Coordinates: 20°S 47°E

Madagascar
Madagascar (/ˌmædəˈɡæskər, -kɑːr/; Malagasy:
Madagasikara, pronounced  [ma.da.ga.si.kʲa.ra]), Republic of Madagascar
officially the Republic of Madagascar (Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara (Malagasy)
Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, Malagasy
pronunciation:  [repuˈblikʲanʲ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]; République de Madagascar (French)
French: République de Madagascar) is an island
country in the Indian Ocean, approximately 400
kilometres (250 miles) off the coast of East Africa
across the Mozambique Channel. At 592,800
square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), it is the world's
second-largest island country, after Indonesia.[13] Flag Seal

Home to around 30 million people, it consists of Motto: 

the island of Madagascar (the fourth-largest island Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana (Malagasy)
in the world) and numerous smaller peripheral Amour, Patrie, Progrès (French)
islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the "Love, Fatherland, Progress"[1]
supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from
Anthem: Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô! (Malagasy)
the Indian subcontinent around 90  million years Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés! (French)
ago,[14] allowing native plants and animals to "Oh, beloved land of our ancestors!"
evolve in relative isolation. Consequently, it is a
biodiversity hotspot; over 90% of its wildlife is 0:00 / 0:00
endemic.

Human settlement of Madagascar occurred during

or before the mid first millennium AD[15] by
Austronesian peoples, presumably arriving on
outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia.[16]
These were joined around the 9th century AD by
Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel
from East Africa.[17] Other groups continued to
settle on Madagascar over time, each one making
lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The
Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or
more subgroups, of which the largest are the
Merina of the central highlands.
Location of Madagascar (dark green)
Until the late 18th century, the island of
Capital Antananarivo
Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment and largest city 18°55′S 47°31′E
of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the
early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled Official languages Malagasy • French
as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Ethnic groups 26% Merina
Merina nobles. The monarchy ended in 1897 when (2004)[2] 15% Betsimisaraka
the island was absorbed into the French colonial
12% Betsileo
empire, from which the island gained independence
in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has 7% Tsimihety
since undergone four major constitutional periods, 6% Sakalava
termed republics. Since 1992, it has officially been 5% Antaisaka
governed as a constitutional democracy from its 5% Antandroy
capital at Antananarivo. However, in a 2009 24% Others
political crisis, president Marc Ravalomanana was
made to resign and presidential power was Religion (2020)[3] 84.7% Christianity
transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina. —45.8% Protestantism
Constitutional governance was restored in January —38.1% Catholicism
2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was —0.8% Other Christian
named president following a 2013 election deemed 7.3% No religion
fair and transparent by the international community. 4.7% Traditional faiths
Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the
3.1% Islam
African Union (AU), the Southern African
Development Community (SADC), and the 0.3% Others
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Demonym(s) Malagasy[4][5]

Madagascar belongs to the group of least Government Unitary semi-presidential

developed countries, according to the United republic
Nations.[18] Malagasy and French are both official • President Andry Rajoelina
languages of the state. Christianity is the country's • Prime Minister Christian Ntsay
predominant religion, but a significant minority still
Legislature Parliament
practice traditional faiths. Ecotourism and
agriculture, paired with greater investments in • Upper house Senate
education, health and private enterprise, are key • Lower house National Assembly
elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Formation
Under Ravalomanana, these investments have
produced substantial economic growth, but the • Kingdom[6] 1540
benefits were not evenly spread throughout the • French colony[7] 6 August 1896
population, producing tensions over the increasing • Republic 14 October 1958
cost of living and declining living standards among proclaimed
the poor and some segments of the middle class. • Declaration of 26 June 1960
independence
The economy was weakened by the 2009 political
crisis, and as of 2017, quality of life remains low Area
for the majority of the population. Madagascar is • Total 587,041 km2
experiencing an ongoing famine, which experts (226,658 sq mi) (46th)
argue is the first to be caused entirely by climate • Water 5,501 km2 (2,124 sq mi)
change.[19] • Water (%) 0.9%

