Review of Related Literature and Studies

Chapter II
Review of Related Literature and Studies
This chapter includes the ideas, generalization or conclusions, methodologies

and other. Those that were included in this chapter helps in familiarizing information that
are relevant and similar to the present study.
Foreign Literature
The unexpected outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has
affected almost every sector, including the higher education institutions around
the world (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). During this critical moment of the COVID-
19 pandemic, most of the countries around the world shifted to online teaching
(Bokayev et al., 2021). Like many other countries around the globe, the
government of Afghanistan has also decided to dismiss all the educational
institutions to contain the huge spread of the COVID-19 pandemic (Orfan &
Elmyar, 2020). Due to the closure of all the academic institutions across the
country, the ministry of higher education of Afghanistan decided to compensate
for the teaching process through an online teaching system.
The transformation process of face-to-face teaching began to online

teaching where thousands of teachers and students were allowed to employ this
platform. College and university lecturers are more interested in teaching and
learning with online approaches where the learning process can be done more at
a lower cost (Green, 2010). Besides, Green (2010) stated that online teaching
can provide more opportunities of saving time and money since no one drive to
seek knowledge. Despite this growing interest in online teaching, students’
satisfaction level remains the most concentrated indicator of online teaching
experience.
Hence, one of the affected outcomes of COVID-19 can be the academic

performance of students as they experience their first attempt towards online
teaching and therefore, their level of satisfaction from online teaching can also be
significant to be measured.
Literature
Higher education institutions (HEIs), both public and private, have also had to
adjust to the new situation where face-to-face interaction and mass gatherings are
prohibited. Committed to their mandate, the leading universities and colleges in the
Philippines, particularly those affiliated with the ASEAN University Network – such as
the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University and De la Salle University,
found innovative ways to fulfill their three-pronged tasks of education, research and
service. Everyone, from the operations and support service units to administrators and
teachers, adjusted to work-from-home arrangements.
From the confines of their homes, teachers and administrators were put to the
task of revising and adapting course syllabi and requirements as they shifted to
alternative or remote teaching modalities, both synchronous and asynchronous. Where
students and teachers had access to electronic devices and reliable Internet
connections, learning management systems such as Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard, and
applications like Google Hangouts, Zoom and Skype, were used. But where students
had limited access to computers or unreliable access to the Internet, teachers and
students used smartphones to exchange messages, notes, and materials, through text
messaging, e-mail, Facebook Messenger, and Twitter.
In some instances, these arrangements became unsustainable, and some

universities had to suspend remote or online classes because the uneven
socioeconomic status of students affected their access to these modalities of learning.
Also, concerns regarding the mental health of both students and teachers affected by
the uncertainty, became another reason to suspend online classes.
Foreign Studies
A study conducted by Gonzalez, Rubia, et al. (2020) examined the impacts of
COVID-19 confinement on the performance of students at the higher education level.
They used field experimental research with 458 learners by two groups: control and
experimental. Surprisingly, their research revealed that COVID-19 confinement left a
positive impact on the performance of the students and helped them to enhance the
learning strategies of the students. Similarly, another study carried out by
Realyvásquez-Vargas et al. (2020) explored whether the environmental factors affect
students’ academic performance during COVID-19. To do this research, they found that
students’ academic performance has been affected by environmental factors during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Local Studies
Higher education institutions (HEIs), both public and private, have also had
to adjust to the new situation where face-to-face interaction and mass gatherings are
prohibited. Committed to their mandate, the leading universities and colleges in the
Philippines, particularly those affiliated with the ASEAN University Network – such as
the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University and De la Salle University,
found innovative ways to fulfill their three-pronged tasks of education, research and
service. Everyone, from the operations and support service units to administrators and
teachers, adjusted to work-from-home arrangements.
From the confines of their homes, teachers and administrators were put to the
task of revising and adapting course syllabi and requirements as they shifted to
alternative or remote teaching modalities, both synchronous and asynchronous. Where
students and teachers had access to electronic devices and reliable Internet
connections, learning management systems such as Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard, and
applications like Google Hangouts, Zoom and Skype, were used. But where students
had limited access to computers or unreliable access to the Internet, teachers and
students used smartphones to exchange messages, notes and materials, through text
messaging, e-mail, Facebook Messenger, and Twitter.
Synthesis
The included studies presenting noise level changes (either reduction, increase,
or unchanged) due to the COVID-19 pandemic were subsequently used for aggregative
descriptive statistics (Cooper et al., 2019) in a quantitative synthesis of this review.
Differences in noise levels between pre, during, and/or post-COVID-19 measures have
been defined and reported in various ways. The terms of noise reduction/increase were
used uniformly throughout the review. Averaged noise-level changes in traditional
acoustic parameters (e.g., equivalent sound pressure level: L eq, day-evening-night
level: L den) in dB(A) were extracted to make studies comparable with others for
analysis. Since the studies have reported noise-level changes in largely different ways,
acoustical results in dB(A) were extracted either from the direct description by authors
or from tables/figures. Get Data Graph Digitizer was used if approximated numerical
values cannot be directly extracted from figures; otherwise excluded from the meta-
analysis.
During the pandemic, governments imposed different levels of restrictions and

