Chapter 3

Techniques of Integration

In this chapter, our main goal is to develop methods for finding integals for various types of
algebraic and transcendental functions. From our previous knowledge, we can provide a detailed
table of indefinite integals shown in Table 3.1. Equipped with this table, our first attempt is
to use it to improve our skills and techniques in dealing with the various types of integrals that
follow.

3.1 Miscellaneous integrals

Example 3.1.1. Evaluate the following integrals:

Z Z p Z 1
dx 3
ln(x + 1) 3
(i) (iv) dx (vii) x2 ex dx
x2 + 2x + 2 x+1 0
Z Z Z
x cos2 x
(ii) dx (v) dx (viii) tan xdx
4 − x2 1 − sin x
Z Z Z
dx x2
(iii) (vi) dx (ix) sec xdx
1 + ex 1 + x2

Solution:

(i) Z Z
dx dx
2
=
x + 2x + 2 1 + (1 + x)2
Let u = 1 + x, so du = dx. Then we have
Z Z
dx du
2
= = tan−1 u + c = tan−1 (1 + x) + c
1 + (1 + x) 1 + u2

(ii) Let u = 4 − x2 , so du = −2xdx. Then

Z Z
x 1 du 1 1 1
dx = − = − ln |u| + c = − ln(4 − x2 ) + c = ln √ + c.
4 − x2 2 u 2 2 4 − x2

28
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 29

Table 3.1:

F 0 (x) F (x) + c
d
R
(x) = 1 1dx = x + c
dx
d xn+1
R n xn+1
(
dx n+1
) = xn (n 6= −1) R x1 dx = n+1 + c
d
dx
(ln x) = x1 R xxdx = lnxx + c
d
dx
(ex ) = ex R e dx = e + c
d
dx
d
(− cos x) = sin x R sin xdx = − cos x + c
dx
(sin x) = cos x R cos2xdx = sin x + c
d
dx
(tan x) = sec2 x R sec2 xdx = tan x + c
d
dx
(− cot x) = csc2 x R csc xdx = − cot x + c
d
dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x R sec x tan xdx = sec x + c
d
dx
(− csc x) = csc x cot x R cscdxx cot xdx−1= − csc x + c
d
(sin−1 x) = √1−x 1 √ = sin x + c
dx
d −1 1
2
R dx 1−x2
−1
dx
(tan x) = 1+x2 R 1+xdx2 tan −1
= x+c
d −1 √1
dx
(sec x) = |x| x2 −1
√ = sec |x| + c
d
R x x2 −1
dx
(cosh x) = sinh x R sinh xdx = cosh x + c
d
dx
(sinh x) = cosh x R cosh2xdx = sinh x + c
d
dx
(tanh x) = sech2 x R sech2 xdx = tanh x + c
d
dx
(− coth x) = csch2 x R csch xdx = − coth x + c
d
dx
d
(− sech x) = sech x tanh x) R sech x tanh xdx = − sech x + c
dx
(− csch x) = csch x coth x R csch x coth xdx = − csch x + c
d
(sinh−1 x) = √x12 +1 √ dx = sinh−1 x + c
dx x2 +1 √
R dx or = ln(x + x2 + 1) + c
d
(cosh−1 x) = √ 1 √ −1
= cosh x + c
dx x2 −1 x2 −1 √
2
R dx or = ln(x−1+ x − 1) + c
d
dx
(tanh−1 x) = 1
1−x2 1−x2
= tanh x + c
R dx or = 12 ln 1+x
1−x
+c
d
dx
(− sech−1 x) = √1
x 1−x2
√
x 1−x2
= − sech−1 x + c
or = ln 1+√x1−x2 + c
R dx
d
dx
(− csch−1 x) = √−1
|x| 1+x2
√
x 1+x2
= − csch−1 |x| + c

(iii) Let u = 1 + ex , so du = ex dx and thus dx = du/(u − 1). Therefore

Z Z Z  
dx du 1 1
= = − du
1 + ex u(u − 1) u−1 u
Z Z Z Z
du du d(u − 1) du
= − = −
u−1 u u−1 u
= ln(u − 1) − ln u + c
= ln ex − ln(1 + ex ) + c
 x 
e
= ln + c.
1 + ex
(iv) Let u = ln(x + 1), so du = dx/(x + 1). Therefore
Z p 3
Z
ln(x + 1) 1 3 4
dx = u 3 du = [ln(x + 1)] 3 + c.
x+1 4
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 30

(v)
Z Z Z
cos2 x 1 − sin2 x (1 − sin x)(1 + sin x)
dx = dx = dx
1 − sin x Z 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
= (1 + sin x)dx = x − cos x + c.

(vi)
Z Z   Z Z
x2 1 dx
2
dx = 1− 2
dx = dx −
1+x 1+x 1 + x2
= x − tan−1 x + c.

3 3 3
(vii) Let ex = u, so du = 3x2 ex dx, and thus du/3 = x2 ex dx. When x = 0, u = 1 and when
x = 1, u = e. Therefore
Z 1 Z e e
3 du 1  e−1
x2 ex dx = = u = .
0 1 3 3 1 3

(viii) Let u = cos x, so du = − sin xdx. Then

Z Z Z
sin x du
tan xdx = dx = − = − ln |u| + c
cos x u
1 1
= ln + c = ln + c = ln | sec x| + c.
|u| | cos x|

(ix)
Z Z Z
sec x + tan x sec2 x + sec x tan x
sec xdx = sec x · dx = dx
Z sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
d(sec x + tan x)
= = ln | sec x + tan x| + c.
sec x + tan x


Z
Remark 3.1.1. We have used a speculative technique to solve the integral sec xdx. A formal
method for evaluating this integral will be presented in Section 3.3.1.

Exercise 3.1.1.