Population
Etymology • 2022 estimate 28,172,462[8] (52nd)
• Density 35.2/km2 (91.2/sq mi)
In the Malagasy language, the island of
Madagascar is called Madagasikara (Malagasy GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
pronunciation:  [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]) and its people are • Total $51.8 billion[9] (117th)
referred to as Malagasy.[20][21] The island's • Per capita $1,790[9] (182nd)
appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by
• Total $15.10 billion[9] (139th)
Europeans.[22] The name Madageiscar was first
recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian • Per capita $522[9] (188th)
explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration Gini (2012)  42.6[10]
of the name Mogadishu, the Somali port with medium
which Marco Polo had confused the island.[23]
On St. Laurence's Day in 1500, Portuguese HDI (2021)  0.501[11]
explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and low · 173rd
named it São Lourenço. Marco Polo's name was
preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. Currency Ariary (MGA)
No single Malagasy-language name predating Time zone UTC+3 (EAT)
Madagasikara appears to have been used by the • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (not observed[12])
local population to refer to the island, although
some communities had their own name for part or Date format dd/mm/yyyy
all of the land they inhabited.[23] Driving side right

Calling code +261[12]

History
ISO 3166 code MG

Internet TLD .mg

Early period

Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers

arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from Borneo,
possibly throughout the period between 350  BCE and 550  CE,
while others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 CE. In either
case, these dates make Madagascar one of the latest major
landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the
settlement of Iceland and New Zealand.[24] It is proposed that
Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javanese Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend
and Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar.[25][26][27] Dates of Southeast Asian and Bantu
earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly (Southeast African) roots.
supported.[15]

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for
cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna,[28] including giant
lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa, and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct
because of hunting and habitat destruction.[29] By 600 CE, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing
the forests of the central highlands.[30]

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.[31] A wave of Bantu-speaking
migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000  CE.[32] South Indian Tamil merchants arrived
around 11th century. They introduced the zebu, a type of long-horned humped cattle, which they kept in
large herds.[33] Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were
extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later.[30] The
rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely
transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.[33]

The oral histories of the Merina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and
1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the
descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba
were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo, and
Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries.[34] Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as
tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.[35]

Arab and European contacts

 Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting
ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human
settlement.

The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who

established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the
10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to
transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as
sorabe), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.[36]

European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain

Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd
European contact began in 1500
Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas.[37]
when Portuguese explorer Diogo
Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast,
Dias recorded the island while
10 km west of Fort Dauphin. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a
participating in the 2nd Portuguese
small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established
India Armadas.
in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India, Jeronimo
de Azevedo.[38]

Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and

conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by the
Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa.
In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers
Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland
via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of
the local kings.[39]

The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late Matatana, represented in a picture of
17th century.[36] From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained 1613, regarding a settlement of the
prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those beginning of the 16th century, in the
involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Book of Humberto Leitão"
Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed
by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of
Libertalia.[40] Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert
Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th
century.[41]

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of
which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.[42] Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of
the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of
Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at
around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.[43]

Kingdom of Madagascar

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power
relative to the larger coastal kingdoms[43] and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King
Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine,
Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810).[44] From his initial capital
Ambohimanga,[45] and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule
over neighboring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under
his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I
(1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of
Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor
of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military
and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London
Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as
James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools,
transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the
Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.[46]

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to

increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and King Andrianampoinimerina
France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in (1787–1810)
Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William
Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her
reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made
heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works
projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed
to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of
Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft,
Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between
1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as
many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of
the population.[47] The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures
of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the
population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833
and 1839.[48]

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed
munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a French
adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement
termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II (1861–63) attempted to relax the queen's
stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony (1852–
1865) and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute
power of the monarch.[36]

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina (1863–68), the opportunity to rule, if
she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be
sealed by a political marriage between them.[49] Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying
Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony
(1864–95), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II (1868–83) and Queen Ranavalona III (1883–
97) in succession.[50] Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous
policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.[51] Schools were
constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved
and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.[52] Polygamy was outlawed
and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs
among a growing portion of the populace.[51] Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common
law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.[52] In his joint role as Commander-
in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French
colonial incursions.[52]

