Light microscope

Usage:

- Always carry the microscope with one hand on the arm and one hand on the
base. Carry it close to your body
- Never touch the lenses of the microscope. Only wipe gently with lens paper if
necessary
- Raise the stage as you are looking are a specimen through the eyepiece using
the course adjustment knob
- Always start with Low power objective lens(X10), turn to the higher power
objective lens if a more detailed study is desired
- Never turn the coarse adjustment knob when the high power objective lens is
in position. Use the fine adjustment knob
- Adjust the diaphragm to obtain a suitable amount of light to study the
specimen
- Avoid examining specimens without using a cover slip. Never hold the glass
slide or the cover slip by their flat surfaces

Drawing
● Clear line drawings of specimens provided, indicating magnification and
labelling familiar structures; no overlap of lines should be seen
● Title for drawing; underline
- Do not just write drawing of tomato
- Include longitudinal section/transverse section
- Basically be more specific
- Drawing of transverse section of Tomato at Magnification 1.5x / Drawing of
transverse section of Tomato(1.5x)
● Magnification written beside ( mag of eye piece x mag of objective lens= 10 x
mag of objective lens = x___)
● Take up at least 75% of space
● Accurate labelling of parts pointing at correct structures

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 ● Accuracy is important; Drawn to appropriate proportions—use ruler to
estimate + outlines of structures to see relative proportions of different parts of
the specimen
● Do not draw organelles not visible (nucleus,cell wall, cell membrane,
chloroplast)
● Plan drawing do not draw individual cells
● Lines are representing structures; different colour zones considered one
structure
● For seeds, do not need to draw all just draw the one all the uppermost surface
● NO sketchy lines/shading/open ends

Magnification---Image/drawing size ÷ actual size

- Extend dotted lines from the longest axis of drawing. Do not

overlap this line.
- Measure with a ruler and write the length (drawing)
- Measure between the same two points of the specimen
- Divide length of drawing by actual length

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● LABEL structures with straight line with NO arrows

- simple physiological experiments, involving the use of sharp instruments on

plant or animal materials (accurate observations of these specimens will need
a hand lens of not less than ×6 magnification for each candidate)
- Cell wall are double-lined

4
To examine the effect of plasmolysis of cells of Hydrilla leaf

Procedure:
1. Using forceps, remove a small leak from the tip of a Hydrilla and place it on
the slide
2. Transfer the thin layer of cells onto a glass slide. Use a dropper to cover the
strip with 2-3 drop of distilled water. Hold the coverslip about 45 degrees to
the slide and let it slip down the slide till its lower edge touches the water.
Then gently lower the cover slip using a mounting needle (If some air
bubbles are trapped, use the mounting needle to tap on it gently.)
3. Examine the slide under a microscope using the lower power objective(x10)
before moving on to the high power objective
4. Observe the cells for about 5 minutes, noting any difference that appeared
during this time. When a significant change has occurred in the cells, draw
the same cell in the space below, showing the cell shape and contents.
5. Remove the water from under the cover slip of the slide as follows.
Using a dropper, place two to three drops of salt solution along one edge of

the cover slip and use a piece of paper towel to draw up the liquid from the
opposite edge of the slide. Try not to move the slide, the cover slip or the
epidermis.

6. Observe the cells for about 2 minutes after drawing the salt solution under
the cover slip. Observe any changes in the appearance of the cells. Record
your observations.

Title: Drawing of hydrilla leaf in distilled water/salt solution(x___)

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Label: Cell wall, cell surface membrane, cytoplasm, chloroplast， nucleus

For plasmolysed cell: label the space between cell wall and membrane to be
filled with salt solution.

Theory:

Why place 2-3 drops of distilled water on the cells?

Serves as a wet mount. Prevent specimen from dying out/ allows a clearview of
cells inside allowing focus with high power very close to the specimen.

Whole plant effect; wilt and eventually die if water is not replenished to the cells

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Leaf drawing

Features that show variation between the leaves

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 - Size
- Texture
- Edge of blade(smooth/rough)
- Number of Leaflets
- Vein network(parallel/branched)
- Shape of leaf(long/round)

Experiments related:

- Osmosis ( see if cell plasmolysed or turgid)

- Drawings(onion epidermal cell, xylem cell, phloem cell)
- Studying of features of a flower ( filament, stigma)
- Studying parts of the specimen(chilli, tomato, ladies finger)

Count the number of petals, stigma, filaments.

