots’
wave moving to left of the
always moving in antiphase; they are half a cycle out s waves
of phase with one another. t= T
2
x over a
time
s of one
a period, T.
t = 3T
4
x
hyperlink
A
Amplitude

destination s
t=T x

B λ
2
Distance profile at t = 0 and T
N N N N N N
b T 3T
profile at t = 4 and 4
λ
A A A A A profile at t = T
2
Amplitude

λ
2

Key
wave moving to right
wave moving to left
Distance
resultant wave

Figure 18.3  The fixed ends of a long spring must be

nodes in the stationary wave pattern.
Figure 18.4  The blue-coloured wave is moving
Formation of stationary waves to the left and the red-coloured wave to the right.J7007
Imagine a string stretched between two fixed points, The principle of superposition of waves is used toCUP
for example a guitar string. Pulling the middle of 0521787185c18_04.eps
determine the resultant displacement. The profile of
the string and then releasing it produces a stationary the long spring is shown in green.
wave. There is a node at each of the fixed ends and an
antinode in the middle. Releasing the string produces
two progressive waves travelling in opposite directions.
• Atthetime t = 0, the progressive waves travelling to
left and right are in phase. The waves combine
These are reflected at the fixed ends. The reflected constructively giving amplitude twice that of
waves combine to produce the stationary wave. each wave.
Figure 18.1 shows how a stationary wave can
be set up using a long spring. A stationary wave
• After a time equal to one quarter of a period
(t = T ), each wave travels a distance of one quarter
4
is formed whenever two progressive waves of of a wavelength to the left or right. Consequently,
the same amplitude and wavelength, travelling in the two waves are in antiphase (phase difference
opposite directions, superimpose. Figure 18.4 uses a = 180°). The waves combine destructively giving
displacement s against distance x graph to illustrate zero displacement.
the formation of a stationary wave along a long
spring (or a stretched length of string).

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

• After a time equal to one half of a period (t = T ),

the two waves are back in phase again. They once
2
SAQ
1 A stationary (standing) wave is set up on a
again combine constructively. vibrating spring. Adjacent nodes are separated by
• After a time equal to three quarters of a period
(t = 3T ), the waves are in antiphase again. They
25 cm. Determine:
a the wavelength of the stationary
4 Hint
combine destructively with the resultant wave wave
showing zero displacement. b the distance from a node to an
• After a time equal to one whole period (t = T), the
waves combine constructively. The profile of the
adjacent antinode.
Answer

slinky spring is as it was at t = 0.

This cycle repeats itself, with the long spring showing Observing stationary waves
nodes and antinodes along its length. The separation
between adjacent nodes or antinodes tells us about the Stretched strings
progressive waves that produce the stationary wave. A string is attached at one end to a vibration
A closer inspection of the graphs in Figure 18.4 generator, driven by a signal generator (Figure
shows that the separation between adjacent nodes 18.5). The other end hangs over a pulley and
or antinodes is related to the wavelength λ of the weights maintain the tension in the string. When the
progressive wave. The important conclusions are: signal generator is switched on, the string vibrates
with small amplitude. However, by adjusting the
separation between two adjacent nodes
λ frequency, it is possible to produce stationary waves
 (or antinodes) =
2 whose amplitude is much larger.
λ
separation between adjacent node and antinode = vibration
4
hyperlink
pulley
generator
The wavelength λ of any progressive wave can be destination
determined from the separation between neighbouring
weights
nodes or antinodes of the resulting standing wave
pattern. (This is = 2λ .) This can then be used to signal
generator
determine either the speed v of the progressive wave
or its frequency f by using the wave equation:
v=fλ
It is worth noting that a stationary wave does not
travel and therefore has no speed. It does not transfer Figure 18.5  Melde’s experiment for investigating
energy between two points like a progressive wave. stationary waves on a string.
Table 18.1 shows some of the key features of a
progressive wave and its stationary wave. The pulley end of the string is unable to vibrate; this
is a node. Similarly, the end attached to the vibrator
Progressive Stationary is only able to move a small amount, and this is also
hyperlink wave wave a node. As the frequency is increased, it is possible
destination to observe one loop (one antinode), two loops, three
wavelength λ λ
loops and more. Figure 18.6 shows a vibrating string
frequency f f where the frequency of the vibrator has been set to
speed v zero produce two loops.