1. Evaluate the following integrals.

Z √ Z π Z
dx
(i) x x2 + 1 dx. (iv) x cos x dx. (vii) √ .
0 8x − 4x2
Z 9 Z Z 1
√
dx 3 e x
(ii) √ . (v) (1 + cos x) sin x dx. (viii) √ dx.
4 x − x 0 x
Z √ Z Z
tan x √
(iii) √ dx. (vi) sec2 x tan x dx. (ix) csc x(csc x − 1)dx.
x
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 31
Z Z Z
sin x cos x cos x dx
(x) dx. (xiv) . (xviii) ex (1 + tan ex )dx.
cos2 x − 1 2 + sin x
Z Z
Z √
4x + 2
ex e x+1 (xix) dx.
(xi) dx. (xv) √ dx. x2
+ x + 5
1 + e2x x + 1 Z
Z Z dx
dx dx (xx) √ .
(xii) . (xvi) √ . 2x2 − x + 2
x(ln x)3 e2x − 1 Z
Z Z (xxi) csc xdx.
cos x dx e2x − 1
(xiii) √ . (xvii) dx. (hint: use csc x − cot x)
2 + cos 2x e2x+1

2. (a) Prove that if f is an odd function that is continuous on [−a, a], then
Z a
f (x)dx = 0.
−a

(b) Show that if f is an even function which is continuous on [−a, a], then
Z a Z a
f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx.
−a 0

Hence show that Z π

6 dx 2
2
= √ .
− π6 1+x 3

3.2 Integration by Parts

If the funtions f and g are differentiable, then

d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x) (g(x)) + (f (x))
dx dx dx
so that if f 0 and g 0 are continuous then
Z Z
f (x)g(x) = f (x)g (x)dx + g(x)f 0 (x)dx
0

which is equivalent to
Z Z
f (x)g 0 (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f 0 (x)dx. (3.1)

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x), then du = f 0 (x)dx and dv = g 0 (x)dx. Thus Equation (3.1) becomes
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu. (3.2)
Z
Example 3.2.1. Evaluate cos−1 xdx.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 32
√
Solution: Let u = cos−1 x, dv = dx; then du = −dx/ 1 − x2 , v = x.
Z Z
dx
∴ −1 −1
cos xdx = x cos x − x · − √
Z 1 − x2
1 d(1 − x2 )
= x cos−1 x − √ dx
2Z 1 − x2
1 1
= x cos−1 x − (1 − x2 )− 2 d(1 − x2 )
2
−1
√
= x cos x − 1 − x2 + c.


Z
Example 3.2.2. Find x2 ex dx.

Solution: Let u = x2 , dv = ex dx; so du = 2xdx, v = ex . Then

Z Z Z
x2 ex dx = x2 ex − ex .2xdx = x2 ex − 2 xex dx.
R
For xex dx, let u = x, dv = ex dx so that du = dx, v = ex . Therefore
Z Z
xex dx = xex − ex dx = xex − ex + c1

and
Z Z
2 x 2 x
x e dx = x e − 2 xex dx = x2 ex − 2(xex − ex + c1 )
= x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + c = ex (x2 − 2x + 2) + c.

Example 3.2.3. Prove that

Z Z
n ax xn eax n
x e dx = − xn−1 eax dx.
a a

Proof: Let u = xn , dv = eax ; so du = nxn−1 dx, v = a1 eax .

Z Z
xn eax n
∴ n ax
x e dx = − xn−1 eax dx.
a a

Z
Example 3.2.4. Find ex cos xdx.

Solution: Let u = ex , dv = cos xdx; so du = ex dx, v = sin x.

Z Z
∴ x x
e cos xdx = e sin x − ex sin xdx.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 33
R
For ex sin xdx, let u = ex , dv = sin xdx; so du = ex dx, v = − cos x.
Z Z
∴ x x
e sin xdx = − e cos x + ex cos xdx

and
Z Z
e cos xdx = e sin x − (−e cos x + ex cos xdx)
x x x

Z
= e sin x + e cos x − ex cos xdx
x x

which is equivalent to Z
2 ex cos xdx = ex sin x + ex cos x + c1 ,
that is, Z
1 x
ex cos xdx = e (sin x + cos x) + c
2

Z
Example 3.2.5. Evaluate sin(ln x)dx.

cos(ln x)
Solution: Let u = sin(ln x), dv = dx; so du = dx, v = x.
x
Z Z
∴ sin(ln x)dx = x sin(ln x) − cos(ln x)dx.
Z
sin(ln x)
For cos(ln x)dx, let u = cos(ln x), dv = dx; so du = − dx, v = x. Therefore
x
Z Z
cos(ln x)dx = x cos(ln x) + sin(ln x)dx

and Z Z
sin(ln x)dx = x sin(ln x) − [x cos(ln x) + sin(ln x)dx]
which is equivalent to
Z
2 sin(ln x)dx = x[sin(ln x) − cos(ln x)] + c1 ,
or Z
x
sin(ln x)dx = [sin(ln x) − cos(ln x)] + c.
2

Z
Example 3.2.6. Find x sin xdx.

Solution: Let u = x, dv = sin xdx; so du = dx, v = − cos x.

Z Z
∴ x sin xdx = −x cos x + cos xdx
= −x cos x + sin x + c.

CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 34

Example 3.2.7. Prove that

Z Z
x sin xdx = −x cos x + n xn−1 cos xdx.
n n

Solution: Let u = xn , dv = sin x; so du = nxn−1 dx, v = − cos x.

Z Z
∴ x sin xdx = −x cos x + n xn−1 cos xdx;
n n

this equation is called the reduction formula. 

Z
Example 3.2.8. Evaluate x2 ln xdx.

R R
Solution: Let u = x2 , dv = ln xdx; so du = 2xdx, v = ln xdx. Now for ln xdx let u =
dx
ln x, dv = dx; so du = , v = x. Therefore
x
Z Z Z
dx
ln xdx = x ln x − x = x ln x − dx
x
and
Z Z
2 2
x ln xdx = x (x ln x − x) − 2x(x ln x − x)dx
Z Z
= x2 (x ln x − x) − 2 x2 ln xdx + 2 x2 dx.