Size/colour/shape/scent/features of petals: nectar guide and & size
Stamen--protrude/pendulous
Stigma: features
Pollen grain: texture/number
Conclusion: method of pollination

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Title (TL) / Quality (Q) / Clarity of lines (CL) / Neatness of labels (NL)
Correct Size & proportion

13
Magnification (Mg) (x1 )

Details (D)

- Bean shaped kidney (BS)

- Three regions shown (TR)

Labels (L); Cortex; Medulla/Pyramid/Medulla Pyramid; Pelvis/Renal Pelvis; Ureter;

Renal artery; Renal vein; Hilus; Capsule.

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- Transport in plants(stems,root,leaf)

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Osmosis

Theory:

The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a

region of lower water potential across a partially permeable membrane.

Factors affecting transport:

1. Concentration gradient
2. Size of particles
3. Temperature
4. Surface volume to volume ratio

Format for answering:

1. Respective water potentials (cell sap)

2. Direction of water flow by osmosis through partially permeable membrane (
and cell wall)
3. State of cells; plasmolysed—cell surface membrane and cytoplasm pulls away
from cell wall

X cells shrink—animal cells

RBC cremated. Cells shrink in size

Cell expands and bursts.

The vacuole increases in size. Cell contents are pushed against cell wall, but

cell wall prevents cell from bursting, cell enlarges and becomes turgid

Iodine; to stain cells(onion epidermal/ cheek) as no chloroplast present for easy

examination.

- distance

Experiments related:

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 - +/- change in between two ends of leek stems
- Osmosis in plant tissue

Aim: To estimate the concentration of cell sap in plant cells

20
3. Place the piece of plant tissue horizontally on the ase of a clean, dry petri dish, taking care not to
squash the plant material, gently but firmly fix it to the dish using a small roll of plasticine which you
press down at X and Y, as shown in Fig 2. Label the Petri dish, 0.1mol/dm3.
4. Prepare another four pieces of plant tissue as described in steps 1-3. Place the tissues in four separate
petri dishes and label the dishes 0.4,0.6 and 0.8 mol/dm3 respectively.
5. Measure the distance of A in each dish and record your measurements.
6. Pour the solutions of various concentrations into the respective Petri dishes.
7. After 15 minutes, observe the strip laced in 0.1mol/m3 sucrose solution carefully and make a labelled
drawing to show its appearance
8.Measure the distance of A.Calculate the percentage change in the distance of A for each dish.
9. Record all your results in the table below.

Sucrose conc in Initial distance Final distance Change in Percentage

petri dish/ A/cm A/cm distance/cm change in distance
moldm-3 A/%

0.1 +/- +/-___

0.4 2sf

0.6

0.8
Source of error:
1. Solution is exposed to surroundings and evaporate, making the sucrose solution more conc and
this affect rate of osmosis---cover the solution to prevent evaporation
2. Thickness of leaves.

- +/- change in length of potato strips/eggplant slices

Sources of error:

- The solution is exposed to the surroundings and evaporates, making the

sucrose solution more concentrated and has affected the rate of osmosis(cover
the solution)
- The thickness of the leak, the rate of osmosis is slower as water molecules need
to travel a longer distance

Common qns

Why do we take the length of cell contents as a percentage of maximum cell length?

- Length of cell contents as a percentage of the maximum cell length of each cell
as not all cells undergo the same rate of osmosis/they differ in length to begin
with.

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Diffusion

Theory

1. Trend + quote values

2. Temperature increases, KE of pigment molecules increases. Diffuse faster
through the cell membrane down the concentration gradient.
3. Higher temperature also disrupts beetroot cell membranes. The spaces in cell
membranes containing phospholipid and protein molecules which have higher
KE, become wider.