French colonization

Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected,
France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first
Franco-Hova War.[53] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the
northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid
560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.[54] In 1890, the British accepted the full
formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French
authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To
force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of
Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in
December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.[55]

A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing

many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria
A French poster about the and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the
Franco-Hova War column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy
casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.[56] France
annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the
following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island
and to Algeria. A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal
palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.[57]

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification"
carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas
scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused
several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.[58]

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.[59] Slavery
was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former
masters' homes as servants[60] or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views
against slave descendants are still held today.[61] Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were
constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo[62] and the Rova palace compound was turned into a
museum.[63] Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the
Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily
on French language and practical skills.[64]

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French
administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French
companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial
concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by
movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement
for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo,
notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The
1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began
to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the
organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony,
which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the
colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and
was pursued by violent repression.[66]

The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was
continued under the French and used to construct a railway and
roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.[67] Malagasy
troops fought for France in World War I.[37] In the 1930s, Nazi
political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified National monument in Moramanga
the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.[68] commemorating the beginning of the
During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle Malagasy Uprising on 29 March
of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000
expeditionary force.[69] Malagasy died during the uprising
which lasted nearly two years.[65]
The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished
the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and
galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947.[70] This
movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform
Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.[71] The Malagasy Republic was
proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of
provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June
1960.[72]

Independent state

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four

republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First
Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President
Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic
and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled
by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula
continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment
over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a
series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in
1972.[36]

Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim

Philibert Tsiranana, the first
president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced
president of Madagascar
him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to
(1960–1972)
succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles
Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being
replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who
ushered in the Socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic
insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in
the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,[36] and the country had
become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of
transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary
Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken
economy.[73]

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards
opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been
established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential
elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010).[74] The new Madagascar constitution established
a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the
National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and
free trade.[36] Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his
introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an
interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential
election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms
for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.[73]

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana,
eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of
Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome
by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in
education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both
regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7  percent per year under his
administration. In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and
international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.[73]

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in
which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup
d'état.[75] In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High
Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential
elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which
sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.[74] Hery
Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international
community deemed fair and transparent.[76]

In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held
on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the
elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously
president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not
accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most
recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January
2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new
president.[77][78][79] In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president Andry Rajoelina won
absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former
president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were
independent or represented small parties. President Rajoelina could rule as a strongman.[80]
In 2020, on the 60th anniversary of Madagascar's independence, a national drive was marked with an
inaugural gathering of volunteers to set out plantlings in the ground in an ambition to plant 60 million
trees.[81]

Geography
At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi),[37] Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country,[82] the
2nd largest island country[13] and the fourth-largest island.[37] The country lies mostly between latitudes
12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E.[83] Neighboring islands include the French territory of
Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of
Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana
(comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–
South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass
separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago[84] and Madagascar separated from
the Indian landmass about 84-92  million years ago during the Late Cretaceous.[85] This long history of
separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.

The terraced paddy fields of the central highlands of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical rainforest along the
eastern coast (right)

Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's
remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging
in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the
homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most
densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between
grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of
the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and
mangrove swamps along the coast.[86]

The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs (left), patches of
deciduous forest, and baobab trees (right), while the south is characterized by semi-desert and spiny forests.

Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in
the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658  m (8,720  ft) in the
Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des
Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland
from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).[87]

The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry
deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities,
Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original
woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major
problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad
western plains.[87]

Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and

northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy
season (November–April) with frequently
destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry
season (May–October). Rain clouds originating
over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their
moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy
precipitation supports the area's rainforest
ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier
and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-
arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern
interior of the island.[86]
A Köppen climate classification map of Madagascar
Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure
and local economies as well as loss of life.[36] In
2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172
people, left 214,260 homeless[88] and caused more than US$250 million in damage.[89] In February 2022,
Cyclone Batsirai killed at least 10 people weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people
on the island.[90]

Ecology

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to various
endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.[91][92] Approximately 90% of all plant and
animal species found in Madagascar are endemic.[93] This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to
refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",[94] and the island has been classified by Conservation
International as a biodiversity hotspot.[91] Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The
country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests,
Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar
succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves.[95]

More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including
five plant families.[96] The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the
spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar.[86] Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic
to the island.[97] Three-fourths[98] of Madagascar's 860[96] orchid species are found here alone, as are six of
the world's nine baobab species.[99] The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as
on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.[98] Many native plant species are used as herbal
remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine[100][101] and vincristine[100][102] are vinca
alkaloids,[103][104] used to treat Hodgkin
lymphoma,[105] leukemia,[106] and other
cancers, [107] were derived from the Madagascar
periwinkle. [108][109] The traveler's palm, known
locally as ravinala [110] and endemic to the eastern
rain forests, [111] is highly iconic of Madagascar
and is featured in the national emblem as well as
the Air Madagascar logo.[112]

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and

exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have
been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship
mammal species" by Conservation
International. [91] In the absence of monkeys and
other competitors, these primates have adapted to
a wide range of habitats and diversified into
numerous species. As of 2012, there were
officially 103 species and subspecies of
lemur,[114] 39 of which were described by
zoologists between 2000 and 2008.[115] They are
almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or
endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have
become extinct since humans arrived on
Madagascar, all of which were larger than the
surviving lemur species.[116]
Biogeographic timetable of Madagascar over the last
A number of other mammals, including the catlike 200 million years
fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300
species of birds have been recorded on the island,
of which over 60  percent (including four families and 42 genera)
are endemic.[91] The few families and genera of reptiles that have
reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species,
with over 90  percent of these being endemic[117] (including one
endemic family).[91] The island is home to two-thirds of the world's
chameleon species,[117] including the smallest known,[118] and
researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all
chameleons. The ring-tailed lemur is one of over
100 known species and subspecies
Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and of lemur found only in
over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes Madagascar.[113]
and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in
Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among
the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's
butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies.[91]

Environmental issues

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.[119] Since the arrival of humans
around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.[120] This forest loss
is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by
 Tavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion
(bottom).

the earliest settlers.[33] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical
benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated
ancestral custom (fomba malagasy).[121] As human population density rose on the island, deforestation
accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.[122] By the 16th century, the central highlands had been
largely cleared of their original forests.[33] More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the
growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal
as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.[123]
Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally
out of 172 countries.[124]

According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the
1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80  percent.[125] In addition to traditional
agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well
as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-
President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from
national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of
Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's
ousting.[126]

Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in
Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in
Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique
fauna."[127] Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or
driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in
the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their
large eggs for food.[128] Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the
island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put
greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for
food.[129] A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire
consequences for the island's wildlife: 90  percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with
extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically
endangered. By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk
of extinction.[114] A 2023 study published in Nature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal
species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.[130]

In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected
natural areas to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011,
areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21
Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).[131] In 2007 six of the
national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana.
These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra.[132] Local
timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy
National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical
instruments.[133] To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife
Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New
York.[134]

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought,
caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the
verge of a famine.[135]

A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental
consequences of climate change, are going to be high.[136]

Government

Structure

Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-

party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head
of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to
the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the
constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while
legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet,[137] the Senate
and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter
bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution
Antananarivo is the political and establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches
economic capital of Madagascar. and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year
terms.[37]

The public directly elects the president and the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms.
All 33 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11
appointed by the president. The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013[37] and the
last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015.[138]

At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council.
Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French
system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals,
criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.[139] The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the
capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass
lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.[140]
Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.[37] It is located in the highlands
region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of
his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of
Analamanga.[34] As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th
century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for
virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their
center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence
in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.[141] The next largest cities
are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).[37]

Politics

Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the

island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular
protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups
and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often
prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international
relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff
between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana
following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of
dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to
infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by
arson.[142] A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against
Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people Madagascar's President Andry
killed.[143] Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Rajoelina
Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th
century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal
populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.[144]

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite
being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and
dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first
African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined
the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African
Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.[145]
Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of
protection for the United States military.[37] Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar,
including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India,[146] while Madagascar has
embassies in sixteen other countries.

