Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Master in Computing

Photovoltaic Integration in a Grid Power System

‫النظام الكھروضوئي المدمج بالشبكة الكھربائية‬

By

Noureddin Motan

Supervisor

Dr. Muhammad Abu-Khaizaran

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Master’s Degree in Computing from the Faculty of Engineering and
Technology at Birzeit University, Palestine

Committee

Dr. Muhammad Abu-Khaizaran

Dr. Basim Alsayid

Dr. Jaser Sa'ed

November 22, 2017

 Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Master in Computing

Photovoltaic Integration in a Grid Power System

‫النظام الكھروضوئي المدمج بالشبكة الكھربائية‬

By

Noureddin Motan

Supervisor

Dr. Muhammad Abu-Khaizaran

Committee Signature

Dr. Muhammad Abu-Khaizaran ………………………………

Dr. Basim Alsayid ………………………………

Dr. Jaser Sa'ed ………………………………

November 22, 2017

 iii

Acknowledgement

I would first like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Muhammad Abu-Khaizaran, who

never hesitated to provide support and guidance by sharing his knowledge and creative ideas. All

that helped me to achieve my goals and complete the thesis successfully.

I would also like to thank the discussion committee, Dr. Basim Alsayid and Dr. Jaser Sa'ed, for

their valuable comments, suggestions and precious time to review the thesis.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge with appreciation the patience and support from my family,

especially my parents and my wife, who encouraged me to take the first step to the master program

and always been there throughout the whole period of my study.

 iv

Abstract

Grid-connected Photovoltaic (PV) systems have increased dramatically in the last few years due

to the increased global interest in renewable energy sources and the growth in energy demand. As

a consequence, new and modern control strategies should be applied to improve the efficiency,

reliability, and stability of grid-connected PV systems. To achieve that, the whole PV system

should be tested under various weather and grid conditions. However, the wide variety of the PV

system devices and control algorithms, in addition to the destructive nature of many types of

scenarios and faults, make the practical testing of the PV system very difficult, very expensive,

and impossible in many cases. Therefore, this thesis made use of the modelling and simulation

tools of MATLAB/SIMULINK to develop a model for a grid-connected PV system.

The developed model implements all components of the grid-connected PV system; these

components are a PV array, boost converter, Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller,

three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), grid filter, grid synchronization method and VSI

controller. Each component of the system was modelled, tested and validated. Then the whole PV

system was used to simulate many scenarios under various grid and weather conditions. The

simulation results show that the model is reliable, stable and suitable for studying the grid-

connected PV system.
 ‫‪v‬‬

‫الملخص‬

‫لقد ازدادت النظم الكھروضوئية المتصلة بالشبكة الكھربائية بشكل كبير في السنوات القليلة الماضية بسبب تزايد االھتمام العالمي‬

‫بمصادر الطاقة المتجددة وزيادة الطلب على الطاقة‪ .‬ونتيجة لذلك‪ ،‬ينبغي تطبيق استراتيجيات تحكم جديدة وحديثة لتحسين كفاءة‬

‫وموثوقية واستقرار النظم الكھروضوئية المتصلة بالشبكة‪ .‬ولتحقيق ذلك‪ ،‬يجب اختبار النظام في ظل ظروف الطقس والشبكة‬

‫المختلفة والمتغيرة‪ .‬ولكن وجود مجموعة واسعة من االجھزة الكھربائية وخوارزميات التحكم المكونة للنظام‪ ،‬باإلضافة إلى‬

‫الطبيعة المدمرة ألنواع كثيرة من السيناريوھات واألخطاء‪ ،‬يجعل االختبارات العملية للنظام صعبة ومكلفة ومستحيلة في كثير‬

‫من الحاالت‪ .‬ولذلك‪ ،‬فإن ھذه األطروحة تستخدم أدوات النمذجة والمحاكاة التي يوفرھا برنامج ”‪“MATAB/SIMULINK‬‬

‫لبناء نموذج للنظام الكھروضوئي المتصل بالشبكة‪.‬‬

‫النموذج المبني يشمل جميع اجزاء نظام انتاج الطاقة الكھروضوئية المتصل بالشبكة؛ وھذه المكونات ھي مصفوفة األلواح‬

‫الكھروضوئية‪ ،‬رافع الجھد المستمر ”‪ ،“Boost converter‬نظام التحكم المسؤول عن تتبع الحد االقصى للطاقة الناتجة من‬

‫مصفوفة األلواح الكھروضوئية”‪ ، “MPPT controller‬عاكس الجھد ثالثي االطوار ”‪ ،“VSI‬مرشح الشبكة”‪، “grid filter‬‬

‫نظام التحكم والمزامنة بين نظام الطاقة الكھروضوئية والشبكة الكھربائية العامة‪ .‬في ھذه االطروحة تم نمذجة وبناء كل عنصر‬

‫من مكونات النظام واختباره والتحقق منه‪ .‬ثم تم استخدام كامل النظام الكھروضوئي المطور لمحاكاة العديد من السيناريوھات‬

‫تحت ظروف الطقس والشبكة المختلفة والمتغيرة‪ .‬وقد اظھرت نتائج المحاكاة أن النموذج المبني موثوق ومستقر ومناسب لدراسة‬

‫النظام الكھروضوئي المتصل بالشبكة‪.‬‬

 vi

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................................iii 

Abstract.............................................................................................................................................. iv 

‫الملخص‬................................................................................................................................................... v 

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. vi 

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................... ix 

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................xiii 

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... xiv 

Chapter 1  Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Introduction and Motivation ......................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Research Objectives and Problem Statement ............................................................................... 3 

1.3 Thesis Overview ........................................................................................................................... 4 

Chapter 2  Literature Review ............................................................................................................. 5 

2.1 Modelling of a Photovoltaic Cell .................................................................................................. 5 

2.1.1 Types of PV Cells ..................................................................................................................... 5 

2.1.2 PV Cell Models Overview ........................................................................................................ 6 

2.1.3 Modelling of PV Modules ........................................................................................................ 8 

2.2 Control Structure for the Grid-Connected PV System ................................................................. 9 

2.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Controller .................................................................. 9 

2.3.1 MPPT Methods ....................................................................................................................... 10 

2.3.2 DC-DC Boost Converter ......................................................................................................... 13 

2.4 Active and Reactive Powers and DC-link Controller ................................................................. 14 

2.5 Grid Synchronization .................................................................................................................. 16 

2.5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 16 

 vii

2.5.2 Synchronization Methods ....................................................................................................... 16 

2.5.3 The Phase Locked Loop (PLL) ............................................................................................... 17 

2.6 Anti-Islanding ............................................................................................................................. 18 

2.7 Hardware Structures for Grid-Connected PV Systems............................................................... 19 

2.7.1 Grid-Connected PV System for Residential Applications ...................................................... 21 

2.7.2 Grid-Connected Single-Phase Inverters .................................................................................. 21 

2.8 Grid Filter ................................................................................................................................... 22 

2.9 Standards .................................................................................................................................... 23 

Chapter 3  Modelling and Simulation ............................................................................................. 24 

3.1 Modelling and Simulation of a PV Module ................................................................................ 24 

3.1.1 PV Module Modelling ............................................................................................................ 24 

3.1.2 Simulation ............................................................................................................................... 28 

3.1.3 Validation ............................................................................................................................... 30 

3.1.4 PV Array Modelling ............................................................................................................... 31 

3.2 Boost Converter .......................................................................................................................... 32 

3.3 MPPT Implementation ............................................................................................................... 35 

3.4 Three-Phase Inverter................................................................................................................... 38 

3.5 LCL Filter Design ....................................................................................................................... 39 

3.6 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) .......................................................................................................... 44 

3.7 VSI Controller ............................................................................................................................ 45 

Chapter 4  The Grid-Connected PV System .................................................................................... 49 

4.1 Grid-Connected PV System under STC ..................................................................................... 51 

4.2 Grid-Connected PV System under Various Temperatures and Irradiance Levels ..................... 53 

4.3 Grid-Connected PV System Supplying Reactive Load .............................................................. 55 

4.4 Grid-Connected PV System Working Overnight ....................................................................... 56 

 viii

Chapter 5  Conclusions and Future Work....................................................................................... 58 

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 58 

5.2 Future Work ................................................................................................................................ 59 

References ............................................................................................................................................ 60 

Appendix A  MATLAB CODES ...................................................................................................... 66 

A.1  MATLAB code to get the PV characteristic curves ............................................................ 66 

A.2  MPPT controller code.......................................................................................................... 67 

A.3  Boost Converter Design....................................................................................................... 68 

A.4  Filter Design ........................................................................................................................ 68 

 ix

List of Figures

Figure 1-1 PV System Cost Benchmark Summary [1] ........................................................................... 1 

Figure 1-2 Evolution of PV Installation [2] ............................................................................................ 2 

Figure 1-3 A Grid-Connected PV System .............................................................................................. 2 

Figure 2-1 PV Cell, Module and Array [13] ........................................................................................... 5 

Figure 2-2 Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal PV Cell.................................................................................. 7 

Figure 2-3 The I-V Characteristic of an Ideal PV Cell [17] ................................................................... 7 

Figure 2-4 Practical PV Module [18]...................................................................................................... 7 

Figure 2-5 The I-V Characteristic of the Practical PV Module .............................................................. 8 