Experiments related:

-
- Effect of temperature on beetroot cell membranes; Pigment molecules
diffusion
1. Cut each beetroot tuber into 2.0cm sections and out the beetroot sections into
a boiling tube with plenty of distilled water
2. Prepare three beakers and label them w1, w2, and w3. They will act as water
baths
3. W1: tap water. W2: hot water. W3: ice water.
4. Prepare 3 clean test tubes. Add 5.0 cm3 of distilled water into each test tube
and place one test-tube into W1, W2, and W3 respectively for five minutes.
5. Remove the beetroot tube from distilled water and blot dry with paper tower
6. Place one 2.0 cm beetroot section into each of the test tubes and leave in rye
water baths for 10 minutes.
7. After 10 minutes, shake the test tubes gently
8. Describe the depth of colour in each test tube. Measure the absorbance using
the colorimeter at the teacher’s bench and record your observations and
results.

Step 4 water bath for 5 min: To ensure that the temperature of the water in the
test tube is the same as that of the beaker.

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 Step 5 blot dry: To ensure that the distilled water on it, containing pigment
molecules already diffused out, is wiped away, thus not affecting the results.

Step 7 shaking test tubes: Helps the water and pigment to mix, giving a uniform
colour which is then used for measurement

Trend: The higher the temperature, the higher the absorbance.

Risks:

1. Scalpel is sharp and it may cut the user. Hold down the scalpel and specimen
firmly when cutting
2. Handle hot water with care, prevent from burning ourselves

Suggest how you could improve the experiment to obtain more reliable results.

Repeat experiment twice using freshly prepared sections from a different beetroot
and obtain average/Use more than one piece of beetroot in each beaker and obtain
average.

Enzymes

- same solution, maybe 5 different pH / temperature levels

- to determine what the optimum pH / temp is for the specific enzyme

Aim: To investigate which type of vegetable has the highest concentration of

catalase; catalyse the breakdown of h2o2 into water and oxygen and protect the
cell from oxidative damage.

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Procedure:
1. Place 10cm3 of 1.0mol/dm3 hydrogen peroxide solution in one test tube.
Stopper it using the delivery tube with rubber bung
2. Add about 10cm3 of distilled water into the second test-tube
3. Using ruler and scalpel, cut a 2cm length from a carrot cylinder. Divide this
into 10 slices (discs) of equal thickness
4. Place all 10 discs into the hydrogen peroxide solution and replace the bung.
Ensure the set-up is similar to that of the diagram.
5. Shake gently to separate all the discs
6. Wait for 30s, then count the number of bubbles evolved in one minute in the
second test-tube
7. Wash out the contents of test-tube 1 using water
8. Using fresh hydrogen peroxide solution and fresh vegetable each time,
repeats steps 1 to 7 for the other vegetables
9. Record all your readings and calculate the number of bubbles and record
your readings in the space provided
Step 6; wait for reaction to stabilise
Source of error; different width of vegetables, different volumes thus different
concentration of catalase--affecting results.

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 To investigate the effect of enzyme activity on agar solidification

Compare consistency of jelly; test tube C acting as control containing agar only.
When C hardens after being placed in beaker full of ice, take all out.

C; confirm the sufficient gelatin has dissolved to solidify and jelly can harden
with the absence of pineapple

Independent variable: Type of pineapple (Presence of Bromelin in pineapple

catalyse breakdown of protein)

Theory:

- Enzymes are biological catalyst ,are of proteins and speed up rate of chemical
reactions without itself being chemically changed at the end of the reaction
- Active site is complementary to its substrate due the unique 3D surface
configuration
- Increased KE of both enzymes and substrate, more frequent collisions, more
enzyme-substrate complex formed

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-

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Nutrition in humans

- Starch digestion
- Visiting tubing experiment; partially permeable small intestine. In relation to
the absorption of carbohydrates in the mammalian gut

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Time at which Colour change Colour change Starch present Reducing
sample is observed for observed for sugar present
collected/min iodine Benedict’s
solution solution

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 Step 1 rinse with distilled water to ensure solution A absent on the outside so that it
will not contaminate distilled water in boiling tube and affect results
Control; Replace solution A with distilled water.
Theory: Digestion breaks down large, insoluble and complex molecules. Starch into
small and soluble one e.e. Glucose before it can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Hence iodine remains yellow-brown.
Distilled water represents blood.