So Z
2
3 x2 ln xdx = x3 ln x − x3 + x3 + c1
3
or Z
x3 x3
x2 ln xdx = ln x − +c
3 9

Z
Example 3.2.9. Find x tan−1 xdx.

dx x2
Solution: Let u = tan−1 x, dv = xdx; so du = , v = .
1 + x2 2
Z Z
x2 1 x2
∴ x tan−1 xdx = −1
tan x − dx
2 2  1 + x2 
Z
x2 −1 1 1
= tan x − 1− dx
2 2 1 + x2
Z Z
x2 −1 1 1 dx
= tan x − dx +
2 2 2 1 + x2
x2 x 1
= tan−1 x − + tan−1 x + c
2 2 2
1 2 −1 x
= (1 + x ) tan x − + c.
2 2

CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 35
Z
Example 3.2.10. Find sinh−1 xdx.

dx
Solution: Let u = sinh x, dv = dx; so du = √ , v = x.
x2 + 1
Z Z
−1 x
sinh xdx = x sinh x − √ dx
2
Z x +1
1 1
= x sinh−1 x − (x2 + 1)− 2 d(x2 + 1)
2
−1
√
= x sinh x − x2 + 1 + c.


Z
Example 3.2.11. Find sec3 xdx.

Solution: Let u = sec x, dv = sec2 xdx; so du = sec x tan xdx, v = tan x.

Z Z
∴ sec xdx = sec x tan x − sec x tan2 xdx
3

Z
= sec x tan x − sec x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
3
= sec x tan x − sec xdx + sec xdx.

Thus
Z Z
2 sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + sec xdx
= sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + c1 (by Example 3.1.1(ix))

Thus Z
1 1
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + c.
2 2

Exercise 3.2.1.

1. Find the given integral

Z Z Z 1
x3
(i) sin−1 xdx (v) 3 x
x e dx (ix) √ dx
Z 0 1 + x2
Z Z 1
2x (vi) n
x ln xdx xex
(ii) xe dx (x) dx
(1 + x)2
Z Z 1 Z0
(iii) ln xdx (vii) cot−1 xdx (xi) sec5 xdx
0
Z Z e Z 4 √
(iv) x
e sin xdx (viii) 2
(ln x) dx (xii) sec−1 xdx
1 1

2. Prove the given reduction formula.

CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 36
Z Z
(i) x sin xdx = −x cos x + n xn−1 cos xdx
n n

Z Z
(ii) (ln x) dx = x(ln x) − n (ln x)n−1 dx
n n

Z Z
n m sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
(iii) sin x cos xdx = − + sinn−2 x cosm xdx
m+n m+n
Z Z
n secn−2 x tan x n − 2
(iv) sec xdx = + secn−2 xdx, n 6= 1
n−1 n−1
Z Z
n 1 n−1 n−1
(v) cos xdx = cos x sin x + cosn−2 xdx
n n
R
3. Find the fallacy in the following statement: Given dx/x, let u = 1/x and dv = dx so that
du = −(dx/x2 ) and v = x. So
Z Z   Z Z
dx 1 dx 1 dx
= ·x− x − 2 ⇔ dx = 1 + ⇒ 0 = 1.
x x x x x
R
4. Is there any fallacy in the following computation of ln(x + 10)dx? Let u = ln(x + 10) and
dv = dx so that du = dx/(x + 10) and v = x + 10. So
Z Z
x + 10
ln(x + 10)dx = (x + 10) ln(x + 10) − dx
Z x + 10
= (x + 10) ln(x + 10) − dx
= (x + 10) ln(x + 10) − x + c.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 37

3.3 Trigonometric Integrals

Example 3.3.1. (reduction formula) Show that

Z Z
n m sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
sin x cos xdx = − + sinn−2 x cosm xdx. (3.3)
m+n m+n

Solution: We employ integration by parts technique: let u = sinn−1 x, dv = cosm x sin xdx; so
du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos xdx and
Z Z
cosm+1 x
v = cos x sin xdx = − cosm xd(cos x) = −
m
.
m+1
Z Z
sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
∴ n m
sin x cos xdx = − + sinn−2 x cosm+2 xdx
m+1 m+1
Z
sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
= − + sinn−2 x cosm x(1 − sin2 x)dx
m+1 m+1
Z
sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
= − + sinn−2 x cosm xdx
mZ+ 1 m+1
n−1
− sinn x cosm xdx.
m+1
Thus
 Z Z
n−1 n m sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
1+ sin xdx cos xdx = − + sinn−2 x cosm xdx
m+1 m+1 m+1

Z  Z 
m+1 sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
∴ n m
sin x cos xdx = − + sinn−2 m
x cos xdx
m+n m+1 m+1
Z
sinn−1 x cosm+1 x n−1
= − + sinn−2 x cosm xdx.
m+n m+n

Example 3.3.2. Evaluate
Z Z
(i) sin2 xdx. (ii) cos3 xdx.