Figure 2-6 The P-V Characteristics Curve of a Typical PV Module: (a) at Constant Temperature and
Variable Irradiance (b) at Constant Irradiance and Variable Temperature ........................................... 10 

Figure 2-7 Hill Climbing/Perturb and Observe Method for MPPT ...................................................... 12 

Figure 2-8 Incremental Conductance Method for MPPT ..................................................................... 12 

Figure 2-9 The Boost Converter Topology ........................................................................................... 13 

Figure 2-10 Control Structure in Natural Reference Frame [12] .......................................................... 14 

Figure 2-11 Control Structure in Synchronous Reference Frame [12] ................................................. 15 

Figure 2-12 Control Structure in Stationary Reference Frame [12]...................................................... 15 

Figure 2-13 General Structure of PLL .................................................................................................. 17 

Figure 2-14 Classification of Synchronization Methods [37] ............................................................... 18 

Figure 2-15 Hardware Structures for Grid-Connected PV Systems: (a) Module Inverter, (b) String
Inverter, (c) Multi-String Inverter, and (d) Central Inverter [45] ......................................................... 19 

Figure 2-16 Grid-Connected PV System .............................................................................................. 21 

Figure 2-17 Transformerless PV Inverters Based on FB (H6 and HERIC) [45] ................................. 22 
 x

Figure 2-18 Neutral Point Clamped Transformerless Topology for PV System [45] .......................... 22 

Figure 3-1 Current and Temperature Conversion SIMULINK Block Diagram ................................... 26 

Figure 3-2 Block Diagram to Find the Photo Current (Iph) ................................................................... 26 

Figure 3-3 Block Diagram to Calculate the Saturation Current at STC (Irs) ......................................... 26 

Figure 3-4 Block Diagram to Calculate the Saturation Current (Is) ...................................................... 27 

Figure 3-5 MATLAB Code Used to Find the Diode Ideality Factor “A”............................................. 27 

Figure 3-6 Block Diagram to Calculate the Output Current ................................................................. 28 

Figure 3-7 PV Module Test Circuit ..................................................................................................... 28 

Figure 3-8 I–V Characteristic at Different Irradiances (G) and Constant Temperature (T) ................. 29 

Figure 3-9 I–V Characteristic at Different Temperatures (T) and Constant Irradiances (G) ................ 29 

Figure 3-10 P–V Characteristic at Different Irradiances (G) and Constant Temperature (T) .............. 30 

Figure 3-11 P–V Characteristic at Different Temperatures (T) and Constant Irradiance (G) .............. 30 

Figure 3-12 I–V PV Datasheet Characteristic at Different Irradiances, T=25oC .................................. 31 

Figure 3-13 I–V PV Datasheet Characteristic at Different Temperatures, G=1000W/m2 .................... 31 

Figure 3-14 PV Array Characteristic Curves at STC: (a) I-V Characteristic Curve (b) P-V Characteristic
Curve ..................................................................................................................................................... 32 

Figure 3-15 The SIMULINK Model of the Boost Converter ............................................................... 32 

Figure 3-16 The Boost Control Circuit ................................................................................................. 33 

Figure 3-17 The Design of the PI Controller Using MATLAB PID Tuner .......................................... 33 

Figure 3-18 The Transfer Function of the Boost Converter ................................................................. 34 

Figure 3-19 The Reference Voltage and the Output Voltage of the Boost ........................................... 34 

Figure 3-20 The Input, Output and the Reference Voltage of The Boost ............................................. 35 
 xi

Figure 3-21 Flow Chart of P&O MPPT Algorithm .............................................................................. 35 

Figure 3-22 SIMULINK Circuit to Test MPPT Algorithm .................................................................. 36 

Figure 3-23 Boosting and MPPT Test .................................................................................................. 36 

Figure 3-24 MPPT Test Results (a) PV Power for Variable T and G (b) PV Power vs. Vpv Power for
Variable T and G ................................................................................................................................... 37 

Figure 3-25 SIMULINK Circuit for the VSI ........................................................................................ 38 

Figure 3-26 DC-AC Conversion ........................................................................................................... 39 

Figure 3-27 Circuit Diagram of the LCL-filter ..................................................................................... 39 

Figure 3-28 Bode Plots of the LCL filter (a) without the Damping Resistor (b) with the Damping
Resistor ................................................................................................................................................. 41 

Figure 3-29 LCL-filter Design Flowchart ............................................................................................. 42 

Figure 3-30 The SIMULINK Circuit for the Filter Test ...................................................................... 43 

Figure 3-31 (a)The Output Current without Filtering (b)The Output Current FFT Spectrum .............. 43 

Figure 3-32 (a)The Output Current of the Inverter using LCL-filter (b)The Output Current FFT
Spectrum ............................................................................................................................................... 44 

Figure 3-33 The SIMULINK Model for the PLL ................................................................................. 44 

Figure 3-34 The MATLAB Circuit for the PLL Test ........................................................................... 45 

Figure 3-35 Test Results of the PLL .................................................................................................... 45 

Figure 3-36 The SIMULINK Model for the Active and Reactive Power Controller ........................... 46 

Figure 3-37 The Grid Voltages and the Currents (abc to dq) Transformation ...................................... 46 

Figure 3-38 The SVPWM Generation .................................................................................................. 47 

Figure 3-39 The Active and Reactive Power Controller Test Circuit ................................................... 47 

Figure 3-40 The simulation Results of the PQ Controller Test (Vdc=700V, P=5kW, Q=0kVAR) ..... 48 
 xii

Figure 3-41 The Simulation Results of the PQ Controller Test (Vdc=700V, P=5kW, Q=1kVAR) ..... 48 

Figure 4-1 MATLAB Model for the Grid-Connected PV System ....................................................... 50 

Figure 4-2: Outputs of the Grid-connected PV System Test at STC .................................................... 51 

Figure 4-3 The Unfiltered and Filtered Outputs of the Inverter (a) Current Waveforms (b) Voltage
Waveforms ............................................................................................................................................ 52 

Figure 4-4 FFT Analysis of the Inverter Output Current ...................................................................... 52 

Figure 4-5 Grid-Connected PV System Test under Various Temperatures and Irradiance Levels ...... 54 

Figure 4-6 PV Array Output Power vs. Output Voltage ...................................................................... 54 

Figure 4-7 Inverter Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power ........................................... 55 

Figure 4-8 Grid Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power ................................................ 56 

Figure 4-9 Inverter Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power .......................................... 57 

Figure 4-10 Grid Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power .............................................. 57 
 xiii

List of Tables

Table 2-1 Comparison between Major Characteristics of MPPT Techniques [23] .............................. 11 

Table 2-2 Evaluation Major Characteristics of MPPT Techniques [24]............................................... 11 

Table 2-3 Comparison between the Synchronization Algorithms [33]................................................. 16 

Table 3-1 Results of MPPT Algorithm Test ......................................................................................... 38 

Table 4-1 Summarization of the MPPT Test Results............................................................................ 53 

 xiv

List of Abbreviations

PV Photovoltaic
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
PLL Phase Locked Loop
c-Si crystalline Silicon
sc-Si single crystalline Silicon
mc-Si multi-crystalline Silicon
a-Si Amorphous Silicon
μc-Si microcrystalline Silicon
CdTe Cadmium-Telluride
CIGS Copper-Indium-Gallium-Diselenide
STC Standard Test Condition
ISDM Single Diode Model
SDM The Single Diode Model
DDM Double Diode Models
SSDM Simplified Single Diode Model
IC Incremental Conductance
P&O Perturb and Observe
MPP Maximum Power Point
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PI Proportional Integral
PR Proportional Resonant
VCO Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
PCC Point of Common Coupling
FB Full-Bridge
NPC Neutral Point Clamped
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
 1

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Motivation

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) system is a system that employs solar cells to convert solar energy
into electrical power. The solar cell, or the PV cell, is an electrical device that produces
electricity directly from the sunlight. Solar PV system is one of the renewable and clean
energy sources.

The tremendous increase in energy demand, the growth of global interest in renewable and
clean energy sources, and the advances in research and technology in solar PV, all led to
significant advances in PV industry. For instance, the PV cost benchmark for residential
PV systems in U.S. decreased from $7.06/Wdc in 2009 to $2.93/Wdc in 2016 (as shown in
Figure 1-1) [1]. Moreover, as shown in Figure 1-2, PV energy production soared from
below 10 GW in 2006 to more than 300GW in 2016 . In addition, During 2016, more than
75 GW of solar PV capacity was added worldwide, compared to 50 GW in 2015 [2]–[4].
According to [5] “the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) over the last 15 years was
above 40 %, which makes PV one of the fastest growing industries at present”.

Figure 1-1 PV System Cost Benchmark Summary [1]

 2

Figure 1-2 Evolution of PV Installation [2]

PV systems can be classified into two major classes: grid-connected PV systems and off-
grid (stand-alone) PV systems. The grid-connected PV systems operate in parallel with
electric grid to increase the output power of the grid, while off-grid systems have no
connection to the electric grid. Off-grid systems are used in some applications such as roof-
mounted PV system, solar vehicle, solar powered lamps, and water pumps [6]. Nowadays,
the vast majority of PV systems are grid-connected, while off-grid applications represent
only 1% of the market, down from more than 90% two decades ago [7].

As the importance of grid-connected PV systems, this thesis focuses on modelling and

control of the grid-connected PV system, using MATLAB/SIMULINK, to achieve a high
efficient, stable and reliable power system.