Limitation:
Surrounded by distilled water. Villus surrounded by a network of capillary to
transport digested food substances away continuous blood flow helps generate a
steep concentration gradient
Small molecules only move by diffusion. Presence of mitochondria allows active
transport mechanisms to absorb digested food products. E.g. glucose and amino
acids into the blood capillary

Theory:

➔ Adaptations of small intestine

Long and coiled tube- provides sufficient time for complete digestion
and absorption of food as it moves through the intestine
Inner walls have numerous folds-to increase SA to VR for faster
absorption of digested food
Inner walls are lined with finger-like projections and micro villi
projecting into intestinal cavity —provide large surface area for
absorption of digested food
Wall of each villus in one-cell thick—facilitated diffusion of digested
food into the cells of villus

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Respiration

- Investigate the effect of glucose for respiration in yeast cell

- Anaerobic/anaerobic respiration in yeast cells or your own muscle cells
- To find out if carbon dioxide is given out during respiration

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 If CO2 is given out, white precipitate is formed in limewater

Qualitative 1. Rinse four test tubes with a hydrogencarbonate indicator. Label the test
experiment on tubes A, B, C and D.
rate of 3
respiration 2. Put 10𝑐𝑚 of the hydrogencarbonate indicator into each test tube.
3. Observe and record the colour of the hydrogencarbonate indicator in each
test tube
4. Use a pair of forceps to put a water snail in test tubes A and C
5. Use a pair of forceps to put a Hydrilla plant in test tubes B and C
6. Stopper all the test tubes and place them in a test tube rack
7. Place the test tube rack 10cm from the lamp. Each test tube should be
equidistant from the lamp
8. Using a stopwatch to time observe and record the colour of the
hydrogencarbonate indicator in each test tube after 45 mins
9. Originally, hydrogencarbonate solution is red
10. Purplish red: alkaline, possible photosynthesis
Neutral: yellowish red
Acidic: yellow(CO2 produced)
Red: Carbon dioxide from atm dissolved

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Determine the
energy level of
two different
types of
nuts(stored
chemical energy
that is released
for respiration)

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8. If the flame extinguishes, relight the nut and continue the experiment until the
nut can no longer catch fire

9. Read and record the highest temperature of the water when the nut has stopped
burning

10. Calculate using the formula below:

- Energy value(j/g): Mass of water(g) x Specific heat capacity of water

(Jg-1degree celcius-1) x Rise in temperature(degree celcius)

One risk: Get burnt by the forceps when lighting the fire: wear gloves to hold the
forceps

Source of error: The food substance has to be relighted many times as the flame of
the food kept extinguishing. Each time the food is relighted, the water loses heat to
the surrounding. Rise in temperature is smaller and lower energy calculated than
expected. Food substances breaks into many small pieces and may not completely
burnt.

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Respiring yeast Source of error: Determining end point also known as how the yeast should look
like before stopping stopwatch consistently for all tubes. Visual judgement highly
subjective. Recorded timing might be shorter or longer than the actual time taken.

Improvement: Colour chat to refer to, observe the colour of set-up and compare.

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 Excretion

- To determine the identity of samples of fluid from diode to parts of the kidney
or a healthy person

Solutions Benedict’s test Biuret test

Observation conclusion observation conclusion

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 Transport in plants

- Transpiration: Cut the stem underwater(prevent air bubbles from entering

stem which will block the flow of water up the stem
- Only xylem vessels will be stained, the phloem will not be stained.
- Rate of transpiration in celery stalk

To investigate the rate of water uptake in celery stalks

1. Pour 50 cm3 of coloured water into a beaker
2. Cut a 2m piece off from the bottom white portion of the celery stalk. Keep
this end piece aside to be used later for colour comparison
3. Observe the cut end of the stalk, noting its colours. Record your observations
in Table 1