Solution:

(i) Since n = 2 and m = 0, Formula (3.3) leads to

Z Z
sin2−1 x cos0+1 x 2 − 1
sin2 xdx = − + sin2−2 x cos0 xdx
2+0 Z 2 + 0
sin x cos x 1 sin x cos x x
= − + dx = − + +c
2 2 2 2
x sin 2x
= − + c.
2 4
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 38

(ii) Formula (3.3) is not applicable for n = 0 and m = 3. So write we cos3 x = cos2 x cos x =
(1 − sin2 x) cos x, and let u = sin x ⇒ du = cos xdx. Thus
Z Z Z
cos3 xdx = (1 − sin2 x) cos xdx = (1 − u2 )du
u3 sin3 x
= u− + c = sin x − + c.
3 3


Remark 3.3.1. For n ≥ 2 and m = 0, Formula (3.3) becomes
Z Z
n 1 n−1 n−1
sin xdx = − sin x cos x + sinn−2 xdx. (3.4)
n n
Example 3.3.3. Prove the reduction formula
Z Z
n 1 n−1 n−1
cos xdx = cos x sin x + cosn−2 xdx. (3.5)
n n

Solution: Let u = cosn−1 x, dv = cos xdx; so du = −(n − 1) cosn−2 x sin xdx, v = sin x.
Integrating by parts we obtain,
Z Z
n n−1
cos xdx = cos x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 xdx
Z
n−1
= cos x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x(1 − cos2 x)dx
Z Z
n−1 n−2
= cos x sin x + (n − 1) cos xdx − (n − 1) cosn xdx.

Z Z
∴ n n
cos xdx = cos n−1
x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
n 1 n−1
⇔ cos xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx.
n n

Note 3.3.1. We observe that Example (3.3.2)(ii) can be found by using Formula (3.5).

In dealing with trigonometric integrals of the form

Z
sinn x cosm xdx, ∀ m, n ∈ N \ {0}, (3.6)

the following steps are used:

step1: If n and m are both even, we apply the half-angle formulae

sin2 x = 12 (1 − cos 2x) and cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x).
step2: If n is odd, we apply sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x and substitute u = cos x.
step3: If m is odd, we apply cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x and substitute u = sin x.
Example 3.3.4. Find
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 39
Z Z Z
2 2 3 2
(i) sin x cos xdx. (ii) sin x cos xdx. (iii) sin2 x cos3 xdx.

Solution:

(i) Since both m and n are even, step1 leads us to

Z Z
2 2
sin x cos xdx = (1 − cos2 x) cos2 xdx
Z Z
= cos xdx − cos4 xdx
2

Z Z  2
1 + cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
= dx − dx
2 2
Z
x sin 2x 1
= + − (1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x)dx
2 4 4 Z Z
x sin 2x x 1 1 1 + cos 4x
= + − − cos 2xdx − dx
2 4 4 2 4 2
x + sin 2x sin 2x x sin 4x
= − − − +c
4 4 8 32
x sin 4x
= − +c
8  32 
1 sin 4x
= x− + c.
8 4

(ii) Since n is odd step2 leads us to

Z Z
3 2
sin x cos xdx = sin2 x cos2 x. sin xdx
Z
= − (1 − cos2 x) cos2 xd(cos x)
Z
= (cos4 x − cos2 x)d(cos x)
1 1
= cos5 x − cos3 x + c.
5 3
(iii) Since m is odd step3 leads us to
Z Z
sin2 x cos3 xdx = sin2 x cos2 x. cos xdx
Z
= sin2 x(1 − sin2 x)d(sin x)
Z Z
= sin2 xd(sin x) − sin4 xd(sin x)
1 3 1
= sin x − sin5 x + c.
3 5


To evaluate trigonometric integrals of the form
Z
tann x secm xdx, ∀ n, m ∈ N \ {0}, (3.7)
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 40

exploit the following steps:

step1: If m is even and m ≥ 2, apply sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x and substitute u = tan x.

step2: If n is odd and n ≥ 2, apply tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 and substitute u = sec x.

step3: If m is odd and n is even, write the integral in terms of sec x. Integration by parts may
be used to handle powers of sec x.

step4: If m = 0, apply tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 and, if necessary, employ the formula

Z Z Z
sin x d(cos x)
tan xdx = dx = − = − ln | cos x| + c = ln | sec x| + c.
cos x cos x

Example 3.3.5.
R R
(i) tan2 x sec2 xdx (iii) tan2 x sec xdx
R R
(ii) tan x sec3 xdx (iv) tan5 xdx

Solution:

(i) Since m is even we use step1 let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 x and
Z Z
u3 tan3 x
tan x sec xdx = u2 du =
2 2
+c= + c.
3 3

(ii) The above steps do not apply; now

Z Z
3
tan x sec xdx = sec2 x(sec x tan xdx)
Z
= sec2 xd(sec x)
1
= sec3 x + c.
3

(iii) Since m is odd and n is even we use step3;

Z Z
2
tan x sec xdx = (sec2 x − 1) sec xdx
Z Z
3
= sec xdx − sec xdx
1 1
= sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|
2 2
− ln | sec x + tan x| + c
1 1
= sec x tan x − ln | sec x + tan x| + c.
2 2
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 41

(iv) Since m = 0, we use step4 and obtain

Z Z
5
tan xdx = tan3 x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
= tan x sec xdx − tan3 xdx
3 2

Z Z
= tan xd(tan x) − tan x(sec2 x − 1)dx
3

Z Z
1 4
= tan x − tan xd(tan x) + tan xdx
4
1 1
= tan4 x − tan2 x + ln | sec x| + c.
4 2


To evaluate trigonometric integals of the form
Z Z Z
sin nx sin mxdx, sin nx cos mxdx, and cos nx cos mxdx, ∀ m, n ∈ N, (3.8)

the identities below are used:

1. sin α sin β = 12 [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)]

2. sin α cos β = 12 [sin(α − β) + sin(α + β)]
3. cos α cos β = 21 [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)]
Example 3.3.6. Find
Z Z Z
(i) sin 2x sin 4xdx (ii) sin 3x cos 4xdx (iii) cos 3x cos 6xdx

Solution:

(i) We use identity1;

Z Z
1
sin 2x sin 4xdx = [cos(2 − 4)x − cos(2 + 4)x]dx
2Z Z
1 1
= cos(−2x)dx − cos 6xdx
2Z Z 2
1 1
= cos 2xdx − cos 6xdx
2 2
1 1
= sin 2x − sin 6x + c.
4 12
(ii) We use identity2;
Z Z
1
sin 3x cos 4xdx = [sin(−x) + sin 7x]dx
2 Z Z
1 1
= − sin xdx + sin 7xdx
2 2
1 1
= cos x − cos 7x + c.
2 14
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 42

(iii) We use identity3;

Z Z
1
cos 3x cos 6xdx = [cos(−3)x + cos 9x]dx
2Z Z
1 1
= cos 3xdx + cos 9xdx
2 2
1 1
= sin 3x + sin 9x + c.
6 18


R
Remark 3.3.2. Other types of integrals, like cotn x cscm xdx, can be evaluated similarly.
Exercise 3.3.1.