Figure 1-1 shows a typical grid-connected system. Typically, it consists of a PV array, a

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Controller, a DC-DC converter, a DC-AC
inverter, grid interface, control unit, and protection interfacing [6].

Figure 1-3 A Grid-Connected PV System

 3

PV array is made up of a large number of PV modules. Each module consists of a group

PV cells connected in series and parallel. A particular PV cell is made of semiconductor
material that produces a DC voltage/current when exposed to sunlight [8].

The second part of PV system is the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller.
At a given solar irradiance and temperature, the output power from the PV array is
influenced by its output voltage. The function of the MPPT controller is to automatically
find the output voltage or current at which the PV array should operate to supply the
maximum power and force the PV array to work at this voltage or current [9].

The DC-DC converter converts the DC power to an appropriate voltage level required by
the inverter and draws a current from the PV array suitable for maximum power [10].

The inverter is the main element in the grid-connected PV systems. The main function of
the inverter is to convert the variable DC voltage output from the DC-DC converter to an
AC voltage with an appropriate magnitude and frequency, and high quality (low harmonics
and low Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)) that can be fed into the grid [11].

The Controller tasks in PV systems can be divided into two major parts: input-side control
and grid-side control. The input-side task is to extract the maximum power from PV array,
in addition to the protection of the PV array. The grid-side controller controls the inverter
to regulate the DC-link voltage, in addition to controlling active and reactive power output
from PV system. Besides, it is responsible for grid synchronization control and high-quality
output power [12].

1.2 Research Objectives and Problem Statement

The problem to be addressed by this thesis is how to build a highly efficient model for a
grid-connected PV system. Then, the developed model can be used to simulate real-life
scenarios and develop advanced control and synchronization algorithms, which will yield
to improved efficiency, stability, and reliability of the grid-connected PV system.

To achieve these goals, the research will be carried in the following phases:

 Conduct a literature review on the grid-connected PV system and its components,

 Modelling a PV array for grid-connected system,

 Modelling an efficient MPPT system and designing the boost converter,

 4

 Modelling a three-phase inverter for the PV system,

 Modelling and implementing modern switching schemes to control the power

electronic devices within the DC-DC converter and the inverter in a PV system,

 Implementing the synchronization process of the power electronic converter/

inverter output with a utility grid system,

 Modelling active and reactive power control algorithm,

 Testing the PV system model under various grid and weather conditions to ensure
that the model is reliable, stable and controllable.

1.3 Thesis Overview

Chapter 2 covers literature review, both hardware structure for grid-connected PV system
in addition to the main control and protection algorithms are discussed. In Chapter 3,
modelling and simulation of PV array, boost DC-DC converter, Phase Locked Loop (PLL),
MPPT controller, inverter, an inverter controller, and LCL-filter are presented. The entire
model of the grid-connected PV system is presented and tested in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5,
conclusions are drawn, and future work is summarized.
 5

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Modelling of a Photovoltaic Cell

The Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a PN junction device made from semiconductor materials. It
is commonly made of doped silicon [6]. The energy conversion in a PV cell may be
described in three steps. First, the absorption of solar (photons’) energy generates electron-
hole pairs. Then, the electrons and holes are separated by the structure of the device.
Finally, electric charges are collected at the terminal of PV cell [8]. The rate of generation
of electric charge depends on the solar irradiance, the temperature of the cell and the
semiconductor material type.

The output power from a single PV cell is low. A large number of PV cells are connected
in series and parallel, making a PV module, to produce higher power levels. Then, several
modules are connected in series and parallel to make a PV array as shown in Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1 PV Cell, Module and Array [13]

2.1.1 Types of PV Cells

Different materials and technologies are used in manufacturing PV cells and modules. The
PV cell technologies available in the market today can be classified into [14], [15]:

I. Wafer-Based crystalline Silicon (c-Si) technology: either single crystalline Silicon

(sc-Si) or multi-crystalline Silicon (mc-Si).The efficiency of crystalline silicon
modules ranges from 19% to 24% [16].
 6

II. Thin-Film PV technologies. Thin-Film PV cells are made of a thin layer of

semiconductor. They have lower production costs and lower cell efficiencies than
wafer-based PV cells. They generally include three main families:

a) Amorphous (a-Si) and microcrystalline Silicon (a-Si/μc-Si). Their

efficiencies are up to 12% [16].

b) Cadmium-Telluride (CdTe). Their efficiencies are up to 19% [16]

c) Copper-Indium-Gallium-Diselenide (CIGS). The Current module

efficiencies are about 18% [16].

2.1.2 PV Cell Models Overview

The basic device of a PV system is the PV cell. Therefore, in order to study and design the
whole PV system, it is important to build a model for the PV cell. A reliable and accurate
mathematical model of PV cell is important to design and test other parts of a PV system
and to design the control algorithms of the PV system. This model is useful in studying and
designing the MPPT algorithm, the inverter, the control strategy and the synchronization
algorithm. Moreover, datasheets of the PV modules provide the module parameters at only
Standard Test Condition (STC), so the mathematical model should use that information to
predict the device's behavior at any condition accurately.

 Ideal PV Cell Model

Figure 2-2 shows the equivalent circuit of an ideal PV cell. The current output of a PV
cell (I) is related to its voltage (V) by eq. (2-1) [17]:

1 2-1

where Iph is the photo current (depends on the solar irradiance and cell temperature), ID is
the diode current, Is is the diode saturation current, q is the electron charge, k is the
Boltzmann constant, T is the PV cell temperature in Kelvin, and A is the diode ideality
constant.

Figure 2-3 shows the I-V characteristic curves of PV cell at constant insolation and
temperature.
 7

Figure 2-2 Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal PV Cell

Figure 2-3 The I-V Characteristic of an Ideal PV Cell [17]

 Practical PV Module
A PV module is built up of several PV cells connected in series and parallel. The practical
model of the PV module shown in Figure 2-4. The new parameters in the practical model
are a shunt resistor (Rsh) to express a leakage current, and a series resistor (Rs) to represent
an internal resistance of PV module and wiring [17], [18]. The current-voltage of a PV
module is described by the relationship:

1 2-2

where Ns is the number of series connected cells, Rs is the equivalent series resistance of
the module and Rsh is the equivalent parallel resistance. Figure 2-5 shows the I–V
characteristic of the practical PV module.

Figure 2-4 Practical PV Module [18]

 8

Figure 2-5 The I-V Characteristic of the Practical PV Module

2.1.3 Modelling of PV Modules

The goal of PV modelling is to find the equivalent circuit parameters (Iph, Is, Rs, Rsh, A)
using the information given in the PV module datasheet. The parameters that are normally
provided by the datasheets of the PV module are the short-circuit current (Isc), the open-
circuit voltage (Voc), and the operating voltage and current at maximum power point (Vmpp,
Impp). All these values are given at STC, which are a temperature of 25oC and an irradiance
of 1000 Watt/m2.

Different equivalent circuits and mathematical models have been developed for PV
systems. They vary in complexity, simulation time needed and accuracy. PV models can
be classified into four types:

1) The Ideal Single Diode Model (ISDM), shown in Figure 2-2. Mahmoud et al. [19]
proposed ISDM, which is simple, efficient and needs less simulation time than other
models.

2) The Single Diode Model (SDM), shown in Figure 2-4.Villalva et al. [17] present a
SDM model, which selects an arbitrary value for the diode ideality constant (A).
Then, uses the datasheet information to build four nonlinear equations, which can
be solved iteratively to find the remaining equivalent circuit parameters (Iph, I0, Rs,
Rsh).

3) Simplified Single Diode Model (SSDM). To reduce the complexity of the SDM,
some studies neglect the shunt resistance (Rsh) of Figure 2-4 [18], [20].
 9

4) Double Diode Models (DDMs). They include an extra diode in parallel with a diode
in the circuit of Figure 2-4 to represent the effect of recombination of carriers [21].
Although this modification may improve the accuracy of the model, it is not as
popular as SDM because it is more complex and needs higher computational power
[22].

2.2 Control Structure for the Grid-Connected PV System

The control structure for a PV system can be divided into two main parts [12]:

1. The Input Side Controller (MPPT controller):

The main function of this controller is to extract the maximum power from the PV
array using the boost converter. This controller will be described in section 2.3 .

2. The Grid-Side Controller:

This controller is implemented using a DC-AC inverter in addition to an LCL filter.

It is responsible for:

a. Active and Reactive powers and DC-link controller will be presented in

Section 2.4 ,

b. Synchronizing PV array with the grid will be covered in Section 2.5 ,

c. Anti-Islanding will be discussed in Section 2.6 .

2.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Controller

The second main part of PV system is MPPT controller. The MPPT controller is an
essential and a very important part in any PV system. It is used to extract the maximum
power from the PV array.

The output power of a PV array is influenced by solar irradiance and temperature. Figure
2-6 shows the P-V characteristics of a typical PV module at different irradiances and
temperatures. Figure 2-6(a) shows the P-V characteristics at constant temperature and
variable irradiances. It is obvious that the output power of PV modules increases when the
irradiance increases. Figure 2-6(b) shows the P-V characteristics at constant irradiance and
a variable temperature. It is clear that the output power of PV modules increases when the
temperature decreases.
 10

At constant irradiance and temperature, The PV module output power varies with the output
voltage. The function of MPPT controller is to produce the control signal to the switch in
the DC-DC converter, which controls the output voltage from PV module or array to ensure
that the PV module or array supply its maximum power to the system at any temperature
and irradiance values.

