Microlink Information Technology College

ማይክሮሊንክ የኢንፎርሜሽን ቴክኖሎጂ ኮሌጅ

Department of Computer Engineering

Lecture Notes

Course Name: Electromagnetic Fields

Course Code: CEng- 3305

Lesson/Chapter: Chapter: 8

Section: RD2CE1 and ED3CE1

Instructor Name: Abinet E.

Mail address: abinet12wessen@gmail.com

Major Reference: Matthew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics,

Oxford University Press, New York, 2001.

Hayt, W.H., Engineering Electromagnetics, 4th ed.,

McGraw-Hill, 1981.
 Chapter 8
Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices
8.1 Introduction
Having considered the basic laws and techniques commonly used in calculating magnetic field B
due to current-carrying elements, we are prepared to study the force a magnetic field exerts on
charged particles, current elements, and loops. Such a study is important to problems on electrical
devices such as ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers, cyclotrons, plasmas, motors, and
magnetohydrodynamic generators.
Further discussions will cover inductors, inductances, magnetic energy, and magnetic circuits.

8.2 Forces Due to Magnetic Fields

There are at least three ways in which force due to magnetic fields can be experienced. The force
can be
a) Due to a moving charged particle in a B field,
b) On a current element in an external B field, or
c) Between two current elements.

A. Force on a Charged Particle

According to, the electric force Fe on a stationary or moving electric charge Q in an electric field
is given by Coulomb's experimental law and is related to the electric field intensity E as
(8.1)

This shows that if Q is positive, Fe and E have the same direction.

A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that the
magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a
magnetic field B is
(8.2)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 2

This clearly shows that Fm is perpendicular to both u and B.
From eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), a comparison between the electric force Fe and the magnetic force Fm
can be made. Fe is independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform
work on the charge and change its kinetic energy. Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity and
is normal to it. Fm cannot perform work because it is at right angles to the direction of motion of
the charge it does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge. The
magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.
For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total
force on the charge is given by

F = Fe + Fm

Or (8.3)
This is known as the Lorentz force equation. It relates mechanical force to electrical force. If the
mass of the charged particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton's second law of motion.
(8.4)

The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in
E and B fields. A summary on the force exerted on a charged particle is given in Table 8.1.
Since eq. (8.2) is closely parallel to eq. (8.1), which defines the electric field.

Table 8.1 Force on a Charged Particle

B. Force on a Current Element

To determine the force on a current element I dl of a current-carrying conductor due to the
magnetic field B, we modify eq. (8.2) using the fact that for convection current chapter 5

(8.5)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 3

From eq. (7.5), we recall the relationship between current elements:

Combining eqs. (8.5) and (8.6) yields

Alternatively,

Hence,
(8.6)

This shows that an elemental charge dQ moving with velocity u (thereby producing convection
current element dQ u) is equivalent to a conduction current element I dl. Thus the force on a current
element I dl in a magnetic field B is found from eq. (8.2) by merely replacing Qu by I dl; that is,

(8.7)
If the current I is through a closed path L or circuit, the force on the circuit is given by

(8.8)

In using eq. (8.8) or (8.9), we should keep in mind that the magnetic field produced by the current
element I dl does not exert force on the element itself just as a point charge does not exert force on
itself.
The B field that exerts force on I dl must be due to another element. In other words, the B field in
eq. (8.8) or (8.9) is external to the current element I dl. If instead of the line current element I dl,
we have surface current elements K dS or a volume current element J dv, we simply make use of
eq. (8.6) so that eq. (8.8) becomes

(8.8a)
while eq. (8.9) becomes

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 4

 (8.8b)

From eq. (8.8)

The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element. Alternatively, B may be
defined from eq. (8.2) as the vector which satisfies Fm/q = u X B just as we defined electric field E
as the force per unit charge, Fe/q. Both of these definitions of B show that B describes the force
properties of a magnetic field.