1. Find each of the given integral

Z Z π/4
Z
(i) sin2 x cos xdx (vi) tan4 x sec2 xdx (xi) sin−10 x cos3 xdx
Z Z0 Z
tan x
(ii) cos4 xdx (vii) 5
tan πx sec πxdx (xii) dx
sec2 x
Z Z Z
(iii) tan8 x sec6 xdx (viii) 4 3
sec 3x tan 3xdx (xiii) sin x sin 3xdx
Z Z √ Z
(iv) sin2 x cos5 xdx (ix) sin x cos3 xdx (xiv) sin x cos 5xdx
Z Z Z
1 − tan2 x
(v) sin2 πx cos4 πxdx (x) sec4 x cot4 xdx (xv) dx
sec2 x

2. Derive each reduction formula (a is a constant).

Z Z
n cosn−1 ax sin ax n − 1
(i) cos axdx = + cosn−2 axdx.
na n
Z Z
n cotn−1 ax
(ii) cot axdx = − − cotn−2 axdx, n 6= 1.
a(n − 1)
Z Z
n cscn−2 ax cot ax n − 2
(iii) csc axdx = − + cscn−2 axdx, n 6= 1.
a(n − 1) n−1
3. Find
Z π Z π Z π
(i) sin nx cos mx dx, (ii) sin nx sin mx dx, (iii) cos nx sin mx dx.
−π −π −π
Pn
4. F (x) = ai sin ix = a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + · · · + an sin nx. Prove that am is given by the
i=1
formula Z
1 π
am = F (x) sin mxdx
π −π
[Hint: use Exercise 3(ii)].
P
5. SupposeR F (x) = a20 + ni=1 (ai cos ix + bRi sin ix), x ∈ R. Use Exercise 3 to show that
π π
am = π1 −π F (x) cos mx dx and bm = π1 −π F (x) sin mx dx, where m ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 43

3.3.1 Trigonometric Substitution

√ √
In this section use we deal with integrands involving x2 − a2 and a2 ± x2 ; we employ the
following steps to remove the roots before integration:

√ √
(i) For integrals involving a2 − x2 , let x = a sin θ ⇒ a2 − x2 = a cos θ.
√ √
(ii) For integrals involving a2 + x2 , let x = a tan θ ⇒ a2 + x2 = a sec θ.
√ √
(iii) For integrals involving x2 − a2 , let x = a sec θ ⇒ x2 − a2 = a tan θ.
Example 3.3.7.
Z Z √ Z
dx dx
(i) √ , (ii) 16 − x2 dx, (iii) √ .
x 16 − x2
2 x2 x2 + 4

Solution:

(i) Let x = 4 sin θ; then dx = 4 cos θdθ, and

Z Z Z
dx 4 cos θ 1 dθ
√ = 2 dθ =
2
x 16 − x 2 16
Z sin θ.4 cos θ 16 sin2 θ
1 1
= csc2 θdθ = − cot θ + c.
16 16
√
16 − x2 1
Now x = 4 sin θ ⇒ sin θ = x/4; so cot θ = = . Thus
x tan x
Z √
dx 16 − x2
√ =− + c.
x2 16 − x2 16x

(ii) Let x = 2 sec θ; then dx = 2 sec θ tan θdθ.

Z √ Z Z
∴ 2
x − 4dx = 4 sec θ tan θdθ = 4 tan2 θ sec θdθ
2

 
1 1
= 4 sec θ tan θ − ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c1
2 2
√
x2 − 4
by Example 3.3.5(iii). Let x = 2 sec θ; then sec θ = x/2 and tan θ = .
2
Z √  √ 2  √ 
x x −4 x x2 − 4 
∴ 2
x − 4dx = 2 
− ln  +
2 2 2 2  + c1
√
x x2 − 4 √
= − ln(x + x2 − 4)2 + c.
2

(iii) Let x = 2 tan θ; so dx = 2 sec2 θdθ.

Z Z Z
dx 2 sec2 θ
∴ √ = dθ = sec θdθ
x2 + 4 2 sec θ
= ln |sec θ + tan θ| + c1
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 44
√
x2 + 4 x
Since x = 2 tan θ, then tan θ = x/2, sec θ = and tan θ = .
2 2
Z  √ 
dx  x2 + 4 x 
 
∴ √ = ln  +  + c1
2
x +4  2 2 
√
= ln |x + x2 + 4| + c.

R 
An informal solution to the integral sec θdθ was presented in Section 3.1. We now look at a
formal evaluation of this integral.
Z
Example 3.3.8. Evaluate sec θdθ.

dx √
Solution: Let x = sec θ; so dx = sec θ tan θdθ ⇒ sec θdθ = , where tan θ = x2 − 1.
tan θ
Z Z
dx
∴ sec θdθ = √
x2 √
−1
= ln |x + x2 − 1| + c (see Table 3.1, Section 3.1)
= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c.


R √
Example 3.3.9. Find (x + 3)/ x2 + 4x + 13)dx.

Solution: Let x + 2 = 3 tan θ; so dx = 3 sec2 θdθ.