(a) (b)
Figure 2-6 The P-V Characteristics Curve of a Typical PV Module: (a) at Constant
Temperature and Variable Irradiance (b) at Constant Irradiance and Variable
Temperature

2.3.1 MPPT Methods

Many MPPT methods have been reported in the literature. These methods differ from each
other regarding PV array dependency, implementation complexity, accuracy, and
implementation cost [23], [24].

In [23], 19 MPPT methods were reviewed, discussed and compared. The results are
summarized in Table 2-1. In [24], experimental evaluation of the main MPPT techniques
for PV systems was done, the results are summarized in Table 2-2. Table 2-1 and Table 2-2
can be used to select the right MPPT method for a specific PV application.
 11

Table 2-1 Comparison between Major Characteristics of MPPT Techniques [23]

Table 2-2 Evaluation Major Characteristics of MPPT Techniques [24]

Technique Dependency of PV Array Tracking tractor (TF) Implementation Accurate? Sensors
Dcte No Poor Very Simple No -

Vcte Yes Reasonable Simple No V

P&O No Good Simple Yes V, I

IC No Good Medium Yes V, I

Modified P&O No Very. Good Complex Yes V, I

P&O based on PI No Excellent Medium Yes V, I

Modified IC No Very Good Complex Yes V, I

IC based on PI No Excellent Medium Yes V, I

Beta Yes Excellent Medium Yes V, I

System Oscillation Yes Reasonable Simple No V

Ripple Correlation No Good Complex Yes V

Temperature Yes Very Good Simple Yes V, Temperature

The most common MPPT techniques are the Incremental Conductance (IC), and Hill
Climbing or Perturb and Observe (P&O) method [25], [26]. The main advantages of these
methods are that they are independent of PV array, they have good performance, and they
are easy to implement.

 Hill Climbing/Perturb and Observe (P&O) Method

The main principle of P&O method is to perturb the duty ratio of the DC-DC converter’s
switch and observe the output power. If the power is increasing, the perturbation should be
kept in the same direction until reaching the Maximum Power Point (MPP); and if the
 12

power is decreasing, the perturbation should be reversed to move back to the MPP [6].
Figure 2-7 visualize the P&O scheme.

Figure 2-7 Hill Climbing/Perturb and Observe Method for MPPT

 Incremental Conductance (IC) Method

The basic idea of IC method is that the slope of the power at the MPP with respect to
the voltage equals zero as shown in Figure 2-8. Also, the power is increasing with the
voltage to the left of the MPP, and it is decreasing to the right of the MPP. Simply, the
slope of P-V characteristics curve is zero at the MPP, positive on the left of the MPP
and negative on the right of the MPP [27].

Figure 2-8 Incremental Conductance Method for MPPT

To control the output voltage of the PV array a DC-DC converter is used. Another function
of the DC-DC converter is to step-up the output voltage of PV array to an appropriate
voltage level required to the inverter. The most suitable DC-DC converter for PV system
is the Boost (or step-up) converter [28].
 13

2.3.2 DC-DC Boost Converter

The Boost, or step-up converter, topology used by MPPT is shown in Figure 2-9. The Boost
converter is a power converter that generates output voltage greater than the input voltage.
It consists of four main components: an inductor, a power electronic switch (e.g. an IGBT),
a diode and a capacitor. The Boost converter is controlled using Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) control strategy. PWM controls the Boost converter by turning the switch ON or
OFF at a high frequency (called the switching frequency). The description of the Boost
converter and PWM is presented in detail in [29], [30]. For a continuous current
conduction, the relationship between the output voltage and the input voltage is described
as:

2-3

where VO is the output voltage from boost, VPV is the output voltage from the PV array,
and D is the Duty cycle, that is equal to the fraction of time during which the switch is ON,
and it has values between 0 and 1; i.e.,

2-4

Figure 2-9 The Boost Converter Topology

 14

2.4 Active and Reactive Powers and DC-link Controller

The controller tasks are achieved mainly by two cascaded loops [12]:

1. Fast internal current loop to control the grid current in order to get a high-quality
power with low harmonics [12].

2. External voltage loop to control the DC-link voltage, which controls the power
flow in the system [12].

The controller can be implemented in different reference frames:

I. Natural Reference Frame (abc frame):

The control structure in abc frame is shown in Figure 2-10. In this controller, the
DC-link voltage (Udc) controller sets the active current reference (Id*) in accordance
with the required active power. In addition, the reactive current reference (Iq*) is
established by the reactive power controller. The phase angle of the grid voltages
(Ө) is used to create the three references for current controllers (ia*, ib*, ic*) using
dq to abc transformation [31]. Then, the current references are compared with the
measured currents (ia, ib, ic), and the error signals are fed into three current
controllers. The outputs of the current controllers (Ua*, Ub*, Uc*) are used as a
reference to control the three phase inverter switches [11], [12], [32].

The implementation of the current controllers can be done using Proportional

Integral (PI) controller or Proportional Resonant (PR) controller. However, the
nonlinear (hysteresis or dead beta) controllers are typically used due to their high
dynamics [12].

Figure 2-10 Control Structure in Natural Reference Frame [12]

 15

II. Synchronous Reference Frame (dq frame):

The control structure in dq frame is shown in Figure 2-11. As in natural reference

frame control, the active current reference (Id*) is generated by the dc-link voltage
controller. While the reactive power controller sets the reactive current reference
(Iq*). The phase angle of the grid voltages (Ө) is used to transform the grid voltages
(Ua, Ub, Uc) and the grid currents (ia, ib, ic) into dq frame that rotates in synchronous
with the grid voltage. By mean of this, the controller variables become dc values,
and this simplifies the design of controller and filter. The current controllers in the
synchronous reference frame are usually implemented using a PI controller since
they have a good performance when controlling DC variables [11], [12], [32].

Figure 2-11 Control Structure in Synchronous Reference Frame [12]

III. Stationary Reference Frame (αβ frame):

The control structure in a αβ frame is shown in Figure 2-12. In this structure, the
grid currents (ia, ib, ic) are transformed into αβ frame (iα, iβ). Then the measured
values are compared with active and reactive current references (iα*, iβ*) to generate
the inverter control signals. The current controllers, in this case, are implemented
using PR controllers [11], [12], [32].

Figure 2-12 Control Structure in Stationary Reference Frame [12]

 16

2.5 Grid Synchronization

2.5.1 Introduction

The synchronization between the PV system and the grid is one of the most important issues
of the grid-connected PV systems. The main output of the synchronization algorithm is the
phase angle (Ө) of the grid voltage vector. The phase angle of the grid voltage is very
important for the control algorithms of grid-connected PV systems. It is used to control PV
inverter switches, calculate and control of active and reactive powers, and transform the
feedback variables (grid voltage and current) to a reference frame suitable for control
algorithms (dq→abc or αβ→abc transformation). The synchronization algorithm for the
grid-connected PV system should be able to get the phase angle even when the signal is
distorted or unbalanced [12][33][34].

2.5.2 Synchronization Methods

Different synchronization methods have been developed and presented in the literature. In
[11], [33], an overview of main synchronization methods is presented. In addition, a
comparison of those methods is carried out. Moreover, the advantages, disadvantages, and
evaluation of performance are presented. The main synchronization algorithms are Zero-
Crossing Method, Filtering of Grid Voltages and Phased Locked Loop (PLL) [33], [35].
Table 2-3 shows a comparison between the synchronization algorithms.

The PLL synchronization algorithms prove to overcome the grid faults and to provide a
clear synchronization signal even when the signal is distorted or unbalanced, which make
them the most suitable for grid-connected applications [33], [34].

Table 2-3 Comparison between the Synchronization Algorithms [33]

 17

2.5.3 The Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

The main principle of the PLL is to generate a signal to track the grid voltage signal using
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO). A general structure of PLL method implemented in
dq frame is shown in Figure 2-13. PLL algorithm consists of three major parts: the phase
detector, the loop filter, and the VCO [11], [33], [34], [36].

Figure 2-13 General Structure of PLL

 The Phase Detector: the phase detector outputs a signal that is proportional to the
phase difference between the reference signal and the signal generated by the
transformation block (abc→ dq).

 The Loop Filter: This block presents a low-pass filter, usually PI controller, to
attenuate the high-frequency AC components from the phase detector output. The
output of this block is the grid frequency.

 VCO: This block integrates the grid frequency to obtain the phase shift of the grid
voltage (Ө).

In [37], a survey of synchronization methods for grid-connected series and shunt inverter
applications was presented. Figure 2-14 summarizes those synchronization methods.
 18

Figure 2-14 Classification of Synchronization Methods [37]

According to [37], synchronization methods can be evaluated according to

dynamics/convergence time, accuracy, distortion rejection capability, noise immunity,
phase and frequency adaptivity, computational burden, single or three-phase utilization,
and simplicity of structure (design, tuning, and implementation).

2.6 Anti-Islanding

Anti-islanding is one of the main protection requirements for any grid-connected PV

system [38]–[40]. Islanding occurs when the PV system continues to supply the local load
while it is electrically isolated from the utility grid due to a grid failure or by accident.
When islanding occurs, it is important to turn off the PV system to protect it along with
other connected equipment. Moreover, the isolated PV system present a hazard to workers
who expect the area is unpowered.