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 4. Measure the remaining length of the celery stalks and record its length in
Table 1
5. Place the celery talk in coloured water and leave aside for 10 minutes
6. At the end of 10 minutes, remove the celery stalk from the beaker. Rinse and
dry the bottom end of the celery stalk
7. Observe the cut end of the stalk and not the colouration of the tissues/
Record your observations in Table 1
8. Place the celery on the white tile. Using a scalpel, cut 1 cm sections from the
bottom of the stalk. Arrange the sections in the order in which you removed
them
9. After each cut, observe the colour of the tissues in the stalk. Continue cutting
1 cm sections until coloured water is not visible in the stem
10. Determine the final length of the remaining celery stalk and record in Table
1
11. Calculate the rate of movement of the coloured water through the tissues
using the formula below: initial length-final length/time period

Nutrition in plants

- Effect of light on photosynthesis of plants

Is sunlight 1. Destarch a potted plant by placing it in darkness for 2 days

necessary for (Why? To ensure that starch is absent before the start of the
photosynthesis experiment. Any starch formed during the experiment will

41
 have to be formed during the presence of the investigated
variable, sunlight.)
2. Remove one leaf and test it for starch (starch should be absent,
i.e. iodine remains yellow-brown)
3. Sandwich another leaf from the same plant between 2 pieces of
black paper and fasten securely
4. Leave the leaf in strong sunlight
5. After a few hours, remove the leaf and test it for starch
6. Expected results:
Starch was only present on part of leaf exposed to sunlight

Is chlorophyll 1. Destarch a plant with variegated leaves for 24 hours (by putting
necessary for it in a room without light)
photosynthesis 2. Expose the plant to strong sunlight for a few hours
3. Remove a leaf and sketch the distribution of the green parts
4. Perform starch test using iodine
5. If the iodine turns dark blue, there is starch present
If the iodine remains yellow-brown, starch is absent
6. Expected results:
Only the parts of the leaf that are green would turn the iodine
blue-black. This is because only the green parts of the leaf
contain chlorophyll. The chlorophyll absorbs sunlight for
photosynthesis to produce glucose which is then stored in the
leaves as starch. Therefore only green parts of the leaf could
carry out photosynthesis and contain starch.

Is carbon 1. Destarch 2 pots of plants by placing them in darkness for 2 days

dioxide 2. After 2 days, remove plants from darkness
necessary for 3. Cover the plants with polythene bags (Why? To prevent the
photosynthesis
carbon dioxide produced when microorganisms in the soil
respire from reaching the leaves.)
4. Set up experiment as shown below and leave for a few hours
5. Remove leaves from jars and test immediately for starch
6. Expected results:
Only leaves in jar with carbon dioxide contain starch (iodine
turned blue-black)

42
 Leaves in jar without carbon dioxide do not contain starch
(iodine remains yellow-brown)

Why soda lime? The alkaline soda lime neutralises the acidic carbon
dioxide in air so there is no carbon dioxide present in the air that
enters the jar.

Why sodium hydroxide (NaOH)? The alkaline solution neutralises any

acidic carbon dioxide produced by the plant during its own
respiration.

^ both of the above help to create a control set-up where there is no

carbon dioxide present in the jar

Why sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)? It produces carbon dioxide.

What gases are Test for oxygen

evolved in 1. Set up an aquatic plant under an inverted filter funnel in
photosynthesis
a beaker of water
2. Ensure that no air is trapped in the test tube in the
beginning of the experiment
Test for water vapour(Cobalt chloride paper test)

43
Theory

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

44
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Food tests

Tips

- Take note of the reagent used for corresponding type of food substance
- Can be linked to the regions of the alimentary canal where the food is digested
and the enzymes involved/regions of the kidney nephron where products are
being excreted
- When planning for food tests, reagents should be quantified
- Colour change must include colour before and after

>> Iodine Test (Starch test)

Liquid sample

● Addition of iodine solution to sample

● Starch present: Iodine solution turns from yellow-brown to blue-black
● Starch absent: Iodine solution remains yellow-brown

49
Solid sample

- Cut/chop solid sample into small pieces or mash up using mortar and pestle
and place them on a white tile
- Starch present: Iodine solution turns from yellow-brown to blue-black
- Starch absent: Iodine solution remains yellow-brown