C. Force between Two Current Elements

Let us now consider the force between two elements I1 dI1 and I2 dI2. According to Biot-Savart's
law, both current elements produce magnetic fields. So we may find the force d(dF1) on element I1
dl1 due to the field d B2 produced by element I2 dI2 as shown in
Figure 8.1. From eq. (8.8),

(8.10)
But from Biot-Savart's law,

(8.11)

Hence,
(8.12)

Figure 8.1 Force between two current loops

This equation is essentially the law of force between two current elements and is analogous to
Coulomb's law, which expresses the force between two stationary charges. From eq. (8.12), we
obtain the total force F1 on current loop 1 due to current loop 2 shown in Figure 8.1 as

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 5

 (8.13)

Although this equation appears complicated, we should remember that it is based on eq. (8.10). Eq.
(8.9) or (8.10) is of fundamental importance.
The force F2 on loop 2 due to the magnetic field B1 from loop 1 is obtained from eq. (8.13) by
interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. It can be shown that F2 = - F1 thus F1 and F2 obey Newton's third
law that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is worthwhile to mention that eq. (8.13) was
experimentally established by Oersted and Ampere; Biot and Savart (Ampere's colleagues) actually
based their law on it.

8.3 Magnetic Torque and Moment

The concept of a current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic field is of paramount importance
in understanding the behavior of orbiting charged particles, d.c. motors, and generators. If the loop
is placed parallel to a magnetic field, it experiences a force that tends to rotate it.
The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the loop product of the force F and
the moment arm r.
That is,
(8.14)
and its units are Newton-meters (N • m).
Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length ℓ and width w placed in a uniform magnetic field
B as shown in Figure 8.5(a). From this figure, we notice that dI is parallel to B along sides 12 and
34 of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 6

 Figure 8.2 Rectangular planar loop in a uniform magnetic field.
or
(8.15)

Where because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole. However,
Fo and - Fo act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. If the normal to the plane
of the loop makes an angle a with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view of Figure 8.5(b), the
torque on the loop is

or
(8.16)

But ℓ w = S, the area of the loop. Hence,

(8.17)
We define the quantity

(8.18)

as the magnetic dipole moment (in A/m2) of the loop. In eq. (8.18), an is a unit normal vector to the
plane of the loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the direction of
current and thumb along an.
The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its direction
is normal to the loop.

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 7

Introducing eq. (8.18) in eq. (8.17), we obtain

(8.19)

This expression is generally applicable in determining the torque on a planar loop of any
arbitrary shape although it was obtained using a rectangular loop. The only limitation is
that the magnetic field must be uniform.

8.4 A Magnetic Dipole

A bar magnet or a small filamentary current loop is usually referred to as a magnetic dipole. The
reason for this and what we mean by "small" will soon be evident. Let us determine the magnetic
field B at an observation point P(r, 𝜃, 𝜙) due to a circular loop carrying current I as in Figure 8.3.
The magnetic vector potential at P is

(8.20)

It can be shown that at far field (r ≫ a, so that the loop appears small at the observation
point), A has only 0-component and it is given by

(8.21a)

or
(8.21b)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 8

 Figure 8.3 Magnetic field at P due to a current loop.

where m = I 𝜋a2az, the magnetic moment of the loop, and az × ar = sin𝜃 a𝜙. We determine

the magnetic flux density B from B = ∇ X A as

(8.22)

It is interesting to compare eqs. (8.21) and (8.22) with similar expressions in electrical potential V
and electric field intensity E due to an electric dipole. This comparison is done in Table 8.2, in
which we notice the striking similari-ties between B as far field due to a small current loop and E
at far field due to an electric dipole. It is therefore reasonable to regard a small current loop as a
magnetic dipole. The B lines due to a magnetic dipole are similar to the E lines due to an electric
dipole. Figure 8.4(a) illustrates the B lines around the magnetic dipole m = IS.

Table 8.2 Comparison between Electric and Magnetic Monopoles and Dipoles

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 9

Figure 8.4 The B lines due to magnetic dipoles: (a) a small current loop with m = IS, (b) a bar magnet with
m = Qm ℓ

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 10

A short permanent magnetic bar, shown in Figure 8.4(b), may also be regarded as a magnetic dipole.
Observe that the B lines due to the bar are similar to those due to a small current loop in Figure
8.4(a).

Consider the bar magnet of Figure 8.8. If Qm is an isolated magnetic charge (pole strength) and ℓ

is the length of the bar, the bar has a dipole moment Qm ℓ. (Notice that Qm does exist; however, it
does not exist without an associated - Qm. See Table 8.2.) When the bar is in a uniform magnetic
field B, it experiences a torque

(8.23)

where ℓ points in the direction south-to-north. The torque tends to align the bar with the external
magnetic field. The force acting on the magnetic charge is given by

(8.24)

Since both a small current loop and a bar magnet produce magnetic dipoles, they are equivalent if
they produce the same torque in a given B field; that is, when

(8.25)

Hence,

(8.26)

showing that they must have the same dipole moment.

