COURSE TOPIC: FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BIT 113: FUNDAMENTALS OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
A. Course Information

Course Code: BIT 113 Course title: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

FUNDAMENTALS
Lecturer Contact
Name: Ronoh .K. Hillan
Cell Number: 0727369451,
Email: hronoh@kafuco.ac.ke

Welcome message
Welcome to BIT 113: Fundamentals of Information Technology. This is a first year first Semester
introductory course to fundamentals of Information Technology for Undergraduate students. It has
five major topics with every lesson having several sub topics. Ensure that you have read and
understood every lesson before you proceed to the next one. In every lesson you will find given
instructions on what is expected of you; At the end of every topic there will be a self-check
activities where you are expected to assess your understanding.
Course description* (expected proficiencies required for course)
BIT 113: Fundamentals of Information Technology intends to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the key components of the computer, how it works, present the basic concepts of
various computing environments and give a broad view of how technology is improving
communications.
Course Aims
The aims to introduce different parts of the computer and its applications to computing and demystify
the way a computer system works and understanding its underlying theories and concepts, history and
basic data communication of a computer

Course Objectives
At the end of this course the participant should be able to;
1. Explain the characteristics and purposes of all the sub-units in a computer system
2. Categorize the different types of computers
3. Explain the applications of computers to different fields and explain the impacts of
computers to the society.
4. Explain the numbers systems ; perform binary arithmetic and the conversions to different
basis
5. Demonstrate the use of networks and other data communication facilities.
6. Apply the concepts of operating systems and learn the features of Ms DOS and Windows
Operating System.

Course Outline and Schedule (course calendar and/or pacing expectations)

COURSE CONTENT
Week #2:
 Introduction to Computers;
 Application of Computers
 Evolution of computers
Week #3:
 Introduction to Hardware;
 Basic Computer organization; I/O,
 Processor and memory, buses
 Assignment 1
Week #4 and #5:
 Data representation and Binary arithmetic
 Binary, Octal, Decimal, Hexadecimal number systems
 ASCII, EBCDIC, UNICODE
 Week #5:
 Types of Computer systems
Week #6:
 CAT 1
Week #7:
 Introduction to Software
 Systems software
 Operating system, system utility, device drivers
Week #8:
 Application software
 Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, presentation
 Programming languages
 Assignment 2
Week #9:
 Introduction to data communication
 Data communication elements
 Types of network topologies
Week # 10:
 CAT 2
Week #11:
 Revision of CATs and Assignments

Course Evaluation (Assessment, grading, pass mark)

Coursework 30%,
End of Semester Examination 70%,
Total 100%

Mode of delivery (Description of instructional methods)

Lectures, Case studies, Case teaching and Group discussions.

Instructional materials and equipment (technical requirements: software, plugins)

Tablet, Smart board, LCD projector & Computers, videos, Case studies

Course Delivery (response time on opening topics, response time on answering questions)
Technology (information on support services)
General Forums:
1. News Forum
2. Social Forum
3. Question & Answer Forum
Course Chat (Regularly scheduled office hours to chat with learners)

Course texts
1. Stallings Hutchinson Sawyer: Computers –The user perspective (1988), Times mirror
2. Wang, W and Parker R C.(2002) office 2000 for windows, New York, Microsoft
3. Relevant internet materials
Other references
Other resources:
http://www.daileyint.com/hmdpc/manual.htm
http://www.internet4classrooms.com/support.htm
1. http://www.pcguide.com/ts/index.htm

COURSE OVERVIEW

Lesson 1: Introduction to Computers

Duration: 2 Hours

1.1 Introduction
Today, virtually everything is managed or controlled by computers. For better or worse, computers have infiltrated
every aspect of our society. Today computers do much more than simply compute: supermarket scanners
calculate our grocery bill while keeping store inventory; computerized telephone switching centers play traffic cop
to millions of calls and keep lines of communication untangled; and automatic teller machines let us conduct
banking transactions from virtually anywhere in the world..
1.2 Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define the concept of computer system

2. Explain the evolution of computing technology and the technical advancement in computer architecture
3. Describe the current trends in computer applications
4. Explain the different types of computer categories based on size, capabilities & prizes

Learning Outcome
The student is able to:
I can now define the concept of computer system
I can explain the evolution of computing technology and the technical advancement in computer architecture
I can explain the different types of computer categories based on size, capabilities & prizes
I can describe the current trends in computer applications

Learning Activities
Activity 1.1
Based on the resources you have read, participate in the discussion on what is computer in your own words?
Post your discussion in the topic discussion forum
Activity 1.2

In your surroundings, identify the types of computers in use. Are they mainframe computers, mini-computers,
workstations or personal computers?.
Activity 1.3

Write a brief description of the types of computers in place and their main uses. If your office or surrounding has
more than one type of computer, find out why? What different tasks are the different computers intended to do?.
Upload a summary of your findings in the assignment for grading.

Activity1.4
1. In your own words, explain what a computer (2 Marks) is.
2. State different generations of computers (5 Marks).
3. Describe different types of computers based on SIZE, TECHNOLOGY & PURPOSE (7 Marks).
4. Describe at least four different applications of computers in a learning institution (6 Marks).
Content
1. Introduction

Computer - Overview
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the user and
processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result (output),
and saves it for future use.
Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions
−
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment
it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program
and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.

1.3 History of Computers

First generation computers (1946-1956)

They made use of vacuum tubes to store and process information. The tubes consumed a lot
of power and generated a lot of heat (overheating). They were huge in size and occupy a room.
They used magnetic tape. Storage capacity was very low i.e. 2kb and speed of processing was
also very low. First machine in this category was ENIAC (electronic discrete variable
automatic computer) and later came UNIVAC (universal automatic computers).

ii. Second generation computers (1957-1967)

These computers used transistors after invention of transistors. The transistor is smaller
cheaper and produced less heat than vacuum tubes and consumed less power. The cost of
computers decreased and the speed increased. The second generation saw the introduction of
more complex ALU and CPU, the use of high level languages and provision of system
software with the computer. Data access time was measured in micro-seconds. Removable
disk storage units were developed for use on these machines.
iii. Third generation computers (1965-1980)
This introduced the use of very small electronic circuit called integrated circuits (IC) by
combining several transistors together between 3 transistors to make 1 IC. With IC you can
house thousands of transistors in one IC. This change further decreased the size, heat output
and the maintenance complexity of the computers while increasing its speed. The small
circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past.
iv. Fourth generation computers (1980s)

Use large scale integration circuits which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which
are between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC. Memory used includes magnetic disc and optical disc.
Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster. This generation marked
the origin of mini computers in use today.

v. Fifth generation computers (1990-current)

The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration) technology, the
microchip technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as the micro computers in
use today. These computers are used in networking.
Examples of microcomputers are IBM PCs BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually
described as PCs or stand alone or desktop computers because they were designed primarily to
serve single person at a time. The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on
predictions and further technological refinements.

Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;
 Continual decrease in computer size
  Improved speed and power processing
 Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
 Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over 500,000
physical elements e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).