Z Z Z
x+3 x+3 (3 tan θ + 1).3 sec2 θ
∴ √ dx = p dx = √ dθ
x2 + 4x + 13 (x + 2)2 + 9 3 tan2 θ + 1
Z Z Z
= (3 tan θ + 1) sec θdθ = 3 sec θ tan θdθ + sec θdθ
= 3 sec θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c1 .
√
Since x + 2 = 3 tan θ, then tan θ = (x + 2)/3 and sec θ = x2 + 4x + 13/3. Thus
√  
Z
x+3 x2 + 4x + 13  x + 2 √x2 + 4x + 13 
 
√ dx = 3 + ln  +  + c1
2
x + 4x + 13 3  3 3 
√ √
= x2 + 4x + 13 + ln |x + 2 + x2 + 4x + 13| + c.

Example 3.3.10. Find the area bounded by the ellipse (x2 /4) + (y 2 /9) = 1.

√
Solution: We solve for y; y = ± 23 22 − x2 , ∀ x ∈ [−2, 2]. So the area A, bounded by the ellipse
is given by Z 2 √ Z 2√
3 2
A=4 4 − x dx = 6 4 − x2 dx.
0 2 0
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 45

Let x = 2 sin θ; so dx = 2 cos θdθ. Also, θ = 0 at x = 0 and θ = π/2 at x = 2.

Z πp
2
∴ A = 6 4 − 4 sin2 θ.2 cos θdθ
Z0 π Z π
2 2 1 + cos 2θ
2
= 24 cos θdθ = 24 dθ
0 0 2
 π
sin 2θ 2
= 12 θ + = 6π.
2 0

If an integrand consists of sin x or cos x or both, make the substitution t = tan x2 , x ∈ (−π/2, π/2).
Then  π π
x t x 1
sin = √ and cos = √ , x∈ − , .
2 1 + t2 2 1 + t2 2 2
Thus x   
x x t 1 2t
sin x = sin 2 = 2 sin cos = 2 √ √ = , (3.9)
2 2 2 1+t 2 1+t 2 1 + t2
and x x 2 1 − t2
cos x = cos 2 = 2 cos2 −1= − 1 = . (3.10)
2 2 1 + t2 1 + t2
Also,
x 1 x 2
t = tan ⇒ dt = sec2 dx ⇒ dx = dt. (3.11)
2 2 2 1 + t2
Remark 3.3.3. The German mathematician Karl Weierstrass (1815 - 1897) noticed that the
substitution t = tan(x/2) would convert any rational function of sin x and cos x into an ordinary
rational function of t.

Example 3.3.11. Find

Z Z π
dx 3 cos x
(i) , (ii) dx.
sin x + cos x 0 1 + sin x

Solution: Equations (3.9) - (3.11) lead us to

(i)
Z Z 2 Z Z
dx 1+t2 2 2
= dt = 2 2
dt = dt
sin x + cos x 2t
1+t2
+ 1−t1 + 2t − t
1+t2
2 − (t − 1)2
    
Z Z d t−1
√  1 + t−1
√ 
dt √ 2 √ 1  2 
=  2 = 2  2 = 2 · ln     + c
t−1 t−1 2  1 − t−1 √ 
1− √
2
1− √
2 2

(see Table 3.1, Section 3.1)

√  √ 
1  2 − 1 + t 1  2 − 1 + tan x 
   2
= √ ln  √  + c = √ ln  √  + c.
2  2 + 1 − t 2  2 + 1 − tan 2 
x
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 46

(ii)
Z Z 1−t2 2 Z Z  
cos x 1+t2
·1+t2 (1 − t) 1 t
dx = dt = 2
2t dt = 2 −
dt
1 + sin x 1+ 1+t2
(1 + t2 )(1 + t) 1 + t 1 + t2
(see Section 3.4)
Z Z Z Z  
dt t d(1 + t) d(1 + t2 )  (1 + t)2 
= 2 −2 dt = 2 − 
= ln  
1+t 1 + t2 1+t 1 + t2 1 + t2 
+c.
Z π  π √ √ !
3 cos x (1 + tan x2 )2 3 ( 3 + 1)2 3
∴ dx = ln 2 x
= ln = ln 1 + .
0 1 + sin x 1 + tan 2 0 4 2


Remark 3.3.4. We note that Example 3.3.11(ii) can also be solved as follows:
Z π Z π √ !
3 cos x 3 d(1 + sin x) π 3
dx = = ln(1 + sin x)|0 = ln 1 +
3
.
0 1 + sin x 0 1 + sin x 2
Exercise 3.3.2.

1. Find the given integral

Z √ Z √ Z √
9 − x2 1 − x2 (xv) ex 9 − e2x dx
(i) dx (viii) dx
x2 x4 Z
Z √ 2 Z √
dx
x −1 (3 3)/2
x3
(ii) dx (ix) dx (xvi) 2 + cos x
x 2
(4x + 9) 3/2
Z
Z Z0 dx
dx xdx (xvii)
(iii) √ (x) √ 3 sin x + 4 cos x
25 − x2 3 − 2x − x 2
Z
Z Z 2/3 √ cos x
x2 (xviii) dx
(iv) √ dx (xi) x3 4 − 9x2 dx sin x + sin2 x
9 − x2 Z π/2
Z Z0 √
dx sin 2x
(v) √ (xii) 2x − x2 dx (xix) dx
x2 x2 + 4 0 2 + cos x
Z Z Z π/3
dx dx dx
(vi) (xiii) √ (xx)
(1 + x2 )3/2 e e2x − 9
x 0 sin x − cos x − 1
Z 2 √ 2 Z Z
x −3 √ x
e dx
(vii) √ dx (xiv) e2x 1 + e2x dx (xxi) √
3 x 1 + ex + e2x
2. Use the substitution u = tanh(x/2) to evaluate the given integral.
Z Z
1
(i) sech xdx (ii) dx
cosh x + sinh x
3. Show that
R q R R R
(i) sec xdx = ln 1+sin x
1−sin x
+ c. [Hint: sec xdx = (cos x/ cos2 x)dx = (cos x/(1 −
sinx ))dx.]
R R √
(ii) sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c. [Hint: use √xdx
2 −1 = ln(x + x2 − 1 + c) and let
x = sec θ.]
4. Show that
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 47
Z r Z
1 − cos x (ii) csc xdx = ln | csc x − cot x| + c.
(i) csc xdx = ln + c.
1 + cos x