Figure 8.5 A bar magnet in an external magnetic field.

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 11

8.5 Magnetization in Materials
We know that a given material is composed of atoms. Each atom may be regarded as consisting of
electrons orbiting about a central positive nucleus; the electrons also rotate (or spin) about their
own axes. Thus, an internal magnetic field is produced by electrons orbiting around the nucleus as
in Figure 8.6(a) or electrons spinning as in Figure 8.6(b).

Both of these electronic motions produce internal magnetic fields B, that are similar to the magnetic
field produced by a current loop of Figure 8.11. The equivalent current loop has a magnetic moment
of m = IbSan, where S is the area of the loop and Ib is the bound current (bound to the atom).

Without an external B field applied to the material, the sum of m's is zero due to random orientation
as in Figure 8.12(a). When an external B field is applied, the magnetic moments of the electrons
more or less align themselves with B so that the net magnetic moment is not zero, as illustrated in
Figure 8.12(b).

Figure 8.6 (a) Electron orbiting around the nucleus; (b) electron spin.

Figure 8.7 Circular current loop equivalent to electronic motion of Figure 8.6.

The magnetization M (in amperes/meter) is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.

If there are N atoms in a given volume ∆v and the kth atom has a magnetic moment mk

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 12

 (8.27)

A medium for which M is not zero everywhere is said to be magnetized. For a differential volume
dv', the magnetic moment is dm = M dv'. From eq. (8.21b), the vector magnetic potential due to dm
is

where

Figure 8.8 Magnetic dipole moment in a volume ∆v: (a) before B is applied, (b) after B is applied.

Hence,

Applying the vector identity

to the second integral, we obtain

(8.29)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 13

Upon dropping the primes gives

(8.30)

and

(8.31)

where Jb is the bound volume current density or magnetization volume current density (in amperes
per meter square), Kb is the bound surface current density (in amperes per meter), and an is a unit
vector normal to the surface.

In free space, M = 0 and we have

where Jf is the free current volume density. In a material medium M ≠ 0, and as a result,

B changes so that

or

(8.33)

The relationship in eq. (8.33) holds for all materials whether they are linear or not. The concepts of
linearity, isotropy, and homogeneity introduced in dielectric media equally apply here for magnetic
media.

For linear materials, M (in A/m) depends linearly on H such that

(8.34)

Where xm is a dimensionless quantity (ratio of M to H) called magnetic susceptibility of the

medium. It is more or less a measure of how susceptible (or sensitive) the material is to a magnetic
field. Substituting eq. (8.34) into eq. (8.33) yields

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 14

 (8.35)

Or (8.36)

Where

(8.37)

The quantity 𝜇 = 𝜇o/ 𝜇r is called the permeability of the material and is measured in henrys/meter

; the henry is the unit of inductance. The dimensionless quantity 𝜇r is the ratio of the permeability
of a given material to that of free space and is known as the relative permeability of the material.

8.6 Classification of Magnetic Materials

The magnetic susceptibility \m or the relative permeability 𝜇r to classify materials in terms of their

magnetic property or behavior. A material is said to be nonmagnetic if xm = 0 or 𝜇r = 1; it is

magnetic otherwise. Free space, air, and materials with Xm = 0 (or 𝜇r ≈1) are regarded as
nonmagnetic.

Magnetic materials may be grouped into three major classes:

I. Diamagnetic,
II. Paramagnetic, and
III. Ferromagnetic.

Thus, we may regard diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials as linear and nonmagnetic.
Ferromagnetic materials are always nonlinear and magnetic except when their temperatures are
above curie temperature.

Diamagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic fields due to electronic motions of orbiting
and spinning completely cancel each other. Thus, the permanent (or intrinsic) magnetic moment of
each atom is zero and the materials are weakly affected by a magnetic field. For most diamagnetic
materials (e.g., bismuth, lead, copper, silicon, diamond, sodium chloride), xm is of the order of –
10 -5. In certain types of materials called superconductors at temperatures near absolute zero,

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 15

"perfect diamagnetism" occurs: xm = - 1 or 𝜇r = 0 and B = 0. Thus, superconductors cannot
contain magnetic fields. Except for superconductors; diamagnetic materials are seldom used in
practice. Although the diamagnetic effect is overshadowed by other stronger effects in some
materials, all materials exhibit diamagnetism.