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous
international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child.[147] Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of
association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for
public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.[126][147] Torture by security
forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards,
although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems.
Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption
among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been
prosecuted by the bureau.[126] Accusations of media censorship have risen due to the alleged restrictions on
the coverage of government opposition.[148] Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading
fake news.[149]

Military and law enforcement

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's
first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and
other firearms.[150] By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had
brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers
numbering as high as 30,000.[151] French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted
then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's
army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was
unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace
at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.[152]

The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy
and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.[153] Since this time the Malagasy
military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has
occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second
Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens
regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.[154][155] The armed forces are under
the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as
during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the
disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This
tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-
mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.[126]

The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the
secret police.[139] The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in
2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most
lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.[156] Traditional community tribunals, called dina, are
presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in
rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the
island.[126] Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such
as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale
of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.[139] Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the
national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.[126]

Administrative divisions

Madagascar is subdivided into 23 regions (faritra).[37] The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts,
1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany.[156]
 Regions and former provinces[157]

Population
Former Area in
New regions 2018
provinces km2
Census[158]
Diana (1) Antsiranana 19,266 889,736

Sava (2) Antsiranana 25,518 1,123,013

Itasy (3) Antananarivo 6,993 897,962

Analamanga (4) Antananarivo 16,911 3,618,128

Vakinankaratra (5) Antananarivo 16,599 2,074,358

Bongolava (6) Antananarivo 16,688 674,474

Sofia (7) Mahajanga 50,100 1,500,227

Boeny (8) Mahajanga 31,046 931,171

Betsiboka (9) Mahajanga 30,025 394,561

Melaky (10) Mahajanga 38,852 309,805

Alaotra Mangoro (11) Toamasina 31,948 1,255,514

Atsinanana (12) Toamasina 21,934 1,484,403

Analanjirofo (13) Toamasina 21,930 1,152,345 A map of Madagascar's regions

Amoron'i Mania (14) Fianarantsoa 16,141 833,919

Haute-Matsiatra (15) Fianarantsoa 21,080 1,447,296

Fitovinany (16) Fianarantsoa 19,605 1,435,882

Vatovavy (17) Fianarantsoa 705,675

Atsimo-Atsinanana
Fianarantsoa 18,863 1,026,674
(18)

Ihorombe (19) Fianarantsoa 26,391 418,520

Menabe (20) Toliara 46,121 700,577

Atsimo-Andrefana (21) Toliara 66,236 1,799,088

Androy (22) Toliara 19,317 903,376

Anosy (23) Toliara 25,731 809,313

Totals 587,295 25,680,342

United Nations involvement

Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its
independence on 26 June 1960.[159] As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed
in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.[160] Starting in 2015, under the
direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country
Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing
the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.[161] These goals plan to be accomplished
by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school
feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers
have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving
their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.[161] In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the
Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[162]

Economy
During the era of Madagascar's First Republic,
France heavily influenced Madagascar's
economic planning and policy and served as its
key trading partner. Key products were
cultivated and distributed nationally through
producers' and consumers' cooperatives.
Government initiatives such as a rural
development program and state farms were
established to boost production of commodities
such as rice, coffee, cattle, silk and palm oil.
Popular dissatisfaction over these policies was
a key factor in launching the socialist-Marxist
Second Republic, in which the formerly A proportional representation of Madagascar's exports in
private bank and insurance industries were 2019
nationalized; state monopolies were established
for such industries as textiles, cotton and
power; and import–export trade and shipping were brought under
state control. Madagascar's economy quickly deteriorated as exports
fell, industrial production dropped by 75  percent, inflation spiked
and government debt increased; the rural population was soon
reduced to living at subsistence levels. Over 50  percent of the
nation's export revenue was spent on debt servicing.[87]