1.2.3 Classification of Computers

i. By Size
a) Micro-Computers
 Micro –Computers are the smallest class of Computers
 Micro- Computers have one micro-processor in its Central Processing Unit
 Micro-Processor refers to Central Data Processing Unit of a Micro-Computers
 Micro- Computers can serve one user at ago.
 Micro- Computers are commonly used in modern Offices.

b) Mini- Computers
o Mini- Computers are Medium Sized Computers
o Mini- Computers can serve Two or more users at ago
o Mini- Computers have Two Micro-Processors in its Central Processing Unit
o Mini- Computers can support Telecommunication hence facilitate Sharing of Information
o Through computers which are Networked together.
o Mini- Computers are commonly in Banks and Super- Markets.

c) Main-frame Computers
 Main-frame Computers used in large organization
 Main-frame Computers can serve several users at ago
 Main-frame Computers Several Micro-Processors in its Central Processing Unit
 Main – frame Computers can support Telecommunication hence facilitate Sharing of
 Information through computers which are networked together.
 Main – frame Computers are commonly used in Large Organization such as International
Monetary Fund and World Bank, Insurance Companies etc.

d) Super-Computers
 Super-Computers Computers used in Large organization
 Super-Computers can serve several users at ago
 Super-Computers Uncountable Micro-Processors in its Central Processing Unit
 Super-Computers can support Telecommunication hence facilitate Sharing of Information
through computers which are Networked together.
 Super-Computers are commonly used in Large Organization such as International
 Monetary Fund and World Bank, Insurance Companies etc.

ii. By purpose
a) Specific Purpose Computers
Specific Purpose Computers is a Computer Classification that performs a Specific Task at ago or
Time for example Computers designed to calculate wages and Salaries, Control Stocks of goods
etc
b) General Purpose Computers
General Purpose Computers is a Computer Classification that performs a General task at ago or at
a time example Computer that can perform arithmetic and Logical Operations at the same Time
iii. By Technology

a) Analog Computers
Analog Computer use continuous data. The common available Analog Computers are:
1. Car Speedometer - Measures Speed of the Approaching Bodies e.g. Cars
2. Hygrometer - Measures Humidity
3. Wind Anemometer - Measures Speed of the Wind.
4. Thermometer - Measures the Temperatures of a place.
5. Barometer - Measures Atmospheric pressure of a place
6. Voltmeter - Measures Voltage of the Electronic device

b) Digital Computers
Digital Computers a Computer Classification works on discrete/non-continuous data. The Digital
Computers have the capability of adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing and rearranges the
data in predefined order they are commonly applied in Scientific and Engineering World.

c) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid Computer is a Computer Classification by type that performs Arithmetic and
Logical operations and at the same time measures data in waveform.

1.2.4 Application of Computers

i. Schools
 Keep Record of School Fees
 Keep Record of Number of Students in the School
 Keep Record of Number of Parents
 Keep Record of Number of Staff in the School
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Schools.

ii. Government Institution

 Keep Record of Government Stocks of pre-numbered documents e.g. Cheques,

 Receipt books
 Keep Record of Government Bills and Statements
 Keep Record Registers for easy retrieval and future reference.
 Keep Records of Government Budgets, which act as a base of planning
 Calculation of Civil Servants Salaries

iii. Telecommunication.
 Computers can be networked to facilitate between Government departments
 Keep Record of Civil Servant, Terms of Service and Terminal Benefits
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Government Institutions.
iv. Police Station
 Keep Record of Criminal Finger Prints in the Society
 Keep Record of Police Force Staff
 Calculation of Staff Salaries
 Telecommunication - Computers can be Networked to facilitate between Police
Force departments
 Keep Record of Police Abstracts
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Police Staff.

v. Weather Station

 Keep Record of Weather and Climatic conditions in the World

 Calculation of Staff Salaries
 Keep record of Meteorological Station Staff
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Weather Station Staff.

vi. Post Office

 Keep Record of Post Office Staff

 Calculation of Post Office Staff Salaries
 Keep Record of Rental Boxes Customers Names and Dates expired.
 Keep Record of Post bank Account holders, the amount and balances.
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Post Office Staff.

vii. Banks

 Keep Record of Bank Staff

 Calculation of Bank Staff Salaries
 Keep Record of Account holders.
 Keep Record of Post bank Account holders, the amount and balances

Telecommunication - Computers can be networked to facilitate between communication between

the Bank’s Head Office and its Branches.
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Banking Industry

viii. Insurance Company

 Keep Record of Insurance Staff

 Calculation of Insurance Company Staff Salaries
 Keep Record of Policy document and Premiums paid by Clients. To the Insurance Co
 Keep Record of Bonuses paid to the Client by the Insurance Co
 Telecommunication - Computers can be Networked to facilitate between communication
between the Insurance’s Head Office and its Branches country wide
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Insurance Firms
ix. University and Colleges

 Keep Record of University Fees

 Keep Record of Number of Students in the University
 Keep Record of Number of Parents/Guardians
 Keep Record of Admission Numbers of University Students
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the University.

x. Industry and commerce

 Maintain Orders and Bills

 Control Stocks
 Manage large Volumes of Financial Transactions, Information and Data
 Ensure the Customers and Supplies demand are fulfilled.

xi. Hospital

 Keep Record of Medical Staff

 Keep Record of Number of Patients and their Diseases
 Keep Record of Stocks of Drugs, the Amount of Cash in the Bank and the Pre –
 Numbered documents.
 Calculation of Wages and Salaries of Medial Staff
 Keep Record of Rules and Regulations that govern the Hospital Staff.

Further reading
2 White R., How Computers Work (Millennium edition).
3 Capron H.L., Computers: Tools for information age (5th Edition).
Lesson 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE
Duration: 2 Hours

2.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we discussed about the evolution of computer. In this lesson we will
provide you with an overview of the basic design of a computer. You will know how different
parts of a computer are organized and how various operations are performed between different
parts to do a specific task. As you know from the previous lesson the internal architecture of
computer may differ from system to system, but the basic organization remains the same for
all computer systems.
2.2 Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. List different components of a computer

2. Explain how information flows in a computer
3. Explain the different hardware units of a computer system

Learning Outcome
The student is able to:

I can now list different components of a computer

I can explain how information flows in a computer
I can explain the different hardware units of a computer system

Learning Activities
Activity 1.1

In the computer lab, look at the manuals that come with the computers. Review the manuals to
find out what type of microprocessor is in the computer. Look also at the computer screen when
the computer is turned on to see if information about the computer is shown there.
Activity 1.2

In the computer lab/your surroundings, identify the various Input and Output devices in use.
Activity 1.3

Identify the processing speed, size of RAM and the capacity of a hard disk of any of the
computers you have used.
Activity1.4
1 1. Identify any two input and output devices (2 Marks).
2. Identify the components of a computer system (5 Marks)
3. Describe the functions of the Central Processing Unit (3 Marks)
4. Describe the different types of memory giving advantages and disadvantages of each (10
Marks).

2.2.1 Basic Computer Operations

A computer as shown in Fig. 2.1 performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective
of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data,
3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it
controls all operations inside a computer. We know that a computer is used to (i) Collect (ii)
Organize (iii) Sort and, (iv) transform raw facts into meaningful information form, which logic
conclusions can be drawn.

We discuss below each of these operations.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw
data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data
from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

Figure 2.1: Basic computer Operations

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.
Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the
processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be
provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit
for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer
system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and
instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
  Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is
called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of
data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is
also stored inside the computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit.
It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
No Operation Description
1 Take input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system.
2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
processing as and when required.
3 Processing Data Performing arithmetic, logical operations on data in order to
convert them into useful information.
4 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the
Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.
5 Control the Direct the manner and sequence in which all of the above
workflow operations are performed.
Table 2.1: Five basic operations for converting raw input data into information

Figure 2.2 Components of Computer system

2.2.3 Computer Organization

2.2.3.1 Input Hardware
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes
link between user and computer. The input devices translate the human being information into the
form understandable by computer. An input unit of a computer System performs the following
functions:
i. It accepts (or reads) instruction and data from outside world
ii. It converts thee instruction and data in computer acceptable form
iii. It supplies the converted instruction and data to the computer system for further processing
Following are few of the important input devices, which are used in Computer Systems:
a) Keyboard
b) Mouse
c) Joystick
d) Light pen
e) Track Ball
f) Scanner
g) Graphic Tablet
h) Microphone
i) Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
j) Optical Character Reader (OCR)
k) Bar Code Reader
l) Optical Mark Reader

Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions. Keyboards are of two
sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for
Windows and Internet.
The keys are following
No. Keys Description
1 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement.
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in
the same configuration used by most adding machine and
calculators.
2 Function Keys The twelve functions keys are present on the keyboard.
These are arranged in a row along the top of the keyboard.
Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.
3 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes
four directional arrow key. Control keys also include Home,
End,Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt),Escape(Esc).
4 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digits keys (0-
9) which generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and
Print Screen.
Table 2.2: Description of keys on a keyboard

Figure 2.3: Computer Keyboard

Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small palm
size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.
Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid.
Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text
into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Table 2.4: Mouse

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystick is similar to
that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer
games. Commonly used for video games, flight simulators, training simulators, and for controlling
industrial robots
Figure 2.5: Joystick

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device, which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube.
When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element, detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Figure 2.6: Light Pen

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball, which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Figure 2.7: Track ball

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can
be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Figure 2.8: Scanner
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device, which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and images
manipulation applications.