Materials whose atoms have nonzero permanent magnetic moment may be paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic. Paramagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic fields produced by orbital
and spinning electrons do not cancel completely. Unlike diamagnetism, paramagnetism is
temperature dependent. For most paramagnetic materials (e.g., air, platinum, tungsten, potassium),
xm is of the order +10-5 to +10-3 and is temperature dependent. Such materials find application in
masers.

Figure 8.9 Classification of magnetic materials.

Ferromagnetism occurs in materials whose atoms have relatively large permanent magnetic
moment. They are called ferromagnetic materials because the best known member is iron. Other
members are cobalt, nickel, and their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are very useful in practice.
As distinct from diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, ferromagnetic materials have the
following properties:

1. They are capable of being magnetized very strongly by a magnetic field.

2. They retain a considerable amount of their magnetization when removed from field.
3. They lose their ferromagnetic properties and become linear paramagnetic materials when
the temperature is raised above a certain temperature known as the curie temperature. Thus

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 16

 if a permanent magnet is heated above its curie temperature (770°C for iron), it loses its
magnetization completely.
4. They are nonlinear; that is, the constitutive relation B = 𝜇 o 𝜇 r H does not hold for
ferromagnetic materials because 𝜇 r depends on B and cannot be represented by a single
value.

Thus, the values of 𝜇 r cited in Table B.3 for ferromagnetics are only typical. For example, for nickel
𝜇 r = 50 under some conditions and 600 under other conditions.

As mentioned in conductors, ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and steel, are used for screening
(or shielding) to protect sensitive electrical devices from disturbances from strong magnetic fields.
A typical example of an iron shield is shown in Figure 8.10(a) where the compass is protected.
Without the iron shield, the compass gives an erroneous reading due to the effect of the external
magnetic field as in Figure 8.10(b). For perfect screening, it is required that the shield have infinite
permeability.

Figure 8.10 Magnetic screening: (a) iron shield protecting a small compass, (b) compass gives erroneous reading
without the shield

Even though B = 𝜇o (H + M) holds for all materials including ferromagnetics, the relationship
between B and H depends on previous magnetization of a ferromagnetic Material its "magnetic
history." Instead of having a linear relationship between B and H (i.e., B = = 𝜇H), it is only possible
to represent the relationship by a magnetization curve or B-H curve.

If H is reduced to zero, B is not reduced to zero but to Br which is referred to as the permanent flux
density. The value of Br depends on Hmax, the maximum applied field intensity. The existence of Br
is the cause of having permanent magnets

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 17

Further increase in H in the negative direction to reach Q and a reverse in its direction to reach P
gives a closed curve called a hysteresis loop.

The area of a hysteresis loop gives the energy loss (hysteresis loss) per unit volume during one
cycle of the periodic magnetization of the ferromagnetic material. This energy loss is in the form
of heat. It is therefore desirable that materials used in electric generators, motors, and transformers
should have tall but narrow hysteresis loops so that hysteresis losses are minimal.

Figure 8.11 Typical magnetization (B-H) curve.

8.7 Magnetic Boundary Conditions

Magnetic boundary conditions as the conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the boundary
between two different media. Make use of Gauss's law for magnetic fields

(8.38)

and Ampere's circuit law

(8.39)

Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2, characterized, respectively, by 𝜇1 and

𝜇2 as in Figure 8.12. Applying eq. (8.38) to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) of Figure 8.12(a) and
allowing ∆h → 0, we obtain

(8.40)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 18

Thus, or

(8.41)

Since B = 𝜇H. Equation (8.41) shows that the normal component of B is continuous at the boundary.
It also shows that the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary; H undergoes some
change at the interface.

Similarly, we apply eq. (8.39) to the closed path abcda of Figure 8.12(b) where surface current K
on the boundary is assumed normal to the path. We obtain

(8.42)

As ∆h → 0, eq. (8.42) leads to

(8.43)

Figure 8.12 Boundary conditions between two magnetic media: (a) for B, (b) for H.