The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural

adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state Historical change in per capita GDP
became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were of Madagascar since 1950
gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s. The political
crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank
assistance. Conditions for the resumption of aid were not met under Zafy, who tried unsuccessfully to attract
other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again resumed under the interim government
established upon Zafy's impeachment. The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar's debt in 2004 under
the Ravalomanana administration. Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights
criteria, Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in
2005.[37]

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.[163][164]
Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per
day.[165] During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in
2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.[166] The agriculture sector
constituted 29  percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15  percent of GDP.
Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.[167] Tourism
focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled
natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.[168] An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in
2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.[167] However,
the sector has been growing steadily for a few years; In 2016,
293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of
20% compared to 2015; For 2017 the country has the goal of
reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are
expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.[169]

The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes

remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the
shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and
Nosy Iranja is one of the international
backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been
tourism destinations in Madagascar
growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per
year; [170][171] almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP
per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017,[172] one of the lowest
in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to
2.1%[173] with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.[174] The main economic resources of Madagascar
are tourism, textiles, agriculture, and mining.

Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic
malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among
the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do
not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.[175]

Natural resources and trade

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and

mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of raffia),
mining, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017
the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M),
cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt
(US$143M).[177]

Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves[178]

Toy animals made from raffia, a
and ylang-ylang.[88] The island supplies 80% of the world's natural
native palm[176]
vanilla.[179] Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees
and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of
precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of
the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s.[180]

Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves
of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.[87] Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil
and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such
projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near Tôlanaro by Rio Tinto,[181] extraction
of nickel by the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt
International,[182] and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga
by Madagascar Oil.[183]

Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.[37] Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the
textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.[167] France is the nation's main
trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties.[87] The
Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and
Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.[184] Imports of
such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an
estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China,[185] France, Iran,
Mauritius and Hong Kong.[37]

Infrastructure and media

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617  km (4,730  mi) of

paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of
navigable waterways.[12] The majority of roads in Madagascar are
unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season.
Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns
to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing
access to other population centers in each district.[36]

There are several rail lines. Antananarivo is connected to A news stand in Antananarivo
Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail
line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important
seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are
significantly less used because of their remoteness.[36] The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in
2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's
mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.[181] Air Madagascar services the island's many small regional
airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy
season road washouts.[36]

Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama,
which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009, only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's fokontany
had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services.[156] Fifty-six
percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44%
provided by diesel engine generators.[186] Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban
areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the
nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.[156]

Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international,
national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of
public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.[140] In
addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and
international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans
or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by
Rajoelina),[126] contributing to political polarization in reporting.

The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the
government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to
close.[140] Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification
of restrictions on political criticism.[147] Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade,
with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the
nation's many internet cafés in December 2011.[140]

Health
Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated
in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many
Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.[187] In addition to the high
expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical
professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000
people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57
dentists for a population of 22 million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward
the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government,
while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.[188] The government
provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban
areas and particularly those of the central highlands.[156]

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past
twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased
an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services
and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in
1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a
contributing factor to rapid population growth.[188] In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per
100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care
following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,[37] with an under-five
mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.[189] Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are
common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in
mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest
in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide
treated nets in Africa.[188] Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for
women.[188]

Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths)
and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).[190] In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in
118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.[191] According to the United Nations, more than
one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,[192] due to what could
become the first famine caused by climate change.[193]

Education
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal
and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and
cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.[36] The
first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at
Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS).
The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools
throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to
aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in
1835,[194] but reopened and expanded in the decades after her
death. Education access and quality were
prioritized under Ravalomanana.
By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed
and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa.
Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and
basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued
reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those
desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.[36] Consequently, under the socialist Second
Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of
instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under
the mandatory two-year national service policy.[195]

This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline
in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French
language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in
the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert
Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant
improvements in education throughout his tenure.[196]

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and
compulsory from ages 6 to 13.[197] The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the
lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.[36] During Ravalomanana's first term,
thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were
renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees
were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.[197]

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one
lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the
larger urban centers.[156] The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo,
Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several
private universities and technical colleges.[36]

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006.
However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.[197] Education
policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum
education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC)
to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition
from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and
participation in the classroom.[198] Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014. The
literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.[82]

Demographics
Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Only 15% of the nation's 24,894,551 population
live in the 10 largest cities.