Figure 2.9: Digitizer

 Microphone
 Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Figure 2.10: Microphone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of the large number of cheques to be
processed daily. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a
special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantage
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Figure 2.11: Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

Figure 2.12: MICR Character Set

Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character,
converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Figure 2.13: Optical Character Reader (OCR)

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and darklines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a hand-
held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Figure 2.14: Bar Code Reader

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for
checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Figure 2.15: Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

In summary: the various input devices can be classified as: keying devices, pointing devices,
stylus, voice-recognition devices, and scanning devices
2.2.3.2 Processing Hardware
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer. It does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It controls the operations
of all parts of computer
CPU itself has the following three components
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate result and
instructions (program). It controls the operations of all parts of computer.
2.2.3.3 Interconnecting the Units of a Computer
CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the computer as well as to
the peripherals and devices attached to it. Bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that allows
information and signals to travel between components inside or outside of a computer. The
different components of computer, i.e., CPU, I/O unit, and memory unit are connected with each
other by a bus. The data, instructions and the signals are carried between the different components
via a bus. The features and functionality of a bus are as follows—
 A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit of
data.
 A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.
 A computer bus can be divided into two types—Internal Bus and External Bus.
 The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard like, CPU and system
memory. It is also called the System Bus. Figure 2.10 shows interaction between processor
and memory.

Figure 2.16: Interaction between processor and memory.

The External Bus connects the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots, I/O ports and drive
connections to the rest of computer. The external bus allows various devices to be attached to the computer.
It allows for the expansion of computer’s capabilities. It is generally slower than the system bus. It is also
referred to as the Expansion Bus.
A system bus or expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses - data bus, address bus and control bus.
 The interaction of CPU with memory and I/O devices involves all the three buses.
  The command to access the memory or the I/O device is carried by the control bus.
 The address of I/O device or memory is carried by the address bus.
 The data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.
2.2.3.4 Output hardware
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This
unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the
form understandable by users. An output unit of a computer System performs the following
functions:
• It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and hence, cannot be
easily understood by human beings
• It converts theses coded results to human acceptable (readable) form
• It supplies the converted results to outside world
There are two forms of output:
a) Hardcopy – tangible or touchable output usually in printed form
b) Softcopy output- intangible usually presented as visual or audio form
Following are few of the important output devices, which are used in Computer Systems:
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a computer.
It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness
of the image depends upon the number of the pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors:
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display
a) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
In the CRT, display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter 'e' in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a seriesof character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT:
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Figure 2.17: Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compared to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:
Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)

Figure 2.18: Flat-Panel Display Monitor

Printer
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
Impact Printers
Non-Impact Printers
a) Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are called
impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
Very low consumable costs
Impact printers are very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types:

Character printers
Line printers

i. Character Printers
Character Printers are printers, which print one character at a time.
These are of further two types:
Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's and
head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a character
that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
Inexpensive
Widely Used
Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
Slow Speed
Poor Quality

Figure 2.19: Dot-Matrix Pri


Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality
representation.

Advantages
More reliable than DMP's
 Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed.

Disadvantages
Slower than DMP's
Noisy
More expensive than DMP's

Figure 2.20: Daisy Wheel

ii. Line Printers

Line printers are printers, which print one line at a time.

Figure 2.21: Line Printer

These are of further two types:

Drum Printer
Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper, i.e., for a paper width of 132 characters,
Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets
available in market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum Printers are fast in speed and prints between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
Very high speed

Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed
 Chain Printer
In this printer, chains of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, 96 characters.

Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
Noisy
Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

b) Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are
called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page
Printers.

These printers are of two types:

Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers:

Faster than impact printers.
They are not noisy.
High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.

i. Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
Very high speed.
Very high quality output.
Gives good graphics quality.
Supports many fonts and different character sizes.

Disadvantage
Expensive.
Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
Figure 2.22: Laser Jet Printer

ii. Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages
High quality printing
More reliable

Disadvantages
Expensive as cost per page is high
Slow as compared to laser printer

Figure 2.23: Ink Jet Printer

2.2.3.5 Storage hardware
Computer memory is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space
in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location or cell
has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if computer
has 64k words, and then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
The storage Unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the following:
i. Data and instruction required for processing (received from input devices)
ii. Intermediate result of processing
iii. Final result of processing, before they are released to an output device

Types of Memory
Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory

a) Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory, which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantage
Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantage
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.

b) Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data gets lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instructions
required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM
and ROM.

Characteristic of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.
It is known as main memory.
Usually volatile memory.
Data is lost in case power is switched off.
It is working memory of the computer.
Faster than secondary memories.
Relatively expensive
A computer cannot run without primary memory (Used to hold running program instructions,
used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing processing
Job)
Computer RAM
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result.
It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can
reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. RAM is
volatile, i.e., data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure.
Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small,
both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types:

Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

i. Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount
of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.
Characteristics of the Static RAM:
It has long data lifetime
There is no need to refresh
 Faster
Used as cache memory
Large size
Expensive
High power consumption

ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM:

It has short data lifetime
Need to refresh continuously
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Lesser in size
Less expensive
Less power consumption
Computer - ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start computer when
electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used
in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Types of ROM
i. MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
ii. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses, which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and
is not erasable.
iii. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
iv. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible
but slow.

Advantages of ROM
Non-volatile in nature
These cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More Reliable than RAMs
These are static and do not require refreshing

c) Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. There are several limitations
with primary storage:
- Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage is high
- Volatile- data stored is lost is lost when electric power is turned off or interrupted

CPU directly does not access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and then CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories.
It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of the data in the computer.
Cheaper than primary storage
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories..
2.3 Summary
I/O Unit, CPU and Memory Unit are the main components of the computer. Cache memory,
primary memory and secondary memory constitute the memory unit.
Primary memory consists of RAM and ROM. The different components of computer are connected
with each other by a bus. A computer bus is of two types—system bus and expansion bus. A
system bus or expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses—data bus, address bus and control
bus. Inside a computer cabinet, there is a motherboard, ports and interfaces, expansion slots, ribbon
cables, RAM memory chips, high storage disk drives, and, processor
Further reading
Parsons, June Jamrich and Dan Oja. Computer Concepts. Cambridge, MA: Course Technology,
1999.
Omieno, K. & Matoke, N. 2014. Fundamentals of Computing: A Simplified Approach. Scholar’s
Press, UK.
TOPIC 3: DATA REPRESENTATION AND NUMBER SYSTEMS
Duration: 4 Hours

3.1 Introduction
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers
can understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where
there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using:
a) The digit
b) The position of the digit in the number
c) The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).
.
3.2 Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the number systems

2. Describe various data representation schemes
3. Perform data conversion using different number systems
Learning Outcome
The student is able to:
I can explain the number systems
I can describe various data representation schemes
I can perform data conversion using different number systems

Learning Activities
Activity 1.1

Binary Number: 110012. Calculating Decimal Equivalent. And

Post your working in the discussion forum
Activity 1.2

Octal Number: 5708 Calculating Decimal Equivalent.