3.4 Partial Fractions

The idea in this section is to split or decompose proper rational functions (integrands), to partial
fractions, before integrating them.
Definition 3.4.1. A rational function r(x) = f (x)/g(x), where f and g are polynomials, is called
proper if the degree of f is less than the degree of g. Otherwise it is an improper rational function.
Theorem 3.4.1. Suppose that f and g are polynomials such that [p1 (x)]n1 [p2 (x)]n2 · · · [ps (x)]ns
is a factorization of g(x) into a product of powers with all pi (x) having no common factors, and
degf < degg. Then there is a unique polynomial hi (x), i = 1, 2, . . . , s with deghi (x) < degpi (x),
such that
f (x) h1 (x) h2 (x) hs (x)
= n
+ n
+ · · · + (3.12)
g(x) [p1 (x)] 1 [p2 (x)] 2 [ps (x)]ns
Definition 3.4.2. The simpler rational functions hi (x)/[pi (x)]ni in Equation (3.12) are called
partial fractions; they are the summands (or parts of the total sum) of the decomposition (which
is Equation (3.12)) of the given proper rational function f (x)/g(x).
Lemma 3.4.1. If p(x) = (x − a)n and h is a polynomial such that degh(x) < degp(x), then
h(x) A1 A2 An
= + 2
+ ··· + , (3.13)
p(x) (x − a) (x − a) (x − a)n
where a, Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n are constants.
Lemma 3.4.2. If p(x) = (x2 + bx + c)n and h is a polynomial such that degh(x) < degp(x), then
h(x) A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 An x + Bn
= 2 + 2 2
+ ··· + 2 , (3.14)
p(x) (x + bx + c) (x + bx + c) (x + bx + c)n
where b, c, Ai , and Bi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n are constants.
Example 3.4.1. Find the partial fraction decomposition of
x2 − 3x + 1 x5
(i) f (x) = , (ii) f (x) = .
x3 − 3x2 + 2x (x − 1)3

Solution:

(i) Since x3 − 3x2 + 2x = x(x − 1)(x − 2), then

x2 − 3x + 1 A B C
f (x) = = + + .
x(x − 1)(x − 2) x x−1 x−2
So the function

F (x) := x2 − 3x + 1 ≡ A(x − 1)(x − 2) + Bx(x − 2) + Cx(x − 1).

CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 48

Thus
1
F (0) = 1 = 2A ⇒ A =,
2
F (1) = −1 = −B ⇒ B = 1,
1
F (2) = −1 = 2C ⇒ C = − .
2
1 1 1
∴ f (x) = + − .
2x x − 1 2(x − 2)
(ii) By long division,
10x2 − 15x + 6
f (x) = x2 + 3x + 6 + ,
(x − 1)3
and by Lemma 3.4.1,
10x2 − 15x + 6 A B C
3
= + 2
+ .
(x − 1) x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1)3
So the function

G(x) := 10x2 − 15x + 6 ≡ A(x − 1)2 + B(x − 1) + C.

Thus,

G(1) = 1 = C,
G(0) = 6 = A − B + C ⇒ A − B = 5,
G(2) = 16 = A + B + C ⇒ A + B = 15,
⇒ A = 10 and B = 5.
10 5 1
∴ f (x) = x2 + 3x + 6 + + 2
+ .
x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1)3

Remark 3.4.1. The value of the constants A, B, and C found in Example 3.4.1 can as well be
found by comparing coefficients of x2 , x, and the constants on either side of the equivalent forms
of the functions F (x) and G(x).

Example 3.4.2. Find the following integrals.

Z Z
2x2 + 1 x5 − x4 − 2x3 + 4x2 − 15x + 5
(i) dx, (iii) dx.
x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 4)
Z
3x4 − x2 + 1
(ii) dx,
(x − 2)5

Solution: Using Lemmas 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 we obtain,

CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 49

(i)
Z Z  
2x2 + 1 3/2 −9 19/2
dx = + + dx
x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 x−1 x−2 x−3
Z Z Z
3 d(x − 1) d(x − 2) 19 d(x − 3)
= −9 +
2 x−1 x−2 2 x−3
3 19
= ln |x − 1| − 9 ln |x − 2| + ln |x − 3| + c.
2 2

(ii)
Z Z  
3x4 − x2 + 1 3 24 71 92 45
dx = + + + + dx
(x − 2)5 x − 2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)3 (x − 2)4 (x − 2)5
24 71 92 45
= 3 ln |x − 2| − − 2
− 3
− + c.
x − 2 2(x − 2) 3(x − 2) 4(x − 2)4

(iii)
Z
x5 − x4 − 2x3 + 4x2 − 15x + 5
dx
(x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 4)
Z  
x−3 2 4x
= + − dx
x2 + 4 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
Z Z Z
x−3 dx x
= 2
dx + 2 2
−4 dx
x +4 x +1 (x + 1)2
2
Z Z Z Z
x dx dx x
= 2
dx − 3 2
+2 2
−4 dx
x +4 x +4 x +1 (x + 1)2
2
Z Z Z Z
1 d(x2 + 4) 3 d(x/2) dx d(x2 + 1)
= − + 2 − 2
2 x2 + 4 2 (x/2)2 + 1 1 + x2 (x2 + 1)2
1 3 x 2
= ln |x2 + 4| − tan−1 + 2 tan−1 x + 2 + c.
2 2 2 x +1

Exercise 3.4.1.

