CHAPTER 4 – THE ENERGY AND ECOSYSTEMS any level of the food web may sink to the

(PART 4) bottom, where it will join a detrital food web,

be consumed by smaller animals, and
eventually be destroyed by bacteria and fungus.
Ecological food chain

A linear representation of the ways in which

Major Components of the Food Web in Lake
different species get their food is called an
Erie. Food webs are intricate systems that
ecological food chain. In the north of Canada,
consist of many different species and a myriad
lichens and sedges serve as an example of a
of food chains.
straightforward food chain. They are consumed
by caribou, which are then consumed by
wolves. A food web is a more sophisticated
Due part of the potential energy must be
model of feeding interactions than an individual
transformed into heat, the movement of energy
food chain since it depicts the links between all
across food webs is always inefficient, as
of the individual food chains that are present in
required by the second law of thermodynamics.
an ecosystem. Wolves, for example, are an
This is because of the need to convert some of
example of opportunistic predators because in
the fixed energy into heat. When a herbivore
addition to their typical food of deer, moose,
eats plant biomass, for instance, only a portion
and caribou, they have been known to consume
of the plant's total energy content may be
snowshoe hare, voles, lemming, beaver, birds,
digested and converted into the herbivore's
and other types of prey. As a result, wolves play
own biomass. The remainder is either expelled
an important role in a number of different food
in the form of feces or used for breathing
chains within their habitat. Wolves, on the
(Figure 4.4). As a consequence of this, the
other hand, do not have any natural predators
quantity of production by autotrophs is always
that eat on them; as a result, they are
far higher than that of herbivores, which is
considered to be top carnivores or top
always significantly higher than that of their
predators.
predators. This pattern holds true throughout
all ecosystems. It is safe to say that the amount
of energy that is lost throughout each step of
Lake Erie is one of the Great Lakes, and Figure
the transfer process averages out to be about
4.3 presents an illustration of the food web that
90 percent. To put it another way, the
exists inside this lake. Aquatic vegetation are
productivity of herbivores is only around 10% of
able to thrive in the shallower water conditions
that of the plant food they consume, while the
of this huge lake, whereas phytoplankton may
production of the first level of carnivores is only
be found throughout the lake's upper water
about 10% of that of the herbivores that they
column. The phytoplankton are devoured by
consume as food.
small crustaceans known as zooplankton and
bottom-dwelling filter-feeders such as clams.
Ducks, muskrats, and other herbivores also eat
How energy is transferred
the shallow-water plants. Small fish like smelt,
which consume zooplankton, are then devoured The model of how energy is transferred within
by bigger fish, which are ultimately consumed an ecosystem. The production at the lower
by either cormorants, bald eagles, or humans. levels of a food web is almost usually higher
There is a possibility that dead biomass from
than that at the upper levels. Because of this, For instance, phytoplankton are the primary
the trophic structure may be described as being producers in the open ocean; nonetheless, they
nearly pyramidal. The second rule of often maintain a biomass that is comparable to
thermodynamics states that part of the energy that of the minuscule zooplankton that feed
contained in food webs is transformed into heat upon them. The lifespan of phytoplankton cells
or exhaled as carbon dioxide and water vapor is not very long, and their biomass undergoes
(R). At each step of the transfer process, there is rapid turnover as a result of the high rates of
a about 90% loss of energy. both productivity and death experienced by
these cells. The individual zooplankton
creatures, on the other hand, have a
These productivity connections may be considerably longer lifespan but are far less
represented visually as a so-called ecological productive than the phytoplankton. In light of
pyramid, which is used to illustrate the trophic this, the productivity of the phytoplankton is far
structure of an ecosystem. [Citation needed] higher than that of the zooplankton, despite the
[Citation needed] Plant production is always fact that at any one moment, these two trophic
found at the base of ecological pyramids, levels may have a biomass that is comparable to
followed by that of herbivores, and then finally one another.
that of carnivores, who are always found on top
of herbivores. If the ecology can support top
carnivores, then such animals will be found at Some ecosystems may even have a biomass
the very top of the food pyramid. The sizes of pyramid that is inverted, meaning that the
the trophic boxes in Figure 4.4 indicate that the biomass of herbivores is greater than that of
structure of ecosystem production is in the plants in that particular environment. This is
form of a pyramid. something that may happen in grasslands,
which are characterized by a predominance of
herbaceous plant species that are often rather
In the context of ecological production, which is tiny yet have the potential to produce a lot of
a function that is directly connected to energy biomass despite their size. In contrast, some of