Activity 1.3

Hexadecimal Number: 1FDE16 Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Activity1.4
1. What is the significance of the base of the number? (2mks)
2. Explain the significance of the face value and position value of a number. Give an example.
(2mks)
3. What is the position value of a digit? (2mks)
4. The decimal number system is in base _____. (1 mk)
5. The binary number system is in base _____. (1 mk)
6. The octal number system is in base _____. (1mk)
7. The hexadecimal number system is in base _____ (1 mk)

Content
3.3 Coding Schemes
3.2.1 Basic Concepts
To understand how a bit pattern can convey information, consider someone who wants to give a
signal (or send a code) to another person, but has only a single light bulb at his disposal. How
many different messages (codes) can he send? Two, one for light ON and the other for light OFF.
What if he had two bulbs? At first thought one might say he can now send three signals
corresponding to:
1. both OFF;
2. both ON;
3. One ON.
This would be fine if he only wanted to send three signals. But what if he wanted to send four
signals? Would he need another bulb? The answer is no, he can send four signals with two light
bulbs, but the sender and receiver (of the signals) would have to come to an agreement concerning
case (3), above; that is, when one light is ON, it must be distinguished from the case where the
other light is ON. For instance, if the bulbs are A and B, then ‘A ON’ and ‘B OFF’ is a different
code to ‘A OFF’ and ‘B ON’.
3.2.2 Bits, Bytes and Nibbles
4 bits = 1 nibble
8 bits = 1 byte
2 bytes = 1 word
2 words = 1 long word
1 kilobyte = 210 bytes = 1024 bytes
1 megabyte = 220 bytes = 1024 kb
1 gigabyte = 230 bytes = 1024 MB
1 terabyte = 240 bytes = 1024 GB

3.2.3 Binary Coding Schemes

The two main coding schemes use by computers to represent data are ASCII and EBCDIC:
a) ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Uses 7 bits to represent a character
Created by the USA government for use in micro and mini computers
The ASCII code provides a mechanism for encoding alphabetic characters, numeric digits, and
punctuation marks for use in representing text and numbers written using the Roman alphabet. As
originally designed, it was a seven bit code. The seven bits allow the representation of 128 unique
characters. All of the alphabet, numeric digits and Standard English punctuation marks are
encoded. The ASCII standard was later extended to an eight bit code (which allows 256 unique
code patterns) and various additional symbols were added, including characters with diacritical
marks (such as accents) used in European languages, which don’t appear in English. There are also
numerous non-standard extensions to ASCII giving different encoding for the upper 128 character
codes than the standard. For example, the character set encoded into the display card for the
original IBM PC had a non-standard encoding for the upper character set. This is a non-standard
extension that is in very wide spread use, and could be considered a standard in itself. Some
important things to note about ASCII code:
i. The numeric digits, 0-9, are encoded in sequence starting at 30h
ii. The upper case alphabetic characters are sequential beginning at 41h
iii. The lower case alphabetic characters are sequential beginning at 61h
iv. The first 32 characters (codes 0-1Fh) and 7Fh are control characters. They do not have a
standard symbol (glyph) associated with them. They are used for carriage control, and protocol
purposes.
They include 0Dh (CR or carriage return), 0Ah (LF or line feed), 0Ch (FF or form feed), 08h (BS
or backspace). v. Most keyboards generate the control characters by holding down a control key
(CTRL) and simultaneously pressing an alphabetic character key. The control code will have the
same value as the lower five bits of the alphabetic key pressed. So, for example, the control
character 0Dh is carriage return. It can be generated by pressing CTRL-M. To get the full 32
control characters a few at the upper end of the range are generated by pressing CTRL and a
punctuation key in combination. For example, the ESC(escape) character is generated by pressing
CTRL-[ (left square bracket)

Figure 3.1: ASCII Character Set

b) EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
Uses 8 bits to represent a character
Created by International Business Machines (IBM) for use in super and mainframe computers.

The coding schemes use by the computer determines the character set of the computer and the
ability of the computer to display graphics and other information. The table above illustrates the
character set depending on the amount of bits in the coding scheme. The ASCII coding scheme
can represent 27 or 128 different characters. This includes all the letters of the alphabet, lower and
upper case, the digit, special symbols and other graphics and control characters.
Other Schemes that can be discussed include: UNICODE
UNICODE:- provides a systematic way of coding multilingual plain text; Defines codes for
special characters, mathematical symbols, technical symbols, and diacritics; uses 16-bits to
represent characters in the system; has capacity to encode/ represent as many millions of characters
as possible

3.2.4 Number Systems

There are two types of number system: Non-Positional number system and Positional number
system
a) Non-Positional Number system
Uses symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc.
Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number
The symbols are simply added to find out the value of particular number

Problem
It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system.
b) Positional Number system
a) Uses only few symbols called digits
b) These symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number
c) The value of each digit is determined by:

The digit itself

The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system
(Base -> total number of digits in the number system.)

d) The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base A
number system defines a set of values used to represent quantity. Computer uses the binary
system. There many number systems used but of concern to computer professionals are
Decimal number system
Binary number system
Octal number system
Hexadecimal number system

All the above number systems use the same kind of positional notation except that
Decimal system uses powers of 10
Octal system uses powers of 8
Binary system uses powers of 2
Hexadecimal uses powers of 16

3.2.5 Binary Numbers and Algebra

Digital computers use Binary Place Notion to store and represent values. The binary digit 0 and 1
only, are used in binary strings. A binary string is a sequence of two or more bits. Similar to the
decimal system makes use of the position of each bit to determine the value represented by the
binary number.
Addition of binary number
0+0=0
1+0=1
0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 carry 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1

Characteristics of Binary System

i. Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
ii. Also called base 2 number system.
iii. Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example, 20.
iv. Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example, 2x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1
101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2
101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3
101012 2110
Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Converting a –ve decimal number to binary using sign & magnitude method
1. Convert the decimal number to its binary value, ignoring the negative sign.
2. Extend the bits to the appropriate length (i.e. one less than the size of the bit-string), by
attaching 0s to the leftmost part of the bit string.
3. Attach a 1 to the leftmost part of the bit string. The 1 is the sign bit it indicates that the number
is negative. Alternatively, a 0 indicates that the number is positive.
Convert a sign & magnitude number to its decimal equivalent
1. Convert the binary number to its decimal value ignoring the leftmost it in your calculations.
2. If the leftmost bit is a 1 then the number is negative otherwise it is positive.
Ones Complement
To convert a binary number to its ones complement representation you change all the ones (1) to
zeroes (0) and the zeroes (0) to one (1)
Twos Complement
The twos complement of a binary number is formed by finding its ones complement and adding a
one.
Converting a Negative decimal number to binary using the Twos Complement
1. Convert the number to its binary value ignoring the sign
2. Extend the bit string to the appropriate length (i.e. one less than the size of the
bit-string), by attaching 0s to the leftmost part of the bit string
3. Find the ones complement
4. Find the twos complement
5. Attach a 1 to the leftmost part of the bit string. The 1 is the sign it indicates that the number is
negative
Converting a Positive decimal number to binary using the Twos Complement
To convert a positive binary number to its twos complement representation, we execute the
following steps:
1. Extend the bit string to the appropriate length (i.e. one less than the size of the
bit-string), by attaching 0s to the leftmost part of the bit string.
2. Attach a 0 to the leftmost part of the bit string, the 0 indicates that the binary number is positive

Converting a binary Twos Complement number to its decimal equivalent

Convert the binary number to its decimal equivalent, making the leftmost bit (the sign bit) binary
place value negative.
3.2.5.1 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
An alternative representation of integers is simply to represent the individual numerals which
comprise them. This approach is consistent with the way in which we represent numbers ourselves.
When we write the number 879, we are choosing to represent this number as three numerals: 8
(representing 800), 7 (representing 70), and 9 (representing 9). So, we could convert this number
to a binary form by converting each of the integers, one at a time, into binary a binary code. Such
a scheme is referred to as binary coded decimal form, or BCD. The BCD codes commonly used to
represent numerals are:

Numeral BCD Representation

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
Using this scheme, we can represent any number by a string of binary digits.
3.2.5.2 Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands
and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as

(1x1000)+ (2x100) + (3x10)+ (4xl)

(1x103)+ (2x102) + (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number

systems, which are frequently used in computers.
S.N. Number System & Description
1 Binary Number System
Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1
2 Octal Number System
Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7
4 Hexa Decimal Number System
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F
3.2.6 Octal Number System

Characteristics
Uses eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
Also called base 8 number system
Each position in a octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example, 80.
Last position in a octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example, 8x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1
125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
Step 2
125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
Step 3
125708 549610
Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570

3.2.7 Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Letters represent numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =15.
Also called base 16 number system
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example,
160.
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example, 16x
where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10
Step 2
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10
Step 3
19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4
19FDE16 10646210
Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

3.3 Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques, which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following:
Decimal to Other Base System
Other Base System to Decimal
Other Base System to Non-Decimal
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