>> Test For Reducing Sugars

Benedict’s test

● Benedict’s solution contains aqueous copper(II)sulfate and other chemicals

● Reducing sugar will reduce Cu2+ to Cu+
● Cu2O is a brick red ppt

Procedure

- Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to sample solution

- Shake thoroughly
- Immerse test tube in boiling water bath for a maximum of 5 minutes

Colour Change Amount Of Reducing Sugars

Present

Solution Remains Blue No Reducing Sugars

Blue > Green Traces Of Reducing Sugars

Blue > Yellow/Orange ppt. Moderate Amount Of Reducing

Sugars

Blue > Brick-red ppt. Large Amount Of Reducing

Sugars

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 Note:

- Qualitative test. Resultant colours can only give an indication of the presence
or absence of reducing sugars and not precise indication of how much.
However, colour changes can give an estimate of the relative amounts of
reducing sugars present.
- If sample is a large piece, crush it and mix with water. Drain to get rid of the
larger pieces and use the water-sample mixture for your experiment (Decant
the solution)
- If the sample is in powder form, dissolve equal amounts in each test tube (with
water if necessary) for use.

Reducing sugars non-reducing sugar

Glucose sucrose
Fructose Polysaccharides—starch, cellulose,
Galactose glycogen
Lactose
maltose

>> Test For Proteins (Biuret Test) (Biuret Solution: Add NaOH, then dilute CuSO4 )

- Use equal volume of sodium hydroxide to sample and shake well

- Add 1% copper(II)sulfate solution drop by drop, shaking after each drop
- Presence of proteins: mixture turned from blue to violet
- Absence of proteins: mixture remains blue

>>Test for Fats (Filter paper)

- Rub food on paper and leave to dry

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- Translucent blob forms on filler paper

>> Test For Fats (Ethanol Emulsion Test)

Liquid sample

- Add 2cm3 of ethanol to sample and shake well

- Add 2cm3 of water into test tube and shake well
- Fats present: cloudy white emulsion formed

Solid sample

- Cut solid sample into small pieces/mash up using mortar and pestle and place
them in test tube
- Add 2cm3 of ethanol to sample in the test tube. Shake well
- Decant the ethanol into another test tube containing 2cm3 of water(to observe
the colour change clearly)
- Shake well
- Positive for fats: white cloudy emulsion formed

Inheritance

Theory

- Discontinuous/continuous variation(analysing data)

52
 - Drawing histograms/bar graph

Experiments related:

- Drawing bar graph/histogram based on given set of values

- Attaining values by measurement
+ Shrimp
- Answering data-based qns/ doing simple tasks about alleles(genetic variation)

Shrimp
inheritance:
Length of shrimp from group P (mm)
Investigate the
type of
inheritance
displayed in
dried shrimps
of the same
species

Length of shrimp from group Q (mm)

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Length of P Q
shrimp/ xmm

Tally Frequency Tally Frequency

15.0<_x <17.5 Leave 0

blank

4 5
straight
lines
one
strike

Observable difference
- Difference in length
- Colour(one dark orange, the other light orange)
- P is thicker, Q is thinner
Distribution on histogram and suggest possible
reasons(conclusion/relationship proven).
- 2 distinct clusters/groups of length
- Presence/absence of artificial feed affects their growth

Continuous variation shown as there is a range of lengths

observed in each group. No clear cut phenotypes.

Precaution to ensure correct measurement of length of dried

shrimps:
Use thread to measure the outer curve of shrimp to obtain
accurate results.
Place eye above ruler to avoid parallax error.

Source of error:
Small sample size causes data obtained not be representative of
whole population.
Starting point of measurement of length of dried shrimp not
distinctive point cause length measured to be subjective and
measurements may be shorter and longer than actual;/

54
Chance
selection of
alleles

Record results in table and tabulate

Spin Female gamete Male gamete Alleles in cells

allele allele of seed

1 g g gg

GG___ Gg___ gg___

55
 Results different from expected as the sample size is too small and
cannot account for the entire population

Process of inheritance represented by spinning of disc: Random

fertilisation of ovum and sperm/Meiosis/Gamete formation

Counting bubbles error: Size of bubbles may vary, volume of gas produced will not
proportional to the number of gas bubbles observed