In 2021, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 29  million, up from 2.2  million in
1900.[199][200][36] The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9  percent in
2009.[37]
Approximately 42.5  percent of the population
is younger than 15 years of age, while
54.5  percent are between the ages of 15 and
64. Those aged 65 and older form 3 percent of
the total population.[167] Only two general
censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried
out after independence. The most densely
populated regions of the island are the eastern
highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting
most dramatically with the sparsely populated
western plains.[36]

Ethnic groups

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over

90  percent of Madagascar's population and is
typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.[37]
Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic
makeup of the average Malagasy person
constitutes an approximately equal blend of
Southeast Asian and East African
genes,[201][202] although the genetics of some
communities show a predominance of
Southeast Asian or East African origins or The regional distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups
some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry.[203]

Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the
Merina of the central highlands,[144] who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately
26  percent of the population, while certain communities among the coastal peoples (collectively called
côtiers) have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the
Betsimisaraka (14.9 percent) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (6 percent each).[36]

Malagasy ethnic subgroups Regional concentration

Antankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety Former Antsiranana Province

Sakalava, Vezo Former Mahajanga Province

Betsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano Former Toamasina Province

Merina Former Antananarivo Province

Betsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala Former Fianarantsoa Province

Mahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo Former Toliara Province

Chinese, Indian and Comoran minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily
French) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally
in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.[36]
By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.[87] The number of
Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958[71] to 17,000 three decades later.
There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the
mid-1980s.[36]

Largest cities
Largest cities or towns in Madagascar  
[204]
According to the 2018 Census
Rank Name Region Pop.
1 Antananarivo Analamanga 1,275,207
2 Toamasina Atsinanana 326,286
3 Antsirabe Vakinankaratra 245,592
4 Mahajanga Boeny 244,722
Antananarivo 5 Fianarantsoa Haute Matsiatra 189,879 Antsirabe
6 Toliara Atsimo-Andrefana 169,760
7 Antsiranana Diana 131,165
8 Hell-Ville Diana 109,365
9 Sambava Sava 85,659
Toamasina 10 Taolagnaro Anosy 67,188 Mahajanga

Languages

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is

generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of
Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,[205] can be
clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken
along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect
of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western
coastal plains. The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast
Barito languages, with the Ma'anyan language being its closest A Malagasy child
relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese
loanwords.[206][207] French became the official language during the
colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of
1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a
francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population
and used for international communication.[36]

No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the
national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official
languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds
that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High
Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the
character of an official language.[208]

In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were
reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.[209] English was removed as an official language from the
constitution approved by voters in the November 2010 referendum.[1] The outcome of the referendum, and
its consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political opposition,
who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the High
Transitional Authority.[74]

Religion

According to the most recent national census available which was

completed in 1993, 52% adhere to indigenous beliefs, 41 percent is
Christian, and 7 percent is Muslim. It is common to alternate
between religious identities or to mix traditions, and many
individuals hold a combination of indigenous and Christian or
Muslim beliefs. Muslim leaders and local scholars estimate Muslims
currently constitute between 15 and 25 percent of the population.
Muslims predominate in the northwestern coastal areas while
Christians predominate in the highlands.[210][37]
Catholic cathedral in Antsirabe
However, according to the Pew Research Center in 2020, 85% of
the population now practiced Christianity, while just 4.5% of
Malagasys practiced folk religions; among Christians, practitioners
of Protestantism outnumbered adherents of Roman
[211]
Catholicism. According to the Association of Religion Data
Archives, 58.1% of the population is Christian, 2.1% is Muslim,
39.2% practices traditional faiths, while 0.6% of the population is
non-religious or adheres to other faiths as of 2020.[212][37]