3.3.1 Decimal to Other Base System

Steps
i. Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
ii. Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new
base number.
iii. Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
iv. Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base
number.
Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7 / 2 3 1
Step 4 3 / 2 1 1
Step 5 1 / 2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the
first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most
significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

3.3.2 Other base system to Decimal System

Steps
i. Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).
ii. Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.
iii. Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1 111012
((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

3.3.3 Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps
i. Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
ii. Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step 1: Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10
Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5 / 2 2 1
Step 4 2 / 2 1 0
Step 5 1 / 2 0 1
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

3.3.4 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps
i. Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
ii. Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

3.3.5 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps
i. Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
ii. Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

3.1.3.6 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps
i. Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
ii. Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

3.3.7 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Steps
i. Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
ii. Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

Summary
In this topic, you have learnt the following:
1. Data representation and computer language
2. Number systems including binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal
3. Data conversion and related concepts

Further reading
1. Essinger, James (2004). Jacquard's Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information
age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280577-0.
2. Hyman, Anthony (1985). Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-6910237-7-9.
3. Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-2625317-9-5.
4. Bowden, B. V. (1953). Faster than thought. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing
corporation.
 TOPIC 4: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Duration: 4 Hours

4.1Introduction
Computer Instructions or data, anything that can be stored electronically is Software.
Hardware is one that is tangible. The storage devices (Hard disk, CD’s etc.,), mouse,keyboard
CPU and display devices (Monitor) are Hardware. For example: There is a problem in the
Software implies – Problem with program or data. Computer software is a series of instructions
or a special program that performs a particular task and is recorded in some form on a computer
disk. Simply, the software is an abstract collection of instructions for computers to perform
specific tasks. It is called differently a program or software program. Computer software has
two major categories. It is typically classified into system software and application software.
4.2Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain computer software and the classification of computer software

2. Explain system software and various categories
3. Explain application software and various categories
Learning Outcome
The student is able to:

I can explain computer software and the classification of computer software

I can Explain system software and various categories
I can Explain application software and various categories
Learning Activities
Activity 1.1
Distinguish between systems software and applications software.
Post your discussion in the topic discussion forum
Activity 1.2
Briefly explain the various ways in which computer software can be classified.
Activity 1.3

Examine two types of software used by your institution. What system software is running in your
computer? Identify application software installed in your system/computer
Activity1.4
Operating systems are crucial to the performance of the entire computer system. State and explain
three ways in which operating systems can be classified
How are stand-alone operating systems different from embedded operating systems?
Discuss the functions of any five system utilities
Describe various ways in which users of computer systems can be able to interact with the
hardware using operating systems

Content

4.2.1 Fundamentals of Software

Software consists of computer programs, which are sequences of instructions for the computer.
The process of writing (or coding) programs is called programming, and individuals who perform
this task are called programmers. Unlike the hardwired computers of the 1950s, modern software
uses the stored program concept, in which stored software programs are accessed and their
instructions are executed (followed) in the computer’s CPU. Once the program has finished
executing, a new program is loaded into main memory and the computer hardware addresses
another task.

Computer programs include documentation, which is a written description of the functions of the
program. Documentation helps the user operate the computer system and helps other programmers
understand what the program does and how it accomplishes its purpose. Documentation is vital to
the business organization. Without it, if a key programmer or user leaves, the knowledge of how
to use the program or how it is designed may be lost. The computer is able to do nothing until it is
instructed by software. Although computer hardware is, by design, general purpose, software
enables the user to instruct a computer system to perform specific functions that provide business
value.

There are two major types/ categories of software:

a) Systems software
b) Application software.
The relationship among hardware, systems software, and application software is illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
Systems software is a set of instructions that serves primarily as an intermediary between computer
hardware and application programs, and may also be directly manipulated by knowledgeable users.
Systems software provides important self-regulatory functions for computer systems, such as
loading itself when the computer is first turned on, managing hardware resources such as
secondary storage for all applications, and providing commonly used sets of instructions for all
applications to use. Systems programming is either the creation or maintenance of systems
software.

Figure 4.1: Layering of Systems and Applications software

Application software is a set of computer instructions that provide more specific functionality to a
user. That functionality may be broad, such as general word processing, or narrow, such as an
organization’s payroll program. An application program applies a computer to a certain need.
Application programming is either the creation or the modification and improvement of
application software. There are many different software applications in organizations today, as this
chapter will discuss. For a marketing application, for example, see the Market Intelligence box at
the Web site.
In summary, application programs primarily manipulate data or text to produce or provide
information. Systems programs primarily manipulate computer hardware resources. The systems
software available on a computer system provides the capabilities and limitations within which the
application software can operate. The next two sections of this chapter look in more detail at these
two types of software.

4.2.1.1: Systems Software

System software is a program that manages and supports the computer resources and operations
of a computer system while it executes various tasks such as processing data and information,
controlling hardware components, and allowing users to use application software. That is, systems
software functions as a bridge between computer system hardware and the application software.
Systems software is the class of programs that control and support the computer system and its
information-processing activities. Systems software also facilitates the programming, testing, and
debugging of computer programs. It is more general than application software and is usually
independent of any specific type of application. Systems software programs support application
software by directing the basic functions of the computer. For example, when the computer is
turned on, the initialization program (a systems program) prepares and readies all devices for
processing.
Systems software consists of three kinds of programs. They include system management programs,
system support programs, and system development programs. These are explained briefly.
System control / management programs
System control programs control the use of the hardware, software, and data resources of a
computer system. The main system control program is the operating system. The operating system
supervises the overall operation of the computer, including monitoring the computer’s status and
scheduling operations, which include the input and output processes. In addition, the operating
system allocates CPU time and main memory to programs running on the computer, and it also
provides an interface between the user and the hardware.
Specifically, the operating system provides services that include process management, virtual
memory, file management, security, fault tolerance, and the user interface. Process management
means managing the program or programs (also called jobs) running on the processor at a given
time. In the simplest case (a desktop operating system), the operating system loads a program into
main memory and executes it. The program utilizes the computer’s resources until it relinquishes
control. Some operating systems offer more sophisticated forms of process management, such as
multitasking, multithreading, and multiprocessing.

i. Operating Systems
An operating system is a collection of integrated computer programs that provide recurring
services to other programs or to the user of a computer. These services consist of disk and file
management, memory management, and device management. In other words, it manages CPU
operations, input/output activities, storage resources, diverse support services, and controls various
devices.
Operating system is the most important program for computer system. Without an operating
system, every computer program would have to contain instructions telling the hardware each step
the hardware should take to do its job, such as storing a file on a disk. Because the operating system
contains these instructions, any program can call on the operating system when a service is needed.
Operating System Functions
An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Among
them, four essential functions are the followings.
Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware
resources by using a variety of programs. It manages computer system resources, including its
CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices, input/output peripherals, and
other devices.
Viewing the operation system as a resource manager, each manager must do the following:
- Keep track of the resources.
- Enforce policy that determine who, gets what, when and how much.
- Allocate the resources.
- Reclaim the resources.
Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of many
tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system simultaneously. That
is, this function of operating system manages the completion of users' tasks. A task management
program in an operating system provides each task and interrupts the CPU operations to manage
tasks efficiently. Task management may involve a multitasking capability.

File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system contains file
management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change, ask, and access of
files of data. They also produce reports on a file.
User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a
computer. A user interface program may include a combination of menus, screen design, keyboard
commands. A well-designed user interface is essential for an operating system to be popular.
Because of the function, users can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks.
Data security and management: These involve these main activities: Preventing illegal access
or amendments to user or system files; ‘Dumping’ the contents of files from time in case of future
loss, e.g. disk files may be transferred to tape and then stored off-line; Keeping track of file
descriptions and locations.
Real time systems must therefore be fast and reliable. They have complex and expensive operating
system, usually involves multi-processor to share the work load.