Table 18.1  A summary of progressive and

stationary waves.
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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

receiver around in the space between the transmitter

hyperlink and the reflector and you will observe positions of
destination high and low intensity. This is because a stationary
wave is set up between the transmitter and the
sheet; the positions of high and low intensity are the
antinodes and nodes respectively.
If the probe is moved along the direct line from
Figure 18.6  When a stationary wave is established, the transmitter to the plate, the wavelength of the
one half of the string moves upwards as the other half microwaves can be determined from the distance
moves downwards. In this photograph, the string is between the nodes. Knowing that microwaves travel
moving too fast to observe the effect. at the speed of light c (3.0 × 108 m s–1), we can then
determine their frequency f using the wave equation
A flashing stroboscope is useful to reveal the motion c = f λ.
of the string at these frequencies, which look blurred
to the eye. The frequency of vibration is set so that
reflecting
there are two loops along the string; the frequency of hyperlink sheet
the stroboscope is set so that it almost matches that destination
of the vibrations. Now we can see the string moving
probe
‘in slow motion’, and it is easy to see the opposite
movements of the two adjacent loops.
This experiment is known as Melde’s experiment,
and it can be extended to investigate the effect of
changing the length of the string, the tension in the
string and the thickness of the string. microwave
transmitter
meter
SAQ
2 Look at the stationary (standing) wave on the
string in Figure 18.6. The length of the vibrating Figure 18.7  A stationary wave is created when
section of the string is 60 cm. microwaves are reflected from the metal sheet.
a Determine the wavelength of the stationary
wave and the separation of the two SAQ
neighbouring antinodes. 3 a Draw a stationary wave pattern for the
The frequency of vibration is increased until a microwave experiment above. Clearly show
stationary wave with three antinodes appears on whether there is a node or an antinode at the
the string. reflecting sheet.
b Sketch a stationary wave b The separation of two adjacent
Hint Hint
pattern to illustrate the points of high intensity is found
appearance of the string. to be 14 mm. Calculate the
c What is the wavelength of this wavelength and frequency
Answer Answer
stationary wave? of the microwaves.

Microwaves Extension
Start by directing the microwave transmitter at a
metal plate, which reflects the microwaves back
towards the source (Figure 18.7). Move the probe

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

tuning fork sounds much louder. This is an example

hyperlink of a phenomenon called resonance. The experiment
tuning
destination fork described here is known as the resonance tube.
For resonance to occur, the length of the air
air column must be just right. The air at the bottom of the
–λ tube is unable to vibrate, so this point must be a node.
4
The air at the open end of the tube can vibrate most
freely, so this is an antinode. Hence the length of
the air column must be one-quarter of a wavelength
(Figure 18.9a). (Alternatively, the length of the air
column could be set to equal three-quarters of a
wavelength – see Figure 18.9b.)
water
SAQ
4 Explain how two sets of identical but oppositely
travelling waves are established in the
microwave and air column
Answer
experiments described above.
Figure 18.8  A stationary wave is created in the air in
the tube when the length of the air column is adjusted
to the correct length. Stationary waves and musical instruments
The production of different notes by musical
Sound waves in air columns instruments often depends on the creation of stationary
A glass tube (open at both ends) is clamped so that waves (Figure 18.10). For a stringed instrument
one end dips into a cylinder of water; by adjusting its such as a guitar, the two ends of a string are fixed, so
height in the clamp, you can change the length of the nodes must be established at these points. When the
column of air in the tube (Figure 18.8). When you hold string is plucked half-way along its length, it vibrates
a vibrating tuning fork above the open end, the air with an antinode at its midpoint. This is known as
column may be forced to vibrate, and the note of the the fundamental mode of vibration of the string. The
fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency of
a b a standing wave for a given system or arrangement.
hyperlink hyperlink
antinode
destination
λ destination
–
4 hyperlink
destination
node

3λ
–
4

antinode

node Figure 18.10  When a guitar string is plucked, the

vibrations of the strings continue for some time
Figure 18.9  Stationary wave patterns for air in a tube afterwards. Here you can clearly see a node close to
with one end closed. the end of each string.
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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

Similarly, the air column inside a wind instrument is The frequency of a harmonic is always a multiple
caused to vibrate by blowing, and the note that is heard of the fundamental frequency. The diagrams show
depends on a stationary wave being established. By some of the modes of vibrations for a fixed length of
changing the length of the air column, as in a trombone, string (Figure 18.11) and an air column in a tube of a
the note can be changed. Alternatively, holes can be given length that is closed at one end (Figure 18.12).
uncovered so that the air can vibrate more freely, giving
a different pattern of nodes and antinodes. Extension
In practice, the sounds that are produced are
made up of several different stationary waves Determining the wavelength and
having different patterns of nodes and antinodes. speed of sound
For example, a guitar string may vibrate with two Since we know that adjacent nodes (or antinodes) of
antinodes along its length. This gives a note having a stationary wave are separated by half a wavelength,
twice the frequency of the fundamental, and is we can use this fact to determine the wavelength λ of
described as a harmonic of the fundamental. The a progressive wave. If we also know the frequency
musician’s skill is in stimulating the string or air f of the waves, we can find their speed v using the
column to produce a desired mixture of frequencies. wave equation v = f λ.