called them various titles (e.g., full/partial lockdown, night curfew, state of emergency,
circuit breaker). Therefore, we need clear indices to measure the strictness of their
restrictions and logically compare it across multiple different areas. To estimate severity
levels of COVID-19 containment and closure policy measures imposed by governments
from different countries in a consistent manner, stringency index was collected from the
Oxford Covid-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT). Stringency index
represents the strictness of ‘lockdown style’ policies that primarily restrict people's
behavior (Oxford University, 2022). Country names and dates of data collections (i.e.,
measurement dates) were used to extract values of the index. Maximum differences in
the indices (from 0 to 100) between pre and during COVID-19 periods were computed
and used for the meta-analysis.
The measurement information compiled through the data extraction were
carefully reviewed regarding the comparability and homogeneity of the collected
studies. Meta-regression analyses were conducted, where the effect estimate (i.e.,
mean noise-level reduction) was predicted according to the values of the exploratory
variable (i.e., stringency index). Overall aggregation will provide summary estimates of
the extracted individual estimates containing homogenous measurements. These
individual estimates were displayed as a function of the severity of the COVID-19
measures (i.e., OxCGRT stringency index) to seek whether drastic noise changes were
associated with greater severity of the COVID-19 measures. IBM Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS version 26) was used for the analyses.
Given that the effects of acoustic parameters, location types, noise sources, or
geographical areas might differ, subgroup analysis was conducted to investigate how
these summary estimates might be affected by the heterogeneity of the study
characteristics by presenting “category-wise” summary estimates.
To determine whether any measurement uncertainty (e.g., number of

measurement locations, instrumentation, measurement durations) affected the total
uncertainty in the analysis outcomes, sensitivity analysis was conducted by changing
one input factor at a time.
Theoretical Framework/Conceptual
This study is supported by Mezirow (1997) theory of transformative learning. This

theory explains that the learning begins when the learners experience an anticipated
situation or a discomfort position. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic created
dissonance in the education system around the world, and caused paradigm shifts and
transformation in higher education. Transformative learning is the expansion of
conscience through self-adaption to a changing situation. Mezirow believes that the
disorienting dilemma causes alterations that lead to cognitive differences and dramatic
changes in the education system.
This theory is suitable for the current paper because it examines students'
experience of teaching and learning during a sudden transformation in Afghan higher
education. The theory of transformative learning focuses on experiences of a person to
the learning situation. It states that when students experience learning, they create
meaning which causes transformation in their attitudes, behavior and understanding.
This theory proposes that learners experience challenging tasks during the paradigm
shifts so that they should be encouraged to think critically and rationally to measure
their understanding of the learning process (Hashemi et al., 2021).
Mezirow points out that transformative learning happens when the learners
interact with the environment and integrate with the learning process. Learners may
face problems accessing resources in developing countries because the facilities are
limited. This restrict is understandable and highly affects students' learning outcome in
higher education. In order to enhance students' learning during a cognitive dissonance,
educators should utilize useful techniques and shift the learning process to new norms.
This change will lead to a sense of control and self-awareness among the learners. As a
result, these variations will lead to innovation and transformation in the learning
process.

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Chapter II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter includes the ideas, generalization or conclusions, methodologies

The transformation process of face-to-face teaching began to online

Hence, one of the affected outcomes of COVID-19 can be the academic

In some instances, these arrangements became unsustainable, and some

During the pandemic, governments imposed different levels of restrictions and

To determine whether any measurement uncertainty (e.g., number of

This study is supported by Mezirow (1997) theory of transformative learning. This

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