Popular Operating Systems

The most popular microcomputer operating systems are DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, OS/2,
Windows NT, and Macintosh System. UNIX is a popular operating system that is available for
microcomputers, minicomputers, and mainframe computer systems. The following will show the
details:
DOS
Windows 3.x
Windows 95
OS/2
Windows NT
 Macintosh Operating System
UNIX
System Development Programs
These are programs that help users develop information system programs and prepare user
programs for computer processing. These programs may analyze and design systems and program
itself. The main system development programs are programming language translators,
programming environment programs, computer-aided software engineering packages.
Before programs can be executed they must be translated into machine language. A
programwritten in any language other than machine language is called source program which
isconverted into machine language (object program) by the system called translators.
There are three main types of translators
Assembler- which converts low level assembly program to machine code
Compiler and interpreter- they convert high level programs to machine code.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

Compiler:
They translate the whole source program at once before it can be run
It ensures that the program need only be translated once
The compiled program (object code) can be saved on a backing store as a separate program and
run as required.
Interpreter:
They translate the source program one instruction at a time
They translate the program each time its run which is therefore slower than compiling
They are helpful for line by line fault finding when developing a program

Translators also provide supporting functions as:

Identifying syntax error
Provide diagnostic and useful error messages
They work out where to store the object program and its data
Provide links to other programs and routines
They print a list of the source and object programs

4.2.1.2: Application Software

As defined earlier, application software consists of instructions that direct a computer system to
perform specific information processing activities and that provide functionality for users.Because
there are so many different uses for computers, there are a correspondingly large number of
different application software programs available.

Types of Application Software

Application software includes proprietary application software and off-the-shelf application
software. Proprietary application software addresses a specific or unique business need for a
company. This type of software may be developed in-house by the organization’s information
systems personnel or it may be commissioned from a software vendor. Such specific software
programs developed for a particular company by a vendor are called contract software.
Alternatively, off-the-shelf application software can be purchased, leased, or rented from a vendor
that develops programs and sells them to many organizations. Off-the-shelf software may be a
standard package or it may be customizable. Special purpose programs or “packages” can be
tailored for a specific purpose, such as inventory control or payroll. The word package is a
commonly used term for a computer program (or group of programs) that has been developed by
a vendor and is available for purchase in a prepackaged form. We will further discuss the
methodology involved in acquiring application software, whether proprietary or off the shelf
Types of Personal Application Software
General-purpose, off-the-shelf application programs that support general types of processing,
rather than being linked to any specific business function, are referred to as personal application
software. This type of software consists of nine widely used packages: spreadsheet, data
management, word processing, desktop publishing graphics, multimedia, communications,
speech-recognition software, and groupware.
Software suites combine some of these packages and integrate their functions. Personal application
software is designed to help individual users increase their productivity. Below is a description of
the nine main types.
a) Spreadsheets
Computer spreadsheet software transforms a computer screen into a ledger sheet, or grid, of coded
rows and columns. Users can enter numeric or textual data into each grid location, called a cell. In
addition, a formula can be entered into a cell to obtain a calculated answer displayed in that cell’s
location. With spreadsheets, users can also develop and use macros, which are sequences of
commands that can be executed with just one simple instruction.

Computer spreadsheet packages can be used for financial information, such as income statements
or cash flow analysis. They are also used for forecasting sales, analyzing insurance programs,
summarizing income tax data, and analyzing investments. They are relevant for many other types
of data that can be organized into rows and columns. Although spreadsheet packages such as
Microsoft’s Excel and Lotus 1–2-3are thought of primarily as spreadsheets, they also offer data
management and graphical capabilities.
b) Data management.
Data management software supports the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of related data.There
are two basic types of data management software: simple filing programs patterned after
traditional, manual data-filing techniques and database management programs that take advantage
of a computer’s extremely fast and accurate ability to store and retrieve data in primary and
secondary storage. File based management software is typically very simple to use and is often
very fast, but it offers limited flexibility in how the data can be searched. Database management
software has the opposite strengths and weaknesses. Microsoft’s Access is an example of popular
database management software.
c) Word processing.
Word processing software allows the user to manipulate text rather than just numbers. Modern
word processors contain many productive writing and editing features. A typical word processing
software package consists of an integrated set of programs including an editor program, a
formatting program, a print program, a dictionary, a thesaurus, a grammar checker, a mailing list
program, and integrated graphics, charting, and drawing programs. WYSIWYG (an acronym for
What You See Is What You Get, pronounced “wiz-e-wig”) word processors have the added
advantage of displaying the text material on the screen exactly—or almost exactly—as it will look
on the final printed page (based on the type of printer connected to the computer). Word processing
software enables users to be much more productive because the software makes it possible to create
and modify the document electronically in memory.
d) Desktop publishing.
Desktop publishing software represents a level of sophistication beyond regular word processing.
In the past, newsletters, announcements, advertising copy, and other specialized documents had to
be laid out by hand and then typeset. Desktop software allows microcomputers to perform these
tasks directly. Photographs, diagrams, and other images can be combined with text, including
several different fonts, to produce a finished, camera-ready document.
e) Graphics.
Graphics software allows the user to create, store, and display or print charts, graphs, maps, and
drawings. Graphics software enables users to absorb more information more quickly and to spot
relationships and trends in data more easily. There are three basic categories of graphics software
packages: presentation graphics, analysis graphics, and computer-aided design software.

f) Presentation
Presentation graphics software allows users to create graphically rich presentations. Many
packages have extensive libraries of clip art—pictures that can be electronically “clipped out” and
“pasted” into the finished image.
g) Computer-aided design (CAD) software
Are used for designing items for manufacturing, allows designers to design and “build” production
prototypes in software, test them as a computer object under given parameters (sometimes called
computer-aided engineering, or CAE), compile parts and quantity lists, outline production and
assembly procedures, and then transmit the final design directly to machines. Manufacturers of all
sorts are finding uses for CAD software. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software uses
digital design output, such as that from a CAD system, to directly control production machinery.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) software is embedded within each automated
production machine to produce a product. Overall, a design from CAD software is used by CAM
software to control individual CIM programs in individual machines. Used effectively,
CAD/CAM/CIM software can dramatically shorten development time and give firms the
advantage of economies of scope.

h) Multimedia
Multimedia software combines at least two media for input or output of data. These media include
audio (sound), voice, animation, video, text, graphics, and images. Multimedia can also be thought
of as the combination of spatial-based media (text and images) with time-based media (sound and
video).
i) Communications
Computers are often interconnected in order to share or relate information. To exchange
information, computers utilize communications software. This software allows computers,
whether they are located close together or far apart, to exchange data over dedicated or public
cables, telephone lines, satellite relay systems, or microwave circuits. When communications
software exists in both the sending and receiving computers, they are able to establish and
relinquish electronic links, code and decode data transmissions, verify transmission errors (and
correct them automatically), and check for and handle transmission interruptions or conflicting
transmission priorities. E-mail and desktop videoconferencing rely on communications software.
Summary
In this topic, you have been introduced to various types of computer software, including
classification, and expanded description of the two key types of software: systems software and
applications software. Systems software and applications software has been discussed with keen
interest on their functionally. The next chapter explores data communication and networking
concepts.

4.6 Further reading

1. Stokes, Jon (2007). Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and
Computer Architecture. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-104-6.
2. Zuse, Konrad (1993). The Computer - My life. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-56453-5.
Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine. Chicago:
Washington Institute.
3. Ifrah, Georges (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum
Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-39671-0.
TOPIC FIVE: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS
Duration: 4 Hours

5.1 Introduction
Information society dominated by computers and communications is in front of us. In this
society, the strategic resource is knowledge and information, and the value of that resource
will be increased by the movement through the information pathway. A communication
network is the pathway that allows information, data, and knowledge to be spread. Thus, the
mainstream of the information age is communication. Computer users who work in this society
need to know technology incorporated into the communication networks. Although they use
only applications involved in the communication networks, they still need to know how the
communication networks work to improve their performance by using networks more
efficiently and effectively. This Chapter thus is very fundamental.
5.2 Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain computer based communication
2. Describe various types of network topologies
3. Explain types of computer networks
4. Apply networking skills in problem solving
Learning Outcome
The student is able to:

I can explain computer based communication

I can describe various types of network topologies
I can explain types of computer networks
I can apply networking skills in problem solving

Learning Activities
Activity 1.1
Explain the importance of networking.
Post your discussion in the topic discussion forum
Activity 1.2
“Networking allows sharing of information and resources”. Explain.
Activity 1.3

Write a brief description of transmission media?