Different islanding detection techniques are presented and compared in [11], [41]–[44].
These techniques can be classified into two main groups: local or remote.

Local techniques can be divided into passive or active techniques. Passive techniques
depend on the observation of system permeates at Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
 19

These parameters could be voltage, current, frequency, harmonic distortion or power,

which vary widely when the system is islanded [41], [43], [44]. Whereas, Active techniques
introduce a small disturbance to some parameters and then monitor the effect in order to
deduct the grid presence [42]–[44].

Remote techniques for islanding detection are based on communication system between
the grid and PV system. Remote techniques are more reliable than local ones. However,
they are more expensive to implement [43].

2.7 Hardware Structures for Grid-Connected PV Systems

The hardware structure of the grid-connected PV system, which used to transfer and control
the generated power from the grid-connected PV system, is based mainly on power
electronic devices (DC-DC converter and inverter) [45]–[49]. A classification of grid-
connected PV systems is presented in Figure 2-15. In the following, a description and main
characteristics of each configuration are presented:

Figure 2-15 Hardware Structures for Grid-Connected PV Systems: (a) Module

Inverter, (b) String Inverter, (c) Multi-String Inverter, and (d) Central Inverter [45]

 Central Inverter Configuration (Figure 2-15(d)):

In this configuration, a large number of PV modules are connected in series, called a PV

string, which generates a high voltage that does not need amplification. Then, to produce a
high power, several PV strings are connected in parallel, through a blocking diode, to form
the PV array, which is attached to a three-phase central inverter [50]. The blocking diode
is used to prevent power losses caused by malfunctioning or shaded strings and by a storage
 20

system that may operate during the night [22]. The major disadvantages of this
configuration are: the need for high voltage DC cables, losses in the string diodes, common
MPPT, system reliability depends on one inverter, and power losses due to module
mismatch [49], [50].

 String Inverter Configuration (Figure 2-15(b)):

In this structure, each PV string is connected to a separate single- or three-phase inverter.

Then, the string inverters are paralleled and connected to the grid. If the string voltage is
high enough, then there is no need for voltage boosting (more efficient). However, if the
string voltage is not sufficient, then a DC-DC Boost converter, a DC-AC-DC high-
frequency transformer-based converter, or a grid-side line frequency transformer is used to
boost the voltage level [48], [51]. Unlike the central inverter, each string has a separate
MPPT and does not need a blocking diode, which reduces the losses and improves the
energy yield. Moreover, the string inverters have a lower price due to mass production.
However, there are still mismatches in the PV panels connected in series [45], [49].

When galvanic isolation is not required, the transformer is usually removed to increase the
efficiency of the system (1 to 2%) [11]. In this situation, “a specific design of
transformerless inverters and modulation schemes are required in order to eliminate the
leakage ground currents due to the parasitic capacitance between the PV panels and the
ground” [51].

 Multi-String Inverter Configuration (Figure 2-15(c)):

This solution combines the advantages of both central inverter and string inverter; each
string has a separate DC-DC converter with MPPT. Then, the DC-DC converters are
connected to a common DC-AC inverter. This system is highly efficient and flexible since
each string is controlled separately. In this way, PV strings having different sizes,
technology, or weather conditions can be connected to a common inverter [49].
Furthermore, a possibility to extend the PV system can be easily achieved by plugging a
new PV string with its DC-DC converter into the system [50].

 Module Inverter Configuration (Figure 2-15(a)):

It is made up of a single PV module connected to the grid through a single-phase inverter.

The advantages of this inverter are that it has no mismatch losses. It also has a modular
structure which simplifies the maintenance and modification of the PV system (plug and
 21

play) [52]. However, the module inverter has a low overall efficiency caused by the high-
voltage amplification. Moreover, the price per Watt is high relative to previous cases [49].

2.7.1 Grid-Connected PV System for Residential Applications

Figure 2-16 shows a typical grid-connected PV system for residential applications (several
kW), it usually has three main devices: a DC-DC Boost converter, an inverter, and a filter,
that is typically used at the output of the inverter to attenuate the high-frequency harmonics
[51].

Figure 2-16 Grid-Connected PV System

2.7.2 Grid-Connected Single-Phase Inverters

The design and operation of a PV system inverter depend on the grid demand. As the
demand for higher power ratings and more efficient PV system increases, new high
efficient inverters are developed for PV systems, most of them are single-phase
transformerless inverters. Transformerless inverters are usually based on Full-Bridge (FB)
inverter, Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) inverter, or multilevel inverters [11], [50], [52]–
[55]. Figure 2-17 shows two examples for single-phase transformerless inverters that are
derived from FB topology. Whereas, an example for NPC transformerless inverter is shown
in Figure 2-18.
 22

Figure 2-17 Transformerless PV Inverters Based on FB (H6 and HERIC) [45]

Figure 2-18 Neutral Point Clamped Transformerless Topology for PV System [45]

2.8 Grid Filter

The output voltage and current of the inverter have high Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
due to the high-frequency harmonics generated by switching frequency [30]. However, a
low THD is one of the most important requirement for grid-connected systems [38]–[40].
Thus, a low-pass filter is usually used to attenuate the high-frequency harmonics. The
current THD is defined as [56]:

2-5

where I1 is the rms value of the fundamental current and In is the rms value of the nth
harmonic current.

L-filter, LC-filter or LCL-filter may be used for a grid-connected PV system. Although L-

filter is simple, it requires high switching frequency to attenuate the harmonics sufficiently.
However, the switching frequency is limited in high power applications. To achieve a
 23

sufficient attenuation at a low switching frequency, a larger inductor should be used.

However, this will result in poor system dynamics due to the voltage drop across the
inductor [57], [58].

LC-filter is easy to design and has better attenuation factor than L-filter. However, to reduce
the losses and cost the capacitance should be high, which is not recommended since it may
cause an inrush current. Moreover, the resonant frequency of the LC-filter depends on the
grid impedance that varies over time and therefore the LC-filter is not suitable for the grid-
connected applications [57], [58].

Compared to the L-Filter and LC-Filter, the LCL-filter with the same components size can
provide a lower THD and a better decoupling between the filter and the grid impedance.
Therefore, the LCL-filter is the most attractive solution for grid-connected
applications[57], [58]. However, LCL filter requires more complex control strategies, and
various constraints have to be considered when designing the LCL-filter. These constraints
include “the resonance phenomenon, the current ripple through inductors, the total
impedance of the filter, the current harmonics attenuation at the switching frequency and
the reactive power absorbed by capacitor” [57].

2.9 Standards

The hardware and control algorithms requirements of a grid-connected system are driven
by the various standards. The standard requirements deal with issues like the response to
abnormal grid conditions, power quality, grounding, and anti-islanding. In [11], [50] an
overview of these standards was presented. The most important and recent standards are:

 IEEE 1547-2003 [38]: Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with

Electric Power Systems,

 IEC 61727 [39]: Photovoltaic (PV) Systems – Characteristics of the Utility Interface,

 VDE 0126-1-1 Safety [40]: Automatic Disconnection Device between a Generator and

the Public Low-Voltage Grid.

 24

Chapter 3 MODELLING AND SIMULATION

In Chapter 2, the literature review about the grid-connected PV system has been carried
out. The main components of the grid-connected system have been presented and
discussed. These components are the PV array, the DC-DC Boost converter, the MPPT
controller, the VSI, the LCL filter, the PLL, and the active and reactive power controller.
In this chapter, MATLAB/SIMULINK models for the system components will be
developed, verified and tested.

3.1 Modelling and Simulation of a PV Module

A simple and an efficient approach proposed by [19] has been modelled using MATLAB/
SIMULINK. The proposed model is developed to estimate the equivalent circuit
parameters of ISDM shown in Figure 2-2. In addition, a MATLAB/SIMULINK model for
a PV module had been used in the simulation of the PV system built.

3.1.1 PV Module Modelling

The PV module equivalent circuit in Figure 2-2 can be described by [19]:

1 3-1

This model has three unknowns Iph, IS and A.

Iph is determined as follows [19]:

3-2

Where G the solar irradiance (kW/m2), ISC is the short circuit current at STC, which is given
in the datasheet, ΔT is the difference between the module temperature and the STC
temperature (25oC), and α is the current temperature coefficient provided in the product
datasheet. Evaluating eq. (3-1) at STC (G=1 and T=25oC) and V=Voc yields:

3-3

where Irs is the is the saturation current at STC.

 25

By evaluating eq. (3-1) at STC and Maximum Power Point (MPP) yields [19]:

1 3-4

 Equations (3-3) and (3-4) can be solved to get the diode ideality factor “A” [19].

 To Find the Is:

, , | | 3-5

where VOC(G,T) is the open circuit voltage at current temperature and irradiance, VOC(G,To)
is the open circuit voltage at STC temperature (25oC) and current irradiance, β is the
temperature coefficient of VOC (given by datasheet) [19].