1. Find the partial fraction decomposition of the given function.

5x − 12 x3 − 8x2 − 1
(i) f (x) = · (iv) f (x) = ·
x(x − 4) (x + 3)(x − 2)(x2 + 1)
6x2 − 3x + 1 9x4 + 17x3 + 3x2 − 8x + 3
(ii) f (x) = · (v) f (x) = ·
(4x + 1)(x2 + 1) x4 (x + 3)
5x + 7
(iii) f (x) = 2 ·
x + 4x + 4

2. Find each given integral.

Z Z
2x2 + 3 x3 − 8
(i) dx· (ii) dx·
x2 (x − 1) x5 − 3x4 − 3x3 − x2
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 50
Z Z
2x4 + x3 + 20x2 + 3x + 31 2 sin 2x − 3 cos x
(iii) dx· (vi) dx·
(x + 1)(x4 + 8x2 + 16) sin2 x − 3 sin x + 2
Z Z
5x2 + 20x + 6 sin x
(iv) dx· (vii) dx·
x3 + 2x2 + x cos x + cos3 x
Z 4
x − 2x2 + 4x + 1
(v) dx·
x3 − x2 − x + 1

3. Find the integrals in No.1.

3.5 Rationalizing Substitutions

The goal in this section is to rationalize integrands, removing roots or radicals, before the integra-
tion process commences. For integrands involving roots of x like xp/q , xr/s , etc., let x = un , where
n is the least common denominator (LCD) of p/q, r/s, etc., in other words, the least common
multiple (LCM) of q, s, etc. An example follows.
R √ √
Example 3.5.1. Find dx/( x + 3 x).

Solution: The LCM of 2 and 3 is 6; so let x = u6 ⇒ dx = 6u5 du.

Z Z Z
dx 6u5 6u3
∴ √ √ = du = du
x+ 3x u3 + u2 1+u
Z  
2 6
= 6u − 6u + 6 − du
1+u
Z
3 2 d(1 + u)
= 2u − 3u + 6u − 6
1+u
= 2u3 − 3u2 + 6u − 6 ln(1 + u) + c
√ √ √ √
= 2 x − 3 3 x + 6 6 x − 6 ln(1 + 6 x) + c.


For any integral of the form Z √
p(x) ax + b dx,

where p(x) is a polynomial, a and b are constants, apply the

R substitution
p u = ax+b or u2 = ax+b.
Generally, when an integrand is an expression of the form h(x) n g(x)dx, where g(x) and h(x) are
rational functions, then the substitution un = g(x) may be effective. This substitution is however
more effective if h(x) is a polynomial and g(x) is a rational function of the form (ax + b)/(cx + d),
where a, b, c, and d are constants. The substitution un = g(x) is called a rationalizing substitution,
since it transforms the integrand into a rational function.

Remark 3.5.1. The substitution in Example 3.5.1 is rationalizing.

R √
Example 3.5.2. Find x2 x + 1dx.
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 51

Solution: Let u = x + 1 (not a rationalizing substitution) ⇒ du = dx.

Z Z
√ √
∴ 2
x x + 1 dx = (u − 1)2 u du
Z
√
= (u2 − 2u + 1) u du
Z
= (u5/2 − 2u3/2 + u1/2 ) du
2 7/2 4 5/2 2 3/2
= u − u + u +c
7 5 3
2 4 2
= (x + 1)7/2 − (x + 1)5/2 + (x + 1)3/2 + c.
7 5 3


Exercise 3.5.1. Use u2 = x + 1 (rationalizing substitution) to redo Example 3.5.2.

Z √
x
Example 3.5.3. Find √ dx.
4−x

Solution: Let u2 = x/(4 − x) (rationalizing substitution) ⇒ x = 4u2 /(1 + u2 ) ⇒ dx = 8udu/(1 +

u2 )2 .
Z √ Z Z
x 8u2 8 tan2 θ sec2 θ
∴ √ dx = du = dθ (u = tan θ)
4−x (1 + u2 )2 (1 + tan2 θ)2
Z Z
tan2 θ
= 8 2θ
dθ = 8 sin2 θdθ
Z sec Z
1
= 8 (1 − cos 2θ)dθ = 4 (1 − cos 2θ)dθ
 2 
1
= 4 θ − sin 2θ + c = 4(θ − sin θ cos θ) + c
2
 
−1 u
= 4 tan u − +c
1 + u2
 r  
−1 x 1p
= 4 tan − x(4 − x) + c
4−x 4
r 
−1 x √
= 4 tan − 4x − x2 + c.
4−x


Exercise 3.5.2. Redo Example 3.5.3 with the substitution x = u2 (not rationalizing).

Exercise 3.5.3.

1. Make a substitution to express the integrand as a rational function and then evaluate the
integral.
Z Z Z √
2+x dx 3
x+1
(i) √ dx (ii) √ √ 2 (iii) √ dx
3
2−x x(1 + 3
x) 3
x−1
CHAPTER 3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 52
Z Z r Z
√ 1+x
1
1
(iv) x3 3x − 2dx (x) dx (xv) √ dx
Z 1−x 0 1+ 3x
3
√
3 Z Z
(v) x x2 + 1dx dx x3
Z (xi) √ (xvi) √3
dx
x5 1+ x+4 x2 + 1
(vi) √ dx Z √ Z 3 √
x 3+1
x+1 x
Z √ (xii) dx (xvii) dx
3
x x 1/3 x 2+x
(vii) √ dx
1+ x Z Z
Z dx 1
x3 (xiii) √ (xviii) √ √ dx
(viii) dx 2 x+3+x x− 3x
(x2 − 1)4/3
Z √
Z Z p √
dx 1+ x
x7 x4 + 1dx
3
(ix) (xiv) √ (xix) dx
x2 + x x x
√
2. Find the average of the function f (x) = x2 − 1/x on the closed interval [1, 7].

3. Show that
R if p(x) is a polynomial, the substitution un = (ax + b)/(cx + d) transforms the
ax+b 1/n
integral p(x)( cx+d ) dx into the integral of a rational function of u.