Activity1.4
Name two guided transmission media.
Name an unguided transmission media.
Optical wire is a guided media. True or False?
_____ and ______ are the two kinds of twisted pair.
Cat-5 cable is a _____ twisted pair. Content

Content
5.2.1 Basic Data communication concepts
Computer-based communication refers to the movement of data and information generated by
computers from one location to another via various types of communication lines. Computer based
communication systems often are called communication networks. The networks allow users to
collect data and information from and transmit these to powerful central computers or terminals.

Figure 5.1: Basic Element of Communication

The objectives of communication networks are:
To offer more timely interchange of information and data among users.
To reduce the effort and cost required to collect and transmit business data and information.
To support better performance of tasks and improved management control over an organization
especially with several remote locations.

Why Study Communications?

Information society dominated by computers and communications is in front of us. In this society,
the strategic resource is knowledge and information, and the value of that resource will be
increased by the movement through the information pathway. A communication network is the
pathway that allows information, data, and knowledge to be spread. Thus, the mainstream of the
information age is communication.
Communications involve many technologies. In addition, many new communication technologies
are being incorporated into the fabric of the information society as fast as people can learn how to
maintain and use the technologies. This may be the most important reason for users to study
communications.
Computer users who work in this society need to know technology incorporated into the
communication networks. Although they use only applications involved in the communication
networks, they still need to know how the communication networks work to improve their
performance by using networks more efficiently and effectively.

5.2.1.1 Generic Forms of Networks

A network can be defined simply as an interconnection of multiple teleprocessing devices. Three
basic approaches to network processing exist in modern communications systems.
i. Timesharing
The earliest approach is known as timesharing. Timesharing occurs in networks in which multiple
users gain access to a single host computer from their individual terminals. An example of
timesharing is the use of a central computer at a nationwide company's headquarters by a variety
of sales professionals dispersed around the nation.
ii. Distributed Processing
The next approach gaining popularity in computer networking systems was the distributed
processing method. This type of system involves the interconnection of minicomputers and
microcomputers throughout a business organization. Various types of resources are shared by the
interconnected terminals, while the individual computers retain control over their own processing.
iii. Client/Server Computing
The third approach to computer network processing, client/server computing, is currently
attracting the most interest among management information systems professionals. The popularity
of this approach is due to its ability to allow companies to selectively centralize and decentralize
certain key operations. Thus, users can view client/server computing as a cross between the
timesharing method (which emphasizes centralized computing) and distributed processing (which
emphasizes decentralized computing). In client/server computing, the various applications
available in the network are shared by several clients and one or more host computers (or servers).
Clients obtain access to the network by means of desktop computers. The server, which can be a
microcomputer, minicomputer, or mainframe, provides control for the entire network.

5.2.1.2 Importance of Networking

Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides access
to information. Networking of computers has several uses, described as follows:

i. Resource Sharing — in an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and scanners
are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small organizations it may
not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual. Such resources can be made available
to different users of the organization on the network. It results in availability of the resource to
different users regardless of the physical location of the resource or the user, enhances optimal use
of the resource, leads to easy maintenance, and saves cost too (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1: A network of computers, printer and scanner

ii. Sharing of Information— In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking

facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at same or
different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to the network.
iii. As a Communication Medium— Networking helps in sending and receiving of electronic-
mail (e-mail) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text, audio, video and
pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate online in a faster and cost
effective manner. Video conferencing is another form of communication made possible via
networking. People in distant locations can hold a meeting, and they can hear and see each other
simultaneously.

iv. For Back-up and Support— Networked computers can be used to take back-up of critical
data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another computer on the
network can take over in case of failure of one computer.

5.2.1.3 Components of Communication Network

There are many components for a communication network. The basic three components are a host
computer, a client, and a circuit. Besides these components, others include front-end processors,
teleprocessing software, input terminals, and specialists.

i. Host Computer (Server)

The host computer or server (a mainframe, minicomputer, or microcomputer) is the main unit in
the communication network. It stores data and programs that can be accessed by the clients. The
host computer is responsible for performing the data processing tasks of the network. After
processing has occurred, the data or information is routed back to a front-end processor. In
distributed processing or client-server computing, several host computers may be tied together by
the data communication network.
ii. Client
The client is a hardware device (a terminal or microcomputer) at the opposite end of a host
computer of a communication circuit. It usually provides end users with access to the data and
software on the server. The client is an input/output device.
The most widely used computer input/output devices for a communication network are the
terminals. There are several types of terminals in common use in business today. The most familiar
type of input/output terminal for most end users is the keyboard terminal.
iii. Circuit
The circuit is a communication channel that allows the data and information to move through the
pathway. It includes several types of lines, such as twisted wires, coaxial cables, and fiber optic
cables. It also contains wireless transmission circuits such as microwaves and satellites, and it is
becoming more popular.
iv. Front-End Processor
The front-end processor handles the incoming and outgoing communications exchanges between
the host computer and the peripheral terminals and other host computers both inside and outside
the network.
v. Teleprocessing Software
Besides the hardware mentioned previously in this chapter, the host and the front-end processor
must contain software in order for the network system to run effectively. Software may also be
located in the terminals and the cluster control units.
5.3 Communications Channels
Data communications can be carried from one location to another through a variety of
communications channels. These communications media include telephone lines (twisted pairs),
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, microwave, and satellite. In general, there can be two ways of
connecting microcomputers with each other and with other equipment: guided and radiated media.
Guided Media: Refer to channels that allow the transmission of data and information through
a physical media such as a twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable.
Radiated media: Refer to those that transmit data and information through the air such as
microwave, or satellite.
The diameters and transmission capacities of the three kinds of cable are compared below:
i. Twisted Pair
The telephone lines used to carry most of the voice and data communications consist of a pair of
thin-diameter insulated copper wires (called twisted pairs). The wires are twisted around each other
to minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable. Twisted pairs have fewer
bandwidths than coaxial cable or optical fiber. They have been the standard communication
channels for voice, data and information, but are now diminishing because of more reliable media
such as coaxial cable, optical fibers, microwave, or satellite.

ii. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for transmission at a high frequency. Coaxial cable
consists of a single core of solid copper. A coaxial cable can handle 80 times as many telephone
transmissions as twisted pair media. Many computers in local area networks are linked by coaxial
cables. Because of its sturdiness, coaxial cable is often used for telephone lines that must be carried
under bodies of water. Because coaxial cables have very little distortion and are less prone to
interference, they have low error rates