L = length of string
hyperlink A wavelength frequency
destination N N
fundamental λ = 2L f0

A A
N N N
second harmonic λ=L 2f0

N A N A N A N
third harmonic λ = 23 L 3f0

Figure 18.11  Some of the possible stationary waves for a fixed string of length L.
The frequency of the harmonics is a multiple of the fundamental frequency f0.

A A A J7007
CUP
hyperlink N
0521787185c18_11.eps
N
destination
L = length A
of air
N
column A
A
N N N

fundamental second third

harmonic harmonic

wavelength λ = 4L λ = 4L
3 λ = 4L
5

frequency f0 3f0 5f0

Figure 18.12  Some of the possible stationary waves for an air column, closed at one end.
The frequency of each harmonic is an odd multiple of the fundamental frequency f0.
J7007 201
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0521787185c18_12.eps
 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

One approach uses Kundt’s dust tube (Figure An alternative method is shown in Figure 18.14; this
18.13). A loudspeaker sends sound waves along the is the same arrangement as used for microwaves. The
inside of a tube. The sound is reflected at the closed loudspeaker produces sound waves, and these are
end. When a stationary wave is established, the dust reflected from the vertical board. The microphone
(fine powder) at the antinodes vibrates violently. detects the stationary sound wave in the space
It tends to accumulate at the nodes, where the between the speaker and the board, and its output is
movement of the air is zero. Hence the positions of displayed on the oscilloscope. It is simplest to turn
the nodes and antinodes can be clearly seen. off the time base of the oscilloscope, so that the spot
no longer moves across the screen. The spot moves
closed end up and down the screen, and the height of the vertical
hyperlink trace gives a measure of the intensity of the sound.
glass tube A
destination By moving the microphone along the line between
N
the speaker and the board, it is easy to detect nodes
A
signal loudspeaker and antinodes. For maximum accuracy, we do not
generator N
measure the separation of adjacent nodes; it is better
A to measure the distance across several nodes.
N dust piles The resonance tube experiment (Figure 18.8) can
A up at nodes
also be used to determine the wavelength and speed
of sound with a high degree of accuracy. However,
to do this, it is necessary to take account of a
Figure 18.13  Kundt’s dust tube can be used to systematic error in the experiment, as discussed in the
determine the speed of sound. ‘Eliminating errors’ section on page 203.

oscilloscope
SAQ
hyperlink 5 a For the arrangement shown in Figure 18.14,
destination suggest why it is easier to determine accurately
loudspeaker
the position of a node rather than an antinode.
b Explain why it is better to measure
the distance across
several nodes. Answer

to signal 6 For sound waves of frequency 2500 Hz, it is found

generator microphone
(2 kHz) that two nodes are separated by 20 cm, with three
antinodes between them.
a Determine the wavelength of these sound
reflecting waves.
board
b Use the wave equation v = f λ to determine
the speed of sound
Figure 18.14  A stationary sound wave is established in air. Answer
between the loudspeaker and the board.

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

Eliminating errors
The resonance tube experiment illustrates an λ
interesting way in which one type of experimental for the shorter tube, = l1 + c
4
error can be reduced or even eliminated.
Look at the representation of the stationary 3λ
for the longer tube, = l2 + c
4
waves in the tubes shown in Figure 18.9. In each
case, the antinode at the top of the tube is shown Subtracting the first equation from the second
extending slightly beyond the open end of the equation gives:
tube. This is because experiment shows that the air 3λ λ
– = (l2 + c) – (l1 + c)
slightly beyond the end of the tube vibrates as part 4 4
of the stationary wave. This is shown more clearly Simplifying gives:
in Figure 18.15. λ
= l2 – l1
2
c and hence λ = 2(l2 – l1)
hyperlink
destinationλ So, although we do not know the value of c, we can
4 make two measurements (l1 and l2) and obtain an
accurate value of λ. (You may be able to see from
Figure 18.15 that the difference in lengths of the
3λ
two tubes is indeed equal to half a wavelength.)
4 The end-correction c is an example of a
systematic error. When we measure the length l
of the tube, we are measuring a length which is
consistently less than the quantity we really need to
know (l + c). However, by understanding how the
systematic error affects the results, we have been
able to remove it from our measurements.
Other examples of systematic errors in physics
Figure 18.15  The antinode at the open end of a include:

open end of the tube.