The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of Faravohitra Catholic Church in
tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana, Antananarivo
whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-
wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb.
The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and
community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the
party, where food and rum are typically served, and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is
commonly present.[213] Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady, taboos
that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that
by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely,
misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of
zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally
believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.[214]

Today, many Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to
honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional
burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial.[213] The Malagasy Council of
Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman
Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been an influential force
in Malagasy politics.[215]

Islam is also practiced on the island. Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and
Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of
Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the
Islamic religion took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, Muslims constitute
3–7 percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of
Mahajanga and Antsiranana. However, Muslim leaders estimate Muslims currently constitute between 15
and 25 percent of the population. Muslims predominate in the northwestern coastal areas while Christians
predominate in the highlands.[216] The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni, with a sizeable Ahmadiyya
minority.[217] Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.

More recently, Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the
Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at
home.[218]

Culture
Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of
life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural
features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In
addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration
of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana
(solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities
believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural
elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship
ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional
division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.[36][214]

Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect
social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.[219] Malagasy people traditionally
consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such
as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly,
the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers
known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic
group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.[220]

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic
instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from
southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today.[221]
Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism
and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.[222] Reflecting
a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be
built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the
living.[223] The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and
Madagascar's national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.[224]

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at
every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.[225] African
influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth,
traditions originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in
the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and
sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with
traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.[30]

Arts
A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar.
One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in
the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana
(proverbs).[226][227] An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the
Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms
across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs
of traditional Malagasy communities.[228] This tradition was continued in
the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is
considered Africa's first modern poet,[229] and Elie Rajaonarison, an
exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.[230] Madagascar has also
developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical
genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village
gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.[231] Madagascar also
has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies,
organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical
music. A Hiragasy dancer.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the
tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has
been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.[184] Wood
carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony
railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, aloalo
funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.[232] The
decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was
inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.[233]

Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural
materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.[232]
Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other
home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.[184] A small but growing number of fine art galleries in
Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as
the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in
Madagascar.[234]

Sport

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar.

Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator
sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but
women have recently begun to participate.[235] The wrestling of
zebu cattle, which is named savika or tolon-omby, is also practiced
in many regions.[236] In addition to sports, a wide variety of games
are played. Among the most emblematic is fanorona, a board game
widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk
legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father
Moraingy is a traditional martial art of Ralambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's
Madagascar. older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment
of his other responsibilities.[237]
Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Rugby union is
considered the national sport of Madagascar.[238] Soccer is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world
champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and
throughout the Highlands.[239] School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo,
boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic
Games in 1964, and has also competed in the African Games.[87] Scouting is represented in Madagascar by
its own local federation of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.[240]

Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top
international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship,[241] the 2009 FIBA Africa
Championship for Women,[242] the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship,[243] the 2013 FIBA Africa
Under-16 Championship,[244] and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women.[245]
Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2019 African Games.

Cuisine

Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and
European culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional
preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-
century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically
consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be
vegetarian or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger,
onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other
spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava,
or curds made from fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street
foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced
beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and
beer.[225] Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island[246] and is considered emblematic of
Madagascar.[247]

See also
Madagascar
portal

Index of Madagascar-related articles

Outline of Madagascar
Telephone numbers in Madagascar

Notes
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External links
Country Profile (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861843) from BBC News
Madagascar (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/). The World
Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Madagascar (https://curlie.org/Regional/Africa/Madagascar) at Curlie
Madagascar (https://web.archive.org/web/20120829212249/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/
govpubs/for/madagascar.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar
Key Development Forecasts for Madagascar (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.as
px?Country=MG) from International Futures
 Geographic data related to Madagascar (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/447325)
at OpenStreetMap
Map of Madagascar, 1666 (https://www.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002492934/NLI#$FL
13737163), (in French). Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel

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