Improve: Collect volume of gas produced

Observing for colour changes: Subjectivity, different people may perceive the
change differently

Improve: , use colourimeter, use white tile/black paper to improve contrast

When some steps require you to observe more than one set-up at the same time:
May miss the exact moment where the change occurred, results will not be
accurate

Improve: Conduct experiment separately/repeat to obtain average

56
Temperature not maintained error: will interfere with results (especially with
experiments dealing with enzymes, rate of reaction etc)

Improve: Use a thermostatically controlled water bath/keep checking temp of

the water with thermometer, add more hot/cold water when needed

Freshness of chloroplast source: the fresher the source, the easier to activate the
chloroplast, the more accurately the indicator would change colour, the
more accurate the rate of photosynthesis can be calculated

Light source error: Laboratory lit with ceiling lights, lamp is not the only light
source and chlorophyll in chloroplast trap light from surroundings and
photosynthesis, inaccurate to measure rate of photosynthesis

Improvement: Switch off ceiling lights and close all windows and doors before
conducting the experiment

10cm may not be the optimal distance for the chloroplasts to photosynthesise at.
Chloroplast cannot change the colour of the indicator timely, hence time
taken would be more or less than expected

Subjective when determining the end point of the indicator bravo refers
‘colourless’ Naked eye cannot accurately determine the same shade for all
tube hence time recorded may be more or less than expected

Improvement: Prepare colour scale for colour comparison

No temperature buffer/temperature not standardised

57
Enzymes regulate rate of photosynthesis, Indicator would turn colourless faster
if the surrounding temperature rises

Mix the chloroplast suspension in a water bath to maintain the temperature.

Tips In General
1. Read through the paper first and understand aim of investigation (What you’re
trying to find out)
2. If data recording is needed in table form, draw out the table first before
conducting the experiment. It allows you to record your information easily.
3. Rate of change is always against time (e.g. cm/s)
4. Rinse apparatus before use (Don’t take too long here!)
5. For indicators, observe colour initial and colour after
6. For drawing, when asked to draw what you see, LITERALLY draw what you
see. Include obvious elements and DO NOT add things you cannot see (e.g.
certain cell organelles).
7. For qns such as how did u measure the distance travelled, must include
apparatus
8. Cutting terms:

9. Keep in mind:
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO₃) supplies CO2
- Soda-lime/Potassium hydroxide removes carbon dioxide

58
________________________________________________________________

Graph Drawing
1. Graph should occupy about 3/4 of the paper
2. Graph is most probably best-fit line/curve (Bring curve ruler in case)
3. Examine the data to establish if the scale needs to start at zero. If it is
unnecessary to start at 0, add a zig-zag on the axis where the scale is excluded.
4. Draw according to S.L.A.P. (Scale, Line, Accuracy, Proportion)
1
➔ S: The smallest interval cannot be an irrational number etc 3 (2 cm rep 6s)
Can put a squiggle on the x-axis only if value does not start directly from 0
Remember to write a 0 but ensure it is equidistant from X and Y axis
➔ L: When in doubt, plot a smooth curve
➔ A: Plot a graph of Y against X (rise against run)
Remember to have units
Copy headers from the question
MUST write 0 in axis
➔ P: Ensure all values are plotted
Dot/Cross out all points on the graph paper
Make sure points are accurate
➔ T: Graph/Histogram/Bar chart of (Y axis header)(units) against X axis header(units
5. Scale should not be odd (e.g. 3 cm=5 units)
6. Title: Graph of dependent variable Y/units against independent variable
X/units
7. Do not extend the line beyond the first and last data points given(no
extrapolation)
8. Histogram: Title: Histogram of Frequency against Length of trout(cm)
➔ Y-axis need arrowhead for frequency
➔ X-axis if continuous then need arrow
➔ At least 8 ranges-12 ranges is healthy
➔ Can overlap: shade differently and include a legend
➔ For continuous variables; numeric and can have many values in
between ( e.g. height of girls in a class; number of bubbles counted;
difference in mass)

