DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAM: TVET DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

RQF LEVEL:7
SECTOR: CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING SERVICES
CLASS: Y3
MODULE LEADER: MUKAMANA ESPERANCE
MODULE NAME : DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
MODULE CODE : CSTSS701
CREDITS :5

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LEARNING UNIT 1: DESCRIBE STEEL STRUCTURE CONCEPTS

1.1 Identify steel types and their uses

1.1.1. INTRODUCTION

Steel construction combines a number of unique features that make it an ideal solution for many
applications in the construction industry. Steel provides unbeatable speed of construction and off-site
fabrication, thereby reducing the financial risks associated with site-dependent delays. Steels are widely
used materials in the industry. They are the alloys of iron, carbon and other elements such as silicon,
phosphorus, Sulphur and manganese. The carbon present in the form of iron-carbide(Fe3C) increases the
hardness and strength of the steel. Civil and construction engineers rarely have the opportunity to
formulate steel with specific properties. Rather, they must select existing products from suppliers. Even
the shapes for structural elements are generally restricted to those readily available from manufacturers.
Even though civil and construction engineers are not responsible for formulating steel products, they still
must understand how steel is manufactured and treated and how it responds to loads and environmental
conditions
1.1.2. KEY DEFINITIONS
1. Structure: a structure is a body, composed of several structural elements so assembled
that it can set up resistance against deformation caused by the applied external forces.
The various structural elements that may be present in a structure are: tension members,
compression members, flexural members, and foundation elements.
2. Structural analysis: this is the branch of Structural Engineering which deals with
the determination of internal stresses in these members as well as the determination of
reaction components, when the structure is subjected to external forces.
3. Structural design: this is the branch of Structural Engineering which deals with the
selection of proper material, proper sizes, proportion and shape of each member and its
connecting details. The selection is such that it is economical and safe. It satisfies all the
stress requirements imposed by the most severe combination of loads to which the
structure is required to transmit or resist including its self-weight.
4. Structural Engineering: it is that branch of Civil Engineering that deals with both the

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Structural Analysis as well as Structural Design.
5. The design of a structure has two aspects: functional aspect and strength aspect. In the
first aspect, called functional design, a structure is so proportioned and constructed that it
serves the needs efficiently for which it is constructed. In the second aspect, the structure
should be strong enough to resist external forces to which it is subjected during its entire
period of service. The structural design in a limited sense also deals with the design of
various parts or members of a structure. The structural design is governed with the
standard specifications.
6. The Structural Steel: It is the steel used for the manufacture of rolled structural steel
sections, and other elements for use in structural steel works. The material steel is an
alloy of iron and carbon (small percentage) and other elements in varying percentages.
7. Design of Steel Structures: it is a structural design, when the structural steel is used as
a material for the structure.
1.1.3. Classification of steel
Steels are classified based on their chemical composition, applications, and methods of production
Based on Carbon Content:
 Low Carbon Steels
 medium Carbon Steels
 high Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels:
 Composition: 0% C to 0.25 % C.
 Microstructure: Predominantly α - ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.
 Properties: Outstanding ductility and toughness. good machinability and weldability, high
formability, toughness, high ductility etc.
For example, Mild steel.
Applications: Automobile body components, structural shapes, pipes, sheets etc.
Medium Carbon Steels:
 Composition: From 0.25% to 0.55% C.
 Microstructure: α - ferrite and pearlite.
 Properties: Stronger than low – carbon steel but less tough than it.
 Applications: Railway wheels & tracks, gears etc.

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High Carbon steels:
 Composition: From 0.55% up to 2.1 % C
 Microstructure: Fe3C, Pearlite (C >0.8%), - ferrite and pearlite (C < 0.8%).
 Properties: Hardness, strongest, and least ductile compared to Low carbon steels.
 Applications: Knives, hack saw blades, chisels, hammers, drills, dies, machine tool cutters,
punches, etc.
Based on the Method of manufacture of Steels:
Based on Method of manufacturing of steels, they are classified as Bessemer steel method and Electric
Arc Furnace method whose explanation is below.
Bessemer steel Method:
The principle of Bessemer Converter is the removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation and the air
is being blown through the molten iron.
The furnace is made of steel with fire clay bricks to resist heat.
The impurities manganese(mn) and Silicon(Si) are converted into their respective oxides and that can be
expelled out.
Electric Arc Furnace Method:
It is an extremely hot enclosed region, where heat is produced employing electrodes for melting certain
materials such as steel (scrap) without changing the electrochemical properties of the material(metal).
The electric arc produced between the electrodes and the metal is used for melting the metal(scrap).
Based on properties of some other types of Steels:
 Shock-resisting Steels
 High strength Steels
 Tool Steels
 Spring Steels
 Heat Resistant Steels
 Shock-resisting Steels:

These steels can resist fatigue loads and shock loads.