By substituting I=0 in eq. (3-1), the open circuit voltage formula is determined as [19]:

, 1 3-6

Substituting eq. (3-2) in eq. (3-6) yields:

, 1 3-7

By evaluating eq. (3-7) at T and To and substituting in eq. (3-5) yields:

1 1 | | 3-8

By rearranging eq. (3-8), IS can be expressed as:

| |

| | 3-9

The modelling of the PV module using SIMULINK is described in the following steps:

1. The temperature and irradiance level are the two inputs of the PV module. As shown
in Figure 3-1, the module temperature is converted from Celsius (C) to Kelvin, and
the Irradiance level is converted from W/m2 to kW/m2.
 26

Figure 3-1 Current and Temperature Conversion SIMULINK Block Diagram

2. Figure 3-2 shows the SIMULINK block diagram used to find the photo current (Iph).
The converted values of temperature and irradiance level together with the value of
current temperature coefficient (from PV module datasheet) are used to calculate the
photo current (Iph) using eq. (3-2).

Figure 3-2 Block Diagram to Find the Photo Current (Iph)

3. The block diagram used to determine the saturation current at STC (using eq. (3-4)) is
shown in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3 Block Diagram to Calculate the Saturation Current at STC (Irs)

4. The diode saturation current (IS) which is calculated using the eq. (3-9) is presented by
the SIMULINK block diagram shown in Figure 3-4
 27

Figure 3-4 Block Diagram to Calculate the Saturation Current (Is)

5. Figure 3-5 shows the MATLAB code used to solve eq. (3-3) and eq. (3-4) to get the
diode ideality factor “A”.
>> Vmpp = 26.3; %voltage at Maximum Power Point
Impp = 7.61 ; %current at Maximum power point
Voc = 32.9 ; % Open circuit voltage
Isc = 8.21 ; % Short circuit current
T0=25+273.15 ; % Temperature in Kelvin
q=1.60217646e-19; %electron charge,
K=1.3806503e-23 ; %Boltzmann constant
Ns=54;
syms A;
x=(q*Voc)/(Ns*K*A*T0);
y=(q*Vmpp)/(Ns*K*A*T0);
eq1=Isc/(exp(x)-1);
eq2=(Isc-Impp)/(exp(y)-1);
eq=eq1-eq2==0;
A=vpasolve(eq,A)
A=
1.8183572154381892946225061408685

Figure 3-5 MATLAB Code Used to Find the Diode Ideality Factor “A”

6. From the previous steps, the values of the photo current (Iph), the diode saturation
current (IS), and the ideality factor “A” were calculated. All these values are substituted
in Eq. (3-1) to calculate the output current. The SIMULINK block diagram shown in
Figure 3-6 represents Eq. (3-1).
 28

Figure 3-6 Block Diagram to Calculate the Output Current

The above model is used to obtain the equivalent circuit parameters of KC200GT PV
module [59]. The values of unknowns at STC are:

Iph =8.21 A

IS = 1.78X10-5A

A=1.82

3.1.2 Simulation

Figure 3-7 shows the SIMULINK circuit used to find the characteristics curves of the PV
modules. The MATLAB code which was used to obtain the characteristics curves can be
found in Appendix A.1

Figure 3-7 PV Module Test Circuit

 29

The simulation results of the PV module in MATLAB/SIMULINK are shown in Figure

3-8 to Figure 3-11. In Figure 3-8, plots of I-V characteristics of the PV module are obtained,
which are very similar to the actual behavior of a real PV module under the effect of various
levels of irradiance. While, Figure 3-9 shows the I-V characteristics of the PV module for
different temperatures, which are very close to the actual behavior of a real PV module
under same conditions. Figure 3-10 shows the P-V characteristics of the PV at constant
temperature and various levels of irradiance. It is obvious from the figure that the output
power of PV modules increases when the irradiance increases. Figure 3-11 shows the P-V
characteristics of the PV at constant irradiance and different temperatures. It is clear from
the figure that the output power of PV modules increases when the temperature decreases.

I-V Characteristics

16

14

12
Output Current (A)

10

6
2
T=25øC, G=400W/m
4
T=25øC, G=600W/m 2
2
T=25øC, G=800W/m
2
T=25øC, G=1000W/m 2
MPP
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Output Voltage (V)
Figure 3-8 I–V Characteristic at Different Irradiances (G) and Constant
Temperature (T)
Output Current (A)

Figure 3-9 I–V Characteristic at Different Temperatures (T) and Constant

Irradiances (G)
 30

Output Power (W)

Figure 3-10 P–V Characteristic at Different Irradiances (G) and Constant

Temperature (T)
Output Power (W)

Figure 3-11 P–V Characteristic at Different Temperatures (T) and Constant

Irradiance (G)

3.1.3 Validation

Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13 shows the datasheet I-V characteristics of PV module [59].
By comparing the datasheet results with the created PV module results (Figure 3-8 and
Figure 3-9), it is obvious that the simulation results match well the characteristics of the
PV module in the datasheet.
 31

Figure 3-12 I–V PV Datasheet Characteristic at Different Irradiances, T=25oC

Figure 3-13 I–V PV Datasheet Characteristic at Different Temperatures,

G=1000W/m2

3.1.4 PV Array Modelling

The model of the PV module can be expanded to model the PV array by setting the value
of Iph, IS and V in eq. (3-1) as follows [60]:

. 3-10

′ / 3-11

where the S is the number of series modules, and p is the number of parallel modules.
 32

The KC200GT module has a maximum power of 200Wp at STC as shown in Figure 3-13.
To get 6kW, a PV array was constructed using 2 PV strings each of them consists of 10
modules connected in series. The I-V and P-V characteristics curves at STC are shown in
Figure 3-14

(a) (b)
Figure 3-14 PV Array Characteristic Curves at STC: (a) I-V Characteristic Curve (b)
P-V Characteristic Curve

3.2 Boost Converter

The boost converter SIMULINK model is shown in Figure 3-15. It was designed to operate
in Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) using the following equations [61];

3-12

∆
3-13

Figure 3-15 The SIMULINK Model of the Boost Converter

The closed loop control system of the Boost converter is shown in Figure 3-16. The Boost
converter’s output is controlled by a PI controller. The PI controller is designed using
MATLAB PID tuner as shown in Figure 3-17. The MATLAB code for Boost transfer
 33

function is shown in Figure 3-18.The derivation of the transfer function can be found in
[62].

Figure 3-16 The Boost Control Circuit

Figure 3-17 The Design of the PI Controller Using MATLAB PID Tuner
 34

Figure 3-18 The Transfer Function of the Boost Converter

To test the Boost converter, a variable magnitude reference voltage is applied to the
controller, and the output is observed. The test result is shown in Figure 3-19; the result
shows that the system is stable and has a zero-steady state error. However, during
transitions, there is a delay in the response.

26
25 Vref
24 Vo
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Figure 3-19 The Reference Voltage and the Output Voltage of the Boost

Another test was done by applying a variable input to the Boost and observing the output
voltage while keeping the reference voltage constant. The test result is shown in Figure
3-20. The result shows that the system is stable; its output voltage has a small steady state
error for a ramp input, a fast response, and an overshoot for the step change in the input
voltage.
 35

Figure 3-20 The Input, Output and the Reference Voltage of The Boost

3.3 MPPT Implementation

The flowchart of the P&O MPPT control method is shown in Figure 3-21. The MATLAB
code to implement this method can be found in Appendix A.2.

Start

Read Vnew and Inew

Calculate Pnew

Yes Pnew=Pold

D=Dold
No

Pnew>Pold No

Yes

Vnew>Vold Vnew>Vold

Yes No No
Yes

D=Dold‐ΔD D=Dold+ΔD D=Dold+ΔD D=Dold‐ΔD

Figure 3-21 Flow Chart of P&O MPPT Algorithm

 36

The MPPT controller used to control the duty cycle of the Boost converter switch to extract
the maximum power from the PV array. Figure 3-22 shows the SIMULINK circuit used to
test the MPPT algorithm.

Figure 3-22 SIMULINK Circuit to Test MPPT Algorithm

Figure 3-23 illustrates the operation of the MPPT controller and Boost converter. It is
obvious from the figure that when the MPPT controller is enabled at t=0.4s, it controls the
duty cycle of the Boost converter to operate the PV array at the maximum power point. In
addition, by comparing the input voltage (VPV) with the output voltage (Vo) in Figure 3-23,
the boosting action of the converter is obvious.

Figure 3-23 Boosting and MPPT Test

 37

Another test was done by applying variable temperature and irradiance to the PV array and
then observing the output power from the PV array. Figure 3-24 shows the test results. To
verify the MPPT algorithm, the test results were compared with the data from the P-V
Characteristic of the PV module (Figure 3-10 and Figure 3-11). Table 3-1 summarizes the
results and shows that the MPPT algorithm success in tracking the PV module maximum
power. Clearly, the MPPT forces the system to operate at the maximum power point.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3-24 MPPT Test Results (a) PV Power for Variable T and G (b) PV Power
vs. Vpv Power for Variable T and G
 38

Table 3-1 Results of MPPT Algorithm Test

Temperature Irradiance Power from MPPT Power from P-V characteristic
(C) (W/m2) test (W) curves (W)
25 800 157 157
25 1000 200 200
50 1000 162 162

3.4 Three-Phase Inverter

The PV array outputs DC energy, but the grid energy is AC. To transfer the generated
energy to the grid, it should be converted into AC energy with controllable magnitude,
phase, and frequency. To achieve this, a three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) was
used. The SIMULINK circuit used to test the VSI is shown in Figure 3-25. The VSI
switches are controlled using Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) [63]. The
SVPWM technique is widely used to control the VSI. Compared to the sinusoidal pulse
width modulation (SPWM), SVPWM is more suitable for digital implementation and it has
better dc-link voltage utilization. Moreover, it has lower total harmonic distortion [64].