This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous. Equation (8.43) may be
written in terms of B as

(8.44)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 19

In the general case, eq. (8.43) becomes

(8.45)

Where an12 is a unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to medium 2. If
the boundary is free of current or the media are not conductors (for K is free current density), K =
0 and eq. (8.43) becomes

(8.46)

Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that B is discontinuous at the boundary. If
the fields make an angle 6 with the normal to the interface, eq. (8.41) results

(8.47)

while eq. (8.46) produces

(8.48)

Dividing eq. (8.48) by eq. (8.47) gives

(8.49)

Which is the law of refraction for magnetic flux lines at a boundary with no surface current.

8.8 Inductors and Inductances

A circuit (or closed conducting path) carrying current / produces a magnetic field B which causes
a flux 𝛹 = to pass through each turn of the circuit as shown in Figure 8.19. If the circuit

has N identical turns, we define the flux linkage 𝜆 as

(8.50)

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 20

Also, if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, the flux linkage 𝜆 is proportional to the current
I producing it; that is,

(8.51)

Where Lisa constant of proportionality called the inductance of the circuit. The inductance L is a
property of the physical arrangement of the circuit. A circuit or part of a circuit that has inductance
is called an inductor. Inductance L of an inductor as the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage 𝜆 to the
current / through the inductor; that is,

(8.52)

The unit of inductance is the henry (H) which is the same as webers/ampere. Since the henry is a
fairly large unit, inductances are usually expressed in millihenrys (mH).

The magnetic energy (in joules) stored in an inductor is expressed in circuit theory as:

(8.53)

Or (8.54)

Figure 8.13 Magnetic field B produced by a circuit

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 21

Thus, the self-inductance of a circuit may be defined or calculated from energy considerations. Four
component fluxes 𝛹11, 𝛹12, 𝛹21, and 𝛹22 are produced. The flux 𝛹12, for example, is the flux passing
through circuit 1 due to current I2 in circuit 2. If B2 in the field due to I2 and S1 is the area of circuit
1, then

(8.55)

The mutual inductance Mn as the ratio of the flux linkage 𝜆12 = N 𝛹12 on circuit 1 to current I2, that
is,

(8.56)

Similarly, the mutual inductance M21 is defined as the flux linkages of circuit 2 per unit current I1
that is,

(8.57a)

It can be shown by using energy concepts that if the medium surrounding the circuits is linear (i.e.,
in the absence of ferromagnetic material),

(8.57b)

The mutual inductance M12 or M21 is expressed in henrys and should not be confused with the
magnetization vector M expressed in amperes/meter.

Figure 8.14 Magnetic interaction between two circuits.

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 22

8.9 Magnetic Energy

The potential energy in a magnetostatic field.

(8.53)

The energy is stored in the magnetic field B of the inductor. We would like to express eq. (8.53) in
terms of B or H.

Consider a differential volume in a magnetic field as shown in Figure 8.15. Let the volume be
covered with conducting sheets at the top and bottom surfaces with current ∆.I

Figure 8.15 A differential volumein a magnetic field.

Table 8.3 A Collection of Formulas for Inductance of Common Elements

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 23

The magnetostatic energy density wm (in J/m3) is defined as

Hence,

(8.58)

Thus the energy in a magnetostatic field in a linear medium is

(8.59)

which is similar to an electrostatic field.

8.10 Magnetic Circuits

The concept of magnetic circuits is based on solving some magnetic field problems using circuit
approach. Magnetic devices such as toroids, transformers, motors, generators, and relays may be
considered as magnetic circuits.

The analogy between magnetic and electric circuits is summarized in Table 8.4 and portrayed in
Figure 8.24 the magnetomotive force (mmf) (in ampere-turns) as

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 24

Table 8.4 Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits

The source of mmf in magnetic circuits is usually a coil carrying current as in Figure 8.16. We also
define reluctance (in ampere-turns/weber) as

(8.60)

Where ℓ and S are, respectively, the mean length and the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core.
The reciprocal of reluctance is permeance . The basic relationship for circuit elements is Ohm's
law (V = IR):

(8.61)

Based on this, Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws can be applied to nodes and loops of a given
magnetic circuit just as in an electric circuit. The rules of adding voltages and for combining series
and parallel resistances also hold for mmfs and reluctances.

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 25

 Figure 8.16 Analogy between (a) an electric circuit, and (b) a magnetic circuit.

END!!!

By Abinet E. Electromagnetic Field Chapter – 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Devices 26