 Tool Steels:
These are mainly used for making Tools and Dies for cutting, forming and forging metals in their hot or
cold conditions.

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  Heat Resistant Steels:
These steels can resist corrosion, oxidation and creep at higher working temperatures.
Based on Effect of Alloying elements on Steel:
 Cobalt/Molybdenum:
It has high servicing temperature or high temperature sustainability.
 Chromium:
It improves Corrosion resistance and Abrasion resistance.
 Vanadium:
It exhibits high temperature, hardness and strength.
 Aluminium:
It improves fracture toughness and acts as deoxidant.
 Phosporous:
It increases strength, hardness and improves machinability.
 Sulphur:
It improves machinability.
 Silicon:
It exhibits high hardenability.
 Magnesium:
It improves toughness and machinability.
 Manganese:
Wear resistance and hardenability is high.
1.1.4. Applications of Steel:
Steel applications can be divided into seven primary market sectors. The figures are the percentages of
steel production dedicated to them, according to the World Steel Association (WSA):

1. Buildings and infrastructure, 51%: More than half of the steel produced annually is used to
construct buildings and infrastructure such as bridges.
2. Mechanical equipment, 15%: This second-greatest use of steel includes (among many other
things) bulldozers, tractors, machinery that makes car parts, cranes, and hand tools such as
hammers and shovels.

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 3. Automotive, 12%: steel is used to make a car, according to the WSA ,body structure and exterior,
including the doors.
4. Metal products, 11%
5. Other transport, 5%: Steel is used in ships, trains and train cars, and parts of planes.
6. Domestic appliances, 3%
7. Electrical equipment, 3%

1.1.5. Common Steel Alloying Elements

When it comes to steel, many elements can be added to the base material, allowing the purchaser to
tweak variances until the proper alloy is found. Common alloying elements include the following:
Manganese: Used in tandem with small amounts of sulfur and phosphorus, the steel alloy becomes less
brittle and easier to hammer.
Chromium: A small percentage (0.5% - 2%) can help to harden the alloy; more significant percentages
(4% - 18%) have the added effect of preventing corrosion.
Vanadium: With only .15%, this element can boost strength, heat resistance, and overall grain structure.
Mixed with chromium, the steel alloy becomes much harder but retains its formability.
Nickel: Up to 5%, this alloying element will improve the steel’s strength. In excess of 12%, it provides
impressive corrosion resistance.
Tungsten: Boosts heat resistance, so the melting point is higher. It also improves the structural makeup
of the steel.
stainless steel
Stainless steel, any one of a family of alloy steels usually containing 10 to 30 percent chromium. In
conjunction with low carbon content, chromium imparts remarkable resistance to corrosion and heat.
Other elements, such
as nickel, molybdenum, titanium, aluminum, niobium, copper, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or selenium,
may be added to increase corrosion resistance to specific environments, enhance oxidation resistance, and
impart special characteristics.
1.1.6. Types of steel
Various types of steel are used in construction and are not just limited to familiar materials, such as those
for structural purposes. The following are types most used in construction:

1. Steel rebar

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 2. Alloy steel
3. Stainless steel
4. Tool steel
5. Mild steel

1.2.Describe steel manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages of steel structures.

1.2.1. Describe steel manufacturing

Steelmaking involves removal of impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, Sulphur and carbon
from the sourced iron, as well as alloying other elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium, etc., to
produce different grades of steel.
Modern steel industries use recycled materials as well as traditional raw materials such as iron ore, coal
and limestone. Almost all the steel manufactured today uses 2 processes-basic oxygen steelmaking
(BOS) and electric arc furnaces (EAF).
There are 6 basic steps in the Steel-making processes, which are as follows-
Iron-making
This is the first step in the manufacturing of pure steel. In this step, the raw materials like iron ore, coal
and lime are melted in a blast furnace. This results in the formation of molten iron, also known as hot
metal, which still contains 4-4.5% of carbon and other impurities, which makes it brittle. These have to
be subsequently removed.
Primary Steel Making
The remaining impurities are removed by either BOS or EAF methods.
In the BOS method, recycled or scrapped steel is added to the molten iron in a convertor. Oxygen is
blown through the metal at high temperatures and this reduces the carbon content to about 0-1.5%.
In the EAF method, scrap steel is fed through high-power electric arcs to melt the metal and convert it
into high quality steel.
The steel that is obtained at the end of this step, by either of the methods, is called raw steel.
Secondary Steel Making
This step involves treating the raw steel in different ways to get different grades of steel. This may
include addition or removal of certain elements, and/or altering the temperature and the production
environment.
The final grade of steel that is desired determines the further techniques that need to be applied. These
may include-
Stirring