The output waveforms of voltages and currents are shown in Figure 3-26. The relationship
between the DC input and the AC output line-to-line voltage is given by:

√ 3-14
1.15
√

Figure 3-25 SIMULINK Circuit for the VSI

 39

V
300
200
100
0
‐100
‐200
‐300

10

‐5

‐10

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Figure 3-26 DC-AC Conversion

3.5 LCL Filter Design

The LCL-filter is used to attenuate the high-frequency harmonics of the output current. The
circuit diagram of the LCL-filter is shown in Figure 3-27.

Figure 3-27 Circuit Diagram of the LCL-filter

The design procedure of the LCL-filter can be described by the following steps [56], [65]–
[67]:

1. The filter capacitance is selected based on the limit of the reactive power absorbed by
the capacitor. Generally, it should be less than 5% of the rated power. The value of
capacitance is given by [65]:

3-15

where Cb is the base capacitance, and x is the percentage of the reactive power absorbed at
rated condition. The base capacitance of the system can be calculated by:
 40

3-16

3-17

where the rms value of line to line voltage, Prated is the rated power of the system,
is the base impedance and is the grid frequency.

2. The inverter side inductor ( ) used to reduce the ripple of the inverter current and it is
calculated using the relationship between the ripple current and the inverter inductor
[65]:

∆ 3-18

where Δi is ripple current, usually limited to 10%-25% of rated current [65], fsw is the
switching frequency. For Δi equal 20% of rated current, the value of grid inductor is given
by:

3-19
%

where Ib is the base current and given by:

3-20
√

3. The grid side inductance (Lg) can be found based on the required Ripple Attenuation
Factor (RAF) at switching frequency. RAF is the ratio of grid current to the inverter
output current, and it is given by eq. (3-21). RAF at switching frequency is given by
eq. (3-22), which can be rewritten as eq. (3-23) to calculate Lg [56].

/
3-21
/

3-22

3-23
 41

4. To reduce the ac voltage drop, the value of filter inductance (Lg+Li) should be less than
0.1pu [56].

0.1 3-24

3-25

5. The resonance frequency, which is given by eq. (3-26), should be far away from the
grid frequency and switching frequency. A suitable range of fres is given by eq. (3-27)
[68]

3-26

10 3-27

6. To avoid resonance phenomenon, a damping resistor (Rf) is usually connected in series

with filter capacitor. The value of the damping resistor should be [57]:

3-28

where is the resonant frequency.

The effect of the damping resistor on the transfer function of the LCL filter is illustrated in
Figure 3-28. Figure 3-28 (a) shows the Bode plot of the filter transfer function without a
damping resistor. Figure 3-28 (b) shows how the damping resistor prevents resonance in
the filter.

Bode Diagram Bode Diagram

100 0

50
-50
0

-50
-100
-100

-150 -150
-90
-90

-135
-180

-180

-270
10 4 10 5 10 6 -225
Frequency (rad/s) 104 10 5 10 6 107

(a) Frequency (rad/s)

(b)

Figure 3-28 Bode Plots of the LCL filter (a) without the Damping Resistor (b) with
the Damping Resistor
 42

The flowchart in Figure 3-29 illustrates the procedure for an LCL-filter design. The
MATLAB code used to design the filter can be found in Appendix A.4.

Start

Calculate 
Zb using eq. (3‐16) 
Cb using eq. (3‐17) 
Lb using eq. (3‐25) 

Select x and Calculate Cf  
eq. (3‐15) 

Select Δi and Calculate Li  
eq. (3‐20) 

Select RAF and Calculate Lg  
eq. (3‐23) 

Lf check 
eq. (3‐24) 

Calculate fres  
eq. (3‐26)

fres check 
eq. (3‐27) 

Calculate Rf  
eq. (3‐28) 

End 

Figure 3-29 LCL-filter Design Flowchart

 43

A SIMULINK circuit is built to test the LCL filter as shown in Figure 3-30. The VSI output
current waveform and FFT spectrum without using a filter are shown in Figure 3-31. From
the figure; it is obvious that the waveform has high the switching frequency harmonics. An
LCL-filter is used to attenuate the high-frequency harmonics. The results are shown in
Figure 3-32; the output current is almost sinusoidal with THD equal to 2% which is within
the limits recommended by IEEE standards [38].

Figure 3-30 The SIMULINK Circuit for the Filter Test

(a)
(b)

Figure 3-31 (a)The Output Current without Filtering (b)The Output Current FFT
Spectrum
 44

(a) (b)

Figure 3-32 (a)The Output Current of the Inverter using LCL-filter (b)The Output
Current FFT Spectrum

3.6 Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

The PLL is used to extract the phase of the grid voltage vector. The phase angle of the grid
voltage is very important for control algorithms of grid-connected PV systems. It is used
to control the inverter switches, calculate and control of active and reactive powers, and
transform the feedback variables (grid voltage and current) to a reference frame suitable
for control algorithms. The SIMULINK model for the PLL is shown in Figure 3-33.

Figure 3-33 The SIMULINK Model for the PLL

The MATLAB circuit in Figure 3-34 was built to test the PLL. In this circuit, the PLL is
used to detect the phase of a sine wave with a variable phase. The test results are shown in
Figure 3-35. The first signal is the actual phase of the sine wave, the second signal is the
detected phase using the PLL, and the final signal is the difference between the actual phase
and measured one. From the result, it is clear that the measured phase is very close to the
actual one.
 45

Figure 3-34 The MATLAB Circuit for the PLL Test

wt_actual
6
4
2
0
wt_PLL
6
4
2
0
wt_actual - wt_PLL
5
0
-5
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Figure 3-35 Test Results of the PLL

3.7 VSI Controller

The SIMULINK model for the VSI Controller shown in Figure 3-36. The controller tasks
are achieved mainly by two loops: an external voltage loop, which adjusts the DC-link
voltage, and internal current loop, which regulates the grid currents (Id and Iq). The output
of the active current (Id*) reference is generated by the DC-link voltage controller. While
 46

the reactive power controller sets the reactive current reference (Iq*). Using the phase angle
of the grid voltages (Ө), the grid voltages and currents (Vabc, Iabc) are transformed into dq
frame that rotates in synchronous with the grid voltage. Then, the current references are
compared with the measured ones, and the error signals are fed into three current
controllers. Vdi and Vqi voltage outputs of the current controller are used as a reference to
the SVPWM generator [12].

The grid-voltage and current transformation from abc to dq are shown in Figure 3-37.
Figure 3-38 shows the generation of SVPWM to control the VSI.

Figure 3-36 The SIMULINK Model for the Active and Reactive Power Controller

Figure 3-37 The Grid Voltages and the Currents (abc to dq) Transformation
 47

Figure 3-38 The SVPWM Generation

To test the active and reactive power controller, the circuit in Figure 3-39 was built. The
DC voltage reference is set to 700 V, active power reference is set to 5kW and reactive
power reference is set once to 0kVAR and then to 1kVAR. The simulation results (shown
in Figure 3-40 and Figure 3-41) are matching the set values.

Figure 3-39 The Active and Reactive Power Controller Test Circuit
 48

Figure 3-40 The simulation Results of the PQ Controller Test (Vdc=700V, P=5kW,
Q=0kVAR)

Figure 3-41 The Simulation Results of the PQ Controller Test (Vdc=700V, P=5kW,
Q=1kVAR)
 49

Chapter 4 THE GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEM

In Chapter 3, the main components of the grid-connected PV system have been modelled
and tested. These components are the PV array, the DC-DC Boost converter, the VSI, the
PLL, the LCL filter, the MPPT controller and the VSI controller. In this chapter, the entire
grid-connected PV system will be built using the constructed components. The system will
be tested under various weather and grid conditions, and the results will be analyzed and
discussed.

The MATLAB/SIMULINK model for the grid-connected PV system is shown in Figure

4-1. The description of the model is as follows:

The PV Array: The PV array consists of two parallel strings. Each string has 15 Kyocera
KC200GT solar modules [59] connected in series. The PV array is generating a maximum
power of 6kW at STC (1000 W/m2 sun irradiance and 25C temperature).

The DC-DC Boost Converter: a Boost converter used to step-up the PV array MPP output
voltage (VMPP) from 395V at STC to 700V. The Boost converter is operated at a switching
frequency of 10 kHz. The duty cycle of the Boost converter is generated by the MPPT
controller.

The MPPT Controller: uses the Perturb and Observe (P&O) technique to generate the
duty cycle of the Boost converter. This controller automatically varies the duty cycle of the
boost converter in order to extract the maximum power from the PV array.

The VSI: a 3-level IGBT VSI inverter is used to convert the 700V DC-link voltage to
400VLLrms AC voltage. The inverter switches are controlled using SVPWM technique. The
SVPWM signals are generated by the inverter controller.

VSI controller (described in Section 3.7 ): it is used to generate the appropriate gate signals
for the VSI switches in order to generate the required AC voltages and currents.

Grid filter: an LCL filter is used to filter harmonics produced by VSI.

The grid: the PV array is connected to 400VLLrms grid line.