J7007c beyond the
resonance tube is formed at a distance
CUP
• meters and other instruments which have been
incorrectly zeroed (so that they give a reading
0521787185c18_15.eps
when the correct value is zero)
The antinode is at a distance c beyond the end
of the tube, where c is called the end-correction.
• meters and other instruments which have been
incorrectly calibrated (so that, for example, all
Unfortunately, we do not know the value of c. readings are consistently reduced by a factor of,
It cannot be measured directly. However, we say, 1.0%).
can write:

SAQ
7 In a resonance tube experiment, resonance is a the wavelength of the sound waves causing
obtained for sound waves of frequency 630 Hz resonance
when the length of the air column is 12.6 cm and b the end-correction for this tube
again when it is 38.8 cm. Determine: c the speed of sound in air. Answer

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

Summary Glossary

• Stationary waves are formed when two identical waves travelling in opposite directions meet and
superimpose. This usually happens when one wave is a reflection of the other.

• A stationary wave has a characteristic pattern of nodes and antinodes.

• A node is a point where the amplitude is always zero.
• An antinode is a point of maximum amplitude.
• Adjacent nodes (or antinodes) are separated by a distance equal to half a wavelength.
• We can use the wave equation v = f  λ to determine the speed v or the frequency f of a progressive wave.
The wavelength λ is found using the nodes or antinodes of the stationary wave pattern.

Questions
1 The diagram shows a stretched wire held
horizontally between supports 0.50 m apart.
When the wire is plucked at its centre, a
standing wave is formed and the wire vibrates
0.50 m
in its fundamental mode (lowest frequency).
a Explain how the standing wave is formed. [2]
b Draw the fundamental mode of vibration of the wire. Label the position of any
Hint
nodes with the letter N and any antinodes with the letter A. [2]
c What is the wavelength of this standing wave? [1]
OCR Physics AS (2823) January 2006 [Total 5]
Answer

2 The diagram shows an arrangement where

microwaves leave a transmitter T and move D Answer
in a direction TP which is perpendicular to
T P
a metal plate P. transmitter
a When a microwave detector D is slowly
moved from T towards P the pattern of the
signal strength received by D is high, low, high, low … etc.
Explain:
• why these maxima and minima of intensity occur
• how you would measure the wavelength of the microwaves
• how you would determine their frequency.
b Describe how you could test whether the microwaves leaving the transmitter are
[6]
Hint
plane polarised. [2]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2004 [Total 8]
Answer

continued

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 Chapter 18: Stationary waves

3 a In standing waves, there are nodes and antinodes. Explain what is meant by:
i a node [1]
ii an antinode. [1] Hint

b The diagram shows a long glass tube within

tuning fork
which standing waves can be set up.
A vibrating tuning fork is placed above the long glass tube
glass tube and the length of the air column is air column
0.32 m
adjusted, by raising or lowering the tube in
the water, until a sound is heard.

water

i The standing wave formed in the air column is the fundamental (the lowest
frequency). Make a copy of the diagram and show on it the position of a node –
label as N, and an antinode – label as A. [2]
ii When the fundamental wave is heard, the length of the air column is 0.32 m.
Determine the wavelength of the standing wave formed. [1]
−1
iii The speed of sound in air is 330 m s . Calculate the frequency of the
tuning fork. [3]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2005 [Total 8]

Answer
4 a Figure 1 shows a string stretched between two points A and B.
hyperlink
A
destination B
Figure 1

State how you would set up a standing wave on the string. [1]
b The standing wave vibrates in its fundamental mode, i.e. the lowest frequency at
Hint
which a standing wave can be formed. Draw this standing wave. [1]
c Figure 2 shows the appearance of another standing wave formed on the same string.
Hint
hyperlink 0.50m
destination
A B

Figure 2

The distance between A and B is 1.8 m. Use Figure 2 to calculate

i the distance between neighbouring nodes [1]
ii the wavelength of the standing wave. [1]
OCR Physics AS (2823) June 2003 [Total 4]
Answer

205