flow, the second law of thermodynamics is the herbivores that graze on the plants are
applicable. The accumulated biomass of an enormous, long-lived animals. Because of this,
ecosystem is not, however, directly explained their overall biomass may be maintained at a
by the second rule of thermodynamics. As a higher level than the biomass of the vegetation.
consequence of this, the only trophic structure An inverted biomass pyramid may be seen in
that is always structured like a pyramid is the certain temperate and tropical grasslands,
one that governs production. Other factors, like particularly during the dry season when there
as the quantities of biomass (standing crop) may be huge populations (and biomass) of long-
present at particular periods or the numbers or lived herbivores such as antelope, bison, deer,
densities of populations, may have a trophic elephant, gazelle, hippopotamus, or rhino. The
structure that is formed like a pyramid in some yearly (or long-term) production of the plants in
ecosystems. However, the distribution of these these grasslands is, however, always
individual variables does not follow a pyramid in substantially higher than that of the herbivores.
every environment. This is because the second law of
thermodynamics states that this is the case.
Furthermore, contrary to popular belief, the capable of supporting a single natural species of
population densities of animals are not always apex predator: the wolf. Even though it covers a
lower than those of the plants that they large area, the tundra has a low rate of
consume. As an example, insects are the most biological productivity in comparison to other
significant herbivores in many woods, and they biomes.
often keep big populations alive. In comparison,
the number of trees is much lower due to the
fact that each individual plant is substantial and Top predators
takes up a considerable amount of area. The
number of herbivores found in forests is often Some human groups that existed before the
far higher than the number of trees and other industrial revolution served as top predators.
plant species, creating an inverted pyramid of This includes a number of the indigenous
numbers. However, much as in every other kind peoples that originally inhabited Canada, such
of ecosystem, the base of the production as the Inuit people who live in the Arctic and
pyramid of a forest is far broader than its apex. the many First Nations cultures that are found
in the boreal forest. These civilizations were
unable to sustain enormous populations as a
direct result of their higher-order feeding
There are energetic limitations to the number
technique within their food web, which had an
of apex carnivores (such as eagles, killer whales,
adverse effect on the environment. In most
sharks, and wolves) that may be maintained by
contemporary economies, however, people
an ecosystem. These limits are due to the
engage with ecosystems in an omnivorous
inefficiency of the energy transfer that occurs
fashion. This means that we gather a very broad
across trophic levels. It is necessary for there to
variety of meals and other biomass products
be an appropriately huge output of prey that
derived from bacteria, fungus, algae, plants, and
top predators are able to exploit if there is to be
animals that are both invertebrate and
a sustainable population of top predators. This
vertebrate. It is possible to maintain a huge
prey, in turn, requires a suitably high plant
human population with this method of feeding,
productivity in order to be maintained. Because
which is one of the repercussions of using this
of these limitations imposed by the
method.
environment, apex predators can only exist in
ecosystems that are either exceedingly
productive or very vast. The savannahs and
grasslands of Africa are home to a greater Vegetarianism and the Conservation of Energy
variety of higher-order carnivore species than The majority of individuals have an omnivorous
any other terrestrial environment on the planet. diet, which means they consume a broad range
The cheetah, the hyena, the leopard, the lion, of foods that originate from both plants and
and the wild dog are the most well-known animals. Vegetarians, on the other hand, do not
examples of these apex predators. This very consume any items that include meat or are
high diversity of top predators can be manufactured in any way that involves the
maintained because the ecosystems that exist death of birds, fish, mammals, or other
in Africa are so vast and produce so much creatures. There is a subset of vegetarians
vegetation, with the exception of the years known as vegans who do not consume any
when there is a drought. On the other hand, the foods that come from animals at all. This
frozen tundra of northern Canada is only includes dairy products, eggs, honey, and even
honey from bees. People may decide to adopt a available. This makes it less relevant to livestock
vegetarian lifestyle for a variety of reasons, that spend all or part of their life grazing on wild
including those that center on the ethics of the rangeland.
rearing and slaughter of animals and those that
focus on the health benefits of a balanced diet
that does not include animal products. Both of In a similar manner, many chickens, pigs, and
these categories of reasons may play a role in other types of livestock are fed food wastes (for
why some individuals make the decision to instance, from restaurants) and processing by-
adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. Additionally, there products (such as vegetable and fruit culls and
are significant positive effects that peelings, and grain mash from breweries) that
vegetarianism has on the natural world. They are not fit for human consumption. These
are a result of decreasing the conversion of include foods such as vegetable and fruit culls
natural habitat into agroecosystems that are and peelings. It is estimated that over 25% of
utilized for the raising of animals and avoiding the world's farmland is utilized to cultivate grain
specific toxins that are found in the air, water, and other feeds for livestock, and that
and soil. In addition, it takes a lot less effort and agricultural animals consume approximately
resources to provide food for a population of 37% of the world's total cereal output. On the
vegetarian people than it does for a population other hand, over 70% of the world's grain
of omnivorous humans. supply is used for animal feed in North America.
Also, there are an enormous number of
domesticated animals: there are more than 3
Animals that are kept in captivity need a billion cows, goats, and sheep in the world, and
significant amount of food. Animals are often at least 20 billion chickens. Cows alone
fed a diet consisting mostly of plant items, such consume enough food to satisfy the calorie
as grains that have been farmed, under the requirements of between 8 and 9 billion
conditions of the industrial agriculture that is humans.
prevalent in industrialized nations like Canada.
The overall quantity of grains and agricultural
area required to maintain the human Animal's assimilation efficiency
population would be much lower if humans
were given that grain directly instead of feeding The proportion of an animal's ingested food's
it to animals, according to the arguments of total energy content that is absorbed by the
some vegetarians. This argument is based on digestive tract and made available to meet the
the inefficiency of energy transmission across requirements of the animal's metabolism is
trophic levels, which is something that we referred to as an animal's assimilation
looked at in this chapter in the context of an efficiency. This efficiency varies amongst
ecological discussion. This argument for energy different groups of animals and is also
efficiency is particularly strong when applied to contingent on the kind of food that is being
animals that are fed grain and other consumed. Assimilation efficiency for
concentrated meals. In this ecological context, herbivorous mammals normally ranges from
ruminant animals such as cows and sheep are 20–50%, with the lower rate being for tough,
eating plant biomass that humans could not fibrous, low-quality meals like grass and straw,
directly consume, and as a result, they are and the higher one being for better-quality
producing food that would not otherwise be foods like grain. As a result of the high
proportion of protein and fat in the carnivores'
diet, these animals have an absorption convert carbon dioxide and water into more
efficiency of around 80 percent. In a feedlot, the straightforward organic compounds with the
production of one kilogram of beef requires assistance of sunlight. Ecological food webs are
around sixteen kilograms of feed. Pork is sold at kept alive by the fixed energy that plant
a ratio of 6:1, chicken at a ratio of 3:1, and biomass provides. Herbivorous animals are able
farmed fish at a ratio of 2:1 to 3:1. These are to gather the nutrients and energy they need to
the ratios for other animals. If humans directly maintain their own development by feeding on
ate the grain that their cattle ingested, then plants. Carnivores are able to consume
these inefficiencies in the assimilation process herbivores if they get hungry enough. A feeding
might be eliminated. network for decomposers is supported by dead
biomass. The hydrologic and climate control
systems are two examples of key planetary
The efficiency of a vegetarian diet in terms of processes that are driven by the sun's rays. The
energy use is determined by a number of strength of the greenhouse effect on the world
factors in addition to ecological energetics. may be influenced by human activities, which
Huge amounts of energy are also used in the can have a significant impact that is detrimental
process of transforming natural ecosystems into to food webs and even the climate system of
farmland, cultivating and managing the Earth.
agroecosystems, transporting commodities,
processing and packaging foods, and
transporting, treating, or disposing of waste
materials. All of these activities require a
significant amount of energy. These energy
costs would also be significantly lowered if a
greater number of individuals adopted a
vegetarian diet and way of life. Vegetarians, by
definition, leave a smaller "ecological footprint"
than meat-eaters do due to the nature of their
diet.

Conclusions

The principles of thermodynamics must be

followed throughout any transition from one
form of energy to another, even if several forms
of energy may coexist. If organisms and
ecosystems were deprived of continual access
to sources of energy from the outside world,
they would deteriorate on their own. In the
end, sunlight is the primary source of energy
that is necessary for the maintenance of
practically all forms of life and ecosystems.
Through a metabolic process known as
photosynthesis, photoautotrophic organisms