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 Length of ……./ mm

20 datas

Length of Turtle(x m) Tally Frequency

Length of trout/ x Wild Bred in captivity

cm
Tally frequency tally frequency

9. When in doubt, join the lines with a smooth curve

10. Best fit line or curve should have points equidistant from the line itself (You
must have the same number of points above and below the curve)
11. Bar chart
➔ Do not touch y-axis
➔ Each block drawn of equal width, Do not touch each other
➔ For discontinuous variation, e.g. can roll tongue
➔ No need arrow-head for x-axis
➔ y-axis arrowhead for frequency
➔ Identify relationships when the independent variable is categoric
(separate categories without in-between values), but the dependent
variable is continuous

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 ➔ Independent variable placed on horizontal axis
➔ Axis should be clearly labelled. The continuous variable should have an
appropriate scale, units and regular interval cuts on axes clearly shown.
➔ A title should be included(Bar chart showing total yield(kg) of French
bean and sweat pees)

10. Line graphs are used when the independent variable is manipulated or controlled
and the resultant dependent data is continuous in nature.

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________________________________________________________________

Planning Section
➔ Know what are the dependent, independent and constant variables
1 independent/changed variable
1 dependent variable
3 constant variables
➔ Apparatus used (The question usually states what's available and not, no need
to list everything), quantity of sample( X amount, use volume, concentration)
➔ Procedure (Be precise & to the point. Avoid convoluted sentences. try to keep it
between 5-7 steps. Data to be recorded) Usually at least 6 set-ups. State regular
intervals (e.g. pH of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11)
➔ Identify precautions and sources of errors
➔ Conclusion: Give a prediction (Results for all possible outcomes)
➔ Reliability/Accuracy (Optional step to ensure your 6 marks are secured)

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Formulas/Calculations
1. Magnification >> Drawing/Actual (1 d.p.)
2. Rate Of Change >> Variable/time (e.g. cm/s)
3. Rate of photosynthesis>>>arbitrary units/s

Data recording
➔ Include dependant and independent variable
➔ If have test-tubes A to E, include a column for the different concentrations they
have
➔ Heading with units

Precautions for instruments

➔ Syringes
➢ Tap to remove air bubbles
➢ Read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level to prevent parallax error
➔ Thermometer
➢ Ensure bulb of thermometer is suspended in the liquid and not touching
the wall of the container, so the temperature measured is of the liquid

Apparatus list

- Light microscope, with high- and low-power objective lenses (2 candidates to

- Microscope slides and coverslips
- Mounted needle
- Hand lens (not less than ×6)
- Half metre rule or metre rule
- 30 cm plastic ruler with a mm scale
- Syringes (e.g. 1 cm3, 5 cm3, 10 cm3)
- Dropper/Pasteur pipettes
- Measuring cylinders
- Beakers
- Petri dishes
- Test-tube (some of which should be heat-resistant)
- Test-tube rack and holder
- Boiling tubes
- Boiling tube rack
- Glass rod

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- Rubber bungs to fit test-tubes and boiling tubes
- Knife or scalpel
- Forceps
- Capillary tubes
- Visking tubings
- Rubber tubings
- Thermometer: –10 °C to +110 °C
- Stopwatch
- White tile
- Filter funnel and paper
- Pestle and mortar
- Spatulas
- Glass marker pen
- Cotton wool
- Black paper
- Aluminium foil
- Balance to an accuracy of 0.01 g (to be made accessible to candidates)
- Retort stand and clamp
- Bench lamp with 60 W bulb
- Distilled/deionised water in a wash bottle

Reagants

• iodine solution, in a container with a dropping pipette

• Benedict’s solution, in a container with a dropping pipette

• ethanol (denatured), in a stoppered bottle with a dropping pipette

• copper sulfate and sodium hydroxide solutions for Biuret tests or commercially
prepared Biuret reagent, in bottles with droppers

• glucose solution

• starch solution

• sodium chloride

• dilute hydrochloric acid

• hydrogen carbonate indicator

• sodium hydrogen carbonate

• limewater

• Universal Indicator paper and chart

• litmus paper

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• cobalt chloride paper; test water vapour

• methylene blue

• petroleum jelly (or similar)

66