iii. Fiber-Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable consists of tubes of glass through which data are transmitted as pulses of light.
Although a fiber optic cable is diametrically smaller than a human hair, it has 26,000 times the
transmission capacity of twisted pair media. A major advantage of fiber-optic media is its high
level of security. These communications channels are not susceptible to electronic interference.
Therefore, they are a more reliable form of data transmission. Fiber-optic cables are also
significantly less expensive than coaxial cable. A disadvantage of fiber-optic channels is that they
cannot carry information over great distances.
5.3.1 Wireless Networking
Wireless technology, as the name suggests, is used to establish a wire-free connection or
communication between two or more devices. In contrast to the wired technology where data is
encoded as electric current and signals travel through wires, in wireless technology data is encoded
on electromagnetic waves that travel through air.
The wireless technology is used for broadcasting in radio and television communication, for
communication using mobile phones and pagers, for connecting components of computers using
Bluetooth technology, for Internet connection using Wi-Fi, Wireless LAN, PDA, and in remote
controls for television, doors etc.
Wireless network is a computer network connected wirelessly. The communication is done
through a wireless media like radio waves, infrared or Bluetooth.
The wireless networks have two main components—the wireless access points that include the
transmitter along with the area it can cover, and the wireless clients like mobile handsets, laptops
with Ethernet cards etc.
The access point receives data frames from the computers attached to it wirelessly, checks the
frames, and transmits them to their destination. The coverage area of a transmitter depends on the
output power of the transmitter, its location, and the frequency used to transmit the data.
Higher frequencies require a clear line of sight as compared to lower frequencies.
The speed of wireless connection is determined by the distance of the wireless client device from
the access point, the obstruction-free path (walls, trees etc.), interference, and the number of users
using the network at a given time.
5.3.1.1 Types of Wireless Networks
Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their use:
i. Bluetooth technology to connect the different components of the computer in a room, a small
office or home.
ii. Wireless LAN is used to connect computers and devices wirelessly in a LAN, for example,
different computers or devices in an office or campus.
iii. Wireless WAN is used to connect wide area systems, for example access to Internet via mobile
devices like cell phone, PDAs and laptops.
5.3.2 Data Transmission
Coding
In all digital communications channels, computers transmit data and information in forms of binary
codes. Both sender and receiver of the data and information should have a standard for both to
understand them.
A coding scheme for communications is a binary system, as in the computer systems. The system
consists of groups of bits (0 or 1) that represent characters. In computer systems, a byte is a group
of bits and represents a character. In data communications, a byte is the same, but some codes use
different number of bits such as 5, 7, 8 or 9.
There are two predominant coding schemes; ASCII and EBCDIC. ASCII refers America
Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is the most popular code for data communications
and is the standard code on most communications terminals. Among two types of ASCII, a 7-bit
code can make 128 character combinations, and an 8-bit can do 256 combinations. EBCDIC refers
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is IBM's standard information code, and
has 8 bits for a character.
5.4 Network Topology
Networks can be classified by their topology, which is the basic geometric arrangement of the
network. Different types of network configurations exist for network designers to choose from. It
may refer to the way in which the nodes of a network are linked together. Communications
channels can be connected in different arrangements using several different topologies. This
arrangement allows users to exchange information and share resources (software and hardware).
Four basic types of network configurations are star, bus, ring, hierarchical and mesh. Ring, bus,
and star topologies are commonly used in LANs and BNs. Star and mesh topologies are commonly
used in MANs and WANS. The networks are usually built using a combination of several different
topologies.
i. Star
ii. Bus
iii. Ring
iv. Hierarchical
v. Mesh
vi. Hybrid

i. Star Topology
A star topology is one in which a central unit provides a link through which a group of smaller
computers and devices is connected. In the star network, all interactions between different
computers in the network travel through the host computer. The central unit will poll each to decide
whether a unit has a message to send. If so, the central computer will carry the message to the
receiving computer.
Star networks represent a very popular form of configuration for timesharing systems in which a
central computer makes available resources and databases for several "client" computers to share.
As such, the star network is appropriate for systems that demand centralized control. The
disadvantage of the star network is that a processing problem in the central computer can be
paralyzing to the entire system. In a star network, the central unit may be a host computer or a file
server. The host computer is a large centralized computer, usually a minicomputer or a mainframe.
In contrast, the file server is a large-capacity hard-disk storage device. It stores data and programs
files shared by the users on the network.
ii. Bus Topology
In a bus configuration, each computer in the network is responsible for carrying out its own
communications without the aid of a central unit. A common communications cable (the bus)
connects all of the computers in the network. As data travels along the path of the cable, each unit
performs a query to determine if it is the intended recipient of the message. The bus network is
less expensive than the star configuration and is thus widely in use for systems that connect only
a few microcomputers and systems that do not emphasize the sharing of common resources.

iii. Ring Network

A ring configuration features a network in which each computer is connected to the next two other
computers in a closed loop. Like the bus network, no single central computer exists in the ring
configuration. Messages are simply transferred from one computer to the next until they arrive at
their intended destinations. Each computer on the ring topology has a particular address. As the
messages pass around the ring, the computers validate the address. If the message is not addressed
to it, the node transmits the message to the next computer on the ring. This type of network is
commonly used in systems that connect widely dispersed mainframe computers. A ring network
allows organizations to engage in distributed data processing system in which computers can share
certain resources with other units while maintaining control over their own processing functions.
However, a failure in any of the linked computers can greatly affect the entire network.
iv. Hierarchical Topology
A hierarchical network (or a tree network) resembles a star network in that several computers are
connected to a central host computer (usually a mainframe). However, these "client" computers
also serve as host computers to next level units. Thus, the hierarchical network can theoretically
be compared to a standard organizational chart or a large corporation. Typically, the host computer
at the top of the hierarchy is a mainframe computer. Lower levels in the hierarchy could consist of
minicomputers and microcomputers. It should be noted that a system can sometimes have
characteristics of more than one of the above topologies. This topology is effective in a centralized
corporation. For example, different divisions within a corporation may have individual
microcomputers connected to divisional minicomputers. The minicomputers in turn may be
connected to the corporation's mainframe, which contains data and programs.

v. Mesh Topology
This is a net-like communications network in which there are at least two pathways to each node.
In a mesh topology, computers are connected to each other by point-to point circuits. In the
topology, one or more computers usually become switching centers, interlinking computers with
others. Although a computer or cable is lost, if there are other possible routes through the network,
the damage of one or several cables or computers may not have vital impact except the involved
computers. However, if there are only few cables in the network, the loss of even one cable or
device may damage the network seriously.
5.3.1 Network Types
Communications networks differ in geographical size. Networks may be constructed within a
building or across several buildings. Networks may also be citywide and even international, using
both cable and air connections. There are three major network types: LAN (local area networks),
MAN (metropolitan area networks), and WAN (wide area networks).
i. Local Area Networks
ii. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)/
iii. Wide Area Networks (WANs).

i. Local Area Networks (LANs)

A computer communications network contained in a small area such as a commercial building is
known as a local area network (LAN). A local area network's linkages usually are accomplished
with either telephone, coaxial, or fiber-optic cables. Often, LANs use a bus configuration. The
major benefit of a local area network is that it can help to reduce costs by allowing people and
microcomputers to share expensive resources. Also, local area networks enable end users to
participate in office automation technology. In addition, LANs may be connected to other networks
by means of a network gateway.
Local Area Network (LAN) as compared to WAN
Limited to a small geographical coverage
Has much higher data transmission rate
Experiences fewer data transmission errors
Has lower data communication cost
Typically owned by a single organization
Why Use an LAN?
There are two basic reasons for developing an LAN: information sharing and resource sharing.
 Information sharing: This refers to having users who access the same data files, exchange
information via electronic mail, or search the Internet for information. The main benefit of
information sharing is improved decision making, which makes it generally more important than
resource sharing.
Resource sharing: It refers to one computer sharing a hardware device (e.g., a printer) or a
software package with other computers on the network. The main benefit of resource sharing is
cost savings.
ii. MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs))
The next larger network than LAN may be the Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). MAN usually
spans a geographical area that usually encompasses a city or county area. It interconnects various
buildings or other facilities within this citywide area. For example, linkages can be established
between two commercial buildings. A more recent use of MAN technology has been the rapid
development of cellular phone systems.
iii. WANs (Wide Area Networks (WANs))
A wide area network (WAN) is one that operates over a vast distance (e.g., nationwide). Its nodes
may span cities, states, or national boundaries. This network interconnects computers, LANS, BNs,
MANS, and other data transmission facilities. Typically, WAN will employ communications
circuits such as long- distance telephone wires, microwaves and satellites. FOR example,
nationwide automated teller machines used in banking represent a common application of a wide
area network.

Summary
In this lesson we have learned the following
Networking of computers facilitates resource sharing, sharing of information, and, can be used as
a communication medium, and for backup and support. The transmission of data can be via guided
media like twisted pair, coaxial pair, optical fibers or as radio transmission, microwave
transmission, and satellite transmission. Throughput is the amount of data that is actually
transmitted between two computers. It is specified in bps. Modem is a device that has both a
modulator and a demodulator. Computer Network is interconnection of two or more computers
that can exchange data. Bus, Star, and Ring are the three common LAN topologies. LAN, MAN,
and WAN are the network types classified on the basis of the size of network, the transmission
technology, and the network topology.

Further reading
1. Berkeley, Edmund (1949). Giant Brains, or Machines That Think. John Wiley &
Sons.
2. Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-2625317-9-5.
3. Ligonnière, Robert (1987). Préhistoire et Histoire des ordinateurs. Paris: Robert Laffont. ISBN
9-782221-052617.