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Altering the temperature
Ladle injection
Removal of gasses
Continuous Casting
In this step, the molten steel is cast into cooled moulds, causing the steel to harden. Using guided rollers,
the steel is drawn out of the moulds while it is still hot and then allowed to cool and fully solidify. Next,
it is cut to the desired lengths, depending on the applications-beams, slabs, billets, etc.
Primary Forging
In primary forming, the cut steel is formed into different shapes, generally by hot rolling, which
eliminates the casting defects and gives a desirable shape and surface quality. Seamless tubing, long
products, flat products and various other speciality products can be obtained by this process.
Secondary Forming
The final step is the secondary forming process, which gives the steel its finished shape and properties.
Various techniques can be applied at this stage, which involve-
Heat treatment (tempering)
Joining (welding)
Shaping (cold rolling)
Coating (galvanising)
Machining (drilling)
Surface treatment (carburising)
1.2.2. Advantages of steel buildings
Steel is relatively cheap when compared with other structural materials.
Steel structures are largely fire-resistant when varied to a rustic design as wood is a combustive material
and lower fire-resistant when determined with RCC structure.
Steel may be made and delivered in a cost-effective and timely manner. Steel structures can be handed
off- point at shop floors and after that gathered hard. This spares time and increases the effectiveness of
the general development process.
Steel structures can repel outside weights, for example, earthquakes, showers, and cyclones. A well-
fabricated steel structure can last more than30 times whenever looked later well.
Some of the common advantages of using steel structures are Design, Strength and Continuity, Light in
Weight, Easy Installation and Speed in Construction, Protean, Inflexibility, Rigidity, Easy Fabrication in

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Different Sizes, Fire Resistance, Pest, and Nonentity Resistant, Humidity and Weather Resistance,
Rigidity, Cost-effective, Environment Friendly, Energy Efficiency, Improved Construction Quality,
Temporary Structures, Safe and Resistant and Threat Indicator.
1.2.3. Disadvantages of steel structures.
Buckling is an issue with steel structures. As the length of the steel member builds, the chances of
buckling also increase.
Steel is available only at the steel shops where it's produced and should be transported for long distances
to the construction point, not at all like concrete or different materials that might be accessible right at the
point of development.
Due to rust in steel, expensive maquillages are needed to reestablish from time to time so that resistance
against severe conditions increments.
Indeed, though steel is a flexible material, it's challenging to make field corrections if one or further
factors don't fit meetly. A large portion of the metal structure performs cleave to strict quality assurance
procedures guarantee all pieces of a system fit directly. But in factual it isn't possible. One can not form it
or cut it in the ideal shape on- point once it's fabricated.
Steel is a good captain of heat, touches off accoutrements in contact, and frequently causes fires, snappily
spreading to different parts of a structure. Hence, steel structures may bear redundant fireproofing
treatment.
Fatigue and Fracture: Steel structures are quite susceptible to fatigue. Large variations in tensile
strength expose steel elements to excessive tension, which decreases its overall strength. Steel is
also responsive to brittle fracture when it loses its ductility.

1.3. Identify structural steel

What is structural steel?
Structural steel is a type of steel that is used as a construction material. It is designed to have a good
strength/weight ratio (which is also called specific strength) and to be cost-effective in order to be
benefited as a structural component in buildings, roads, bridges, etc.

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1.3.1. Mechanical properties of structural steel
The yield strength fy and the ultimate strength fu for structural steel should be obtained by adopting the
values fy=Rch and fu= Rm direct from the product standard.

Toughness
There are two ways of material failure: ductile failure and brittle fracture.

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Common Structural Shape
shapes of structural steels given in many standards worldwide. In short, angles, tolerances, dimensions,
and cross-sectional measurements of steels are defined on standards, and these steels are named. Below
figure 2 show the common structural shapes of steels. While many sections are formed by hot or cold
rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates.

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Steel used structural in two ways:
 Structural Steel
Structural Steel is yet another one of the popular types of steel used in construction which is used mainly
to give a base or structure to the building. This is one of the most popular types of steel available.
Used for developing the structure
Available in different specifications & shapes like – T shaped, Channel Sections, I-Beams, Plate type, bar
or rod-type, etc.
Corrosion check (When iron oxides to form rust)
 Rebar Steel
Reinforcing steel, reinforces the structure affixing well with concrete.
Also used in the form of a mesh of steel wires for building purposes.
Hot-rolled round carbon steel bars are mainly used.
Improves tensile strength.

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It can be manufactured to very long lengths.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MILD STEEL
NAME MILD STEEL
DENSITY 7850kg/m3
ULTIMATE 400-550 MPa
STRENGTH
YIELD STRENGTH 250 MPa
YOUNG’S 200 GPa
MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
BRINELL 120BHN
HARDNESS
MELTING POINT 1450oC
THERMAL 50W/mK
CONDUCTIVITY
HEAT CAPACITY 510J/gK

Mechanical properties of structural steel

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The Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the transverse strain to that of the axial strain under
the influence of the same force. It is a material property and remains constant.

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