The local load: the PV array is supplying a 4kW local load; the extra inverter power is
supplied to the grid.
 50

Figure 4-1 MATLAB Model for the Grid-Connected PV System

 51

4.1 Grid-Connected PV System under STC

The first test is conducted by applying 1000 W/m2 sun irradiance and 25C temperature to
the PV array. The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-2. From the figure, it is possible
to conclude the followings:
 The DC-link voltage is equal to the set value (700 V DC)
 The output phase voltage from VSI is synchronized with grid voltage (same
magnitude, frequency, and phase angle)
 The output power for the inverter equals 5760 Watt, which means that the
inverter has 96% efficiency (the PV array power is 6kW) Figure 4-3 shows the
inverter output current and voltage before and after the filtration. The inverter
current has a small THD (less than 2%) as shown in Figure 4-4 .
 The reactive power equals zero. (No reactive load)

Figure 4-2: Outputs of the Grid-connected PV System Test at STC

 52

(a) (b)

Figure 4-3 The Unfiltered and Filtered Outputs of the Inverter (a) Current
Waveforms (b) Voltage Waveforms

Figure 4-4 FFT Analysis of the Inverter Output Current

 53

4.2 Grid-Connected PV System under Various Temperatures and

Irradiance Levels

The second test is done by applying a variable irradiance and temperature to the PV array.
The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-5. From the Figure; it is possible to conclude
the following:
 The DC-link voltage remains constant and equals the set value (700 V DC)
 The output voltage from the VSI is synchronized with the grid voltage (same
magnitude, frequency, and phase).
 The magnitude and the phase of the inverter current vary according to the active
power supplied by the PV array.
 The PV array output power and the inverter output power are summarized in Table
4-1
 Figure 4-6 illustrates the operation of the MPPT controller. It shows the output
power from the PV array versus the PV array voltage.

Table 4-1 Summarization of the MPPT Test Results

Irradiance (W/m2) Temperature (C) PV Power (W) Inverter Power (W)
400 25 2192 1947
800 25 4706 4453
1000 25 6010 5760
1000 10 6464 6218
 54

Figure 4-5 Grid-Connected PV System Test under Various Temperatures and

Irradiance Levels

Figure 4-6 PV Array Output Power vs. Output Voltage

 55

4.3 Grid-Connected PV System Supplying Reactive Load

In this test, the PV array is working under STC and supplying an 8kW/500VAR local load.
The inverter voltage, current, active power, and reactive power are shown in Figure 4-7.
The voltage, current, active power and reactive power of the grid are shown in Figure 4-8.
From the Figures, it is possible to observe the following:
 The active power sharing between the PV array and the grid. The PV array is
supplying its maximum power to the load (about 6kW), while the grid is supplying
the remaining power required by the load (2kW).
 The PV array is supplying the full reactive power required by the load (500VAR),
while the grid is working on unity power factor (supplying zero reactive power).

Figure 4-7 Inverter Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power
 56

Figure 4-8 Grid Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power

4.4 Grid-Connected PV System Working Overnight

In this test, the PV array is working overnight, which means that it is supplying zero active
power. The PV array is connected to a 3kW/500VAR local load. The inverter voltage,
current, active power, and reactive power are shown in Figure 4-9. The voltage, current,
active power and reactive power of the grid are shown in Figure 4-10. From the Figures, it
is possible to observe the following:
 The PV array is supplying zero active power. However, it still can supply all the
reactive power required by the load (500VAR).
 The inverter is controlled to ensure that the grid is working at a unity power factor.
It is obvious that the grid is supplying all the active power required by the load
(3kW) and it is supplying zero reactive power.
 57

Vabc_VSI
400

200

‐200

‐400
Iabc_VSI
2

‐2
P_VSI
1000

‐1000
Q_VSI
1500

1000

500

0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20

Figure 4-9 Inverter Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power
Vabc
400

200

‐200

‐400
Iabc
10

‐10
P_grid

3000

2000

1000
Q_grid
1000

‐1000
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20

Figure 4-10 Grid Voltage, Current, Active Power, and Reactive Power
 58

Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusions

In this thesis, a comprehensive literature review has been presented to identify the most
efficient and reliable hardware structures, and control algorithms for a grid-connected PV
system. The hardware structure is mainly based on three devices: the DC-DC Boost
converter, the inverter, and LCL-filter.

Many control and protection algorithms have been proposed in the literature to maximize
the PV output power and protect the system. The most important ones are the MPPT, active
and reactive power control, DC-link control, harmonic elimination, synchronization, and
islanding protection.

The problem to be addressed by this thesis is how to build a high efficient grid-connected
PV system and to develop advanced control and synchronization algorithms, which would
improve the efficiency, stability, and reliability of the grid-connected PV system under
normal and fault conditions.

To achieve this, the whole PV system should be tested under the variable weather and grid
conditions. However, the wide variety of devices and control algorithms makes the
practical testing of the system very difficult and expensive. Moreover, in real systems,
many types of scenarios and faults cannot be studied due to the destructive nature they may
cause to the system. Therefore, this thesis makes use of the modelling and simulation tools
of MATLAB/ SIMULINK to develop a grid-connected PV model that can be used to
simulate any scenario or fault, which enables setting the appropriate control and protection
scheme.

The modelling tasks and control algorithms have been done and presented in Chapter 3. An
accurate model for PV array was built using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The accuracy of the
model was verified by comparing the results with the datasheet information. Then, the DC-
DC Boost converter was designed and used to step-up the output voltage of the PV array
to a suitable level. Moreover, The Perturb and Observe (P&O) MPPT control technique
was implemented and used to extract the maximum power from the PV array. In addition,
a Three-phase Voltage Inverter (VSI) was modelled and controlled using SVPWM to
 59

convert the DC voltage to an AC voltage synchronized with the grid voltage. An LCL-filter
was designed and used to attenuate the high-frequency harmonics at the output of the
inverter. Finally, a DC-link controller and active and reactive power controller were
implemented and tested.

Finally, a model for a grid-connected PV system was built and tested under various weather
and grid conditions. In the first test, the model was tested under STC to show how the PV
array system is synchronized with the utility grid to supply its maximum power. The second
test was done under various temperatures and irradiance levels, which shows how the
MPPT controller succeeded in extracting the maximum power from the PV array. Next, an
8kW/500VAR local load was connected to the system under STC. This test demonstrated
the power sharing between the PV array and the grid. In the final test, the system was tested
overnight. In this test, the PV array system acted as a reactive power compensator; it
supplied all reactive power required by the local load and ensured that the grid works at a
unity power factor.

At the end of this thesis, it can be argued that the desired model for the grid-connected PV
system has been successfully constructed. The tests results showed that the system operates
efficiently and effectively under various grid and weather conditions. Consequently, the
constructed model can be used to perform further studies and researches on the grid-
connected PV system and its components, which will help in developing more efficient and
advanced hardware structures, control algorithms, and protection schemes.

5.2 Future Work

 Perform some practical experiments to verify the simulation results.

 Using the developed model to construct comparative studies on different control

algorithms and hardware structures.

 Using the constructed model to perform a fault analysis study on the system.
 60

REFERENCES

[1] R. Fu et al., “U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System Cost Benchmark: Q1 2016,” 2016.

[2] IEA-PVPS, “2016 Snapshot of global photovoltaic markets,” 2016.

[3] IRENA, “Renewable capacity statistics 2017,” 2017.

[4] REN21 Secretariat, “Renewables 2017 global status report,” 2017.

[5] A. Jäger-Waldau, “PV status report 2016,” 2016.

[6] M. Rashid, Power electronics handbook, 3rd ed. Elsevier, 2011.

[7] REN 21 Steering Committee, “Renewables 2013 global status report.” 2013.

[8] G. M. Masters, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. Hoboken, NJ,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004.

[9] R. Singh and B. S. Rajpurohit, “Performance Evaluation of Grid-Connected Solar

Photovoltaic (SPV) System with Different MPPT Controllers,” 2014, pp. 97–124.

[10] G. J. Kish et al., “Modelling and control of photovoltaic panels utilising the
incremental conductance method for maximum power point tracking,” IET
Renewable Power Generation, vol. 6, no. 4. p. 259, 2012.

[11] M. L. and P. R. Remus Teodorescu, Grid Converters for Photovoltaic and Wind
Power Systems. 2011.

[12] F. Blaabjerg et al., “Overview of Control and Grid Synchronization for Distributed
Power Generation Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 53,
no. 5. pp. 1398–1409, 2006.

[13] samlexsolar, “Solar PV Cell Module, array.” .

[14] B. Parida et al., “A review of solar photovoltaic technologies,” Renewable and

Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 3. pp. 1625–1636, Apr. 2011.

[15] IRENA, “Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series,” Concentrating

solar power. 2012.

[16] M. A. Green et al., “Solar cell efficiency tables (version 49),” Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, vol. 25, no. 1. pp. 3–13, Jan. 2017.
 61

[17] M. G. G. Villalva et al., “Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of

Photovoltaic Arrays,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 24, no. 5. pp.
1198–1208, May 2009.

[18] H.-L. Tsai et al., “Development of Generalized Photovoltaic Model Using

MATLAB/SIMULINK,” in World Congress on Engineering and Computer
Science, 2008, pp. 0–5.

[19] Y. Mahmoud et al., “A Simple Approach to Modeling and Simulation of

Photovoltaic Modules,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 3, no. 1.
pp. 185–186, Jan. 2012.

[20] S. Bal et al., “Comparative analysis of mathematical modeling of Photo-Voltaic

(PV) array,” in Annual IEEE India Conference (INDICON, 2012, pp. 269–274.

[21] J. a. Gow and C. D. Manning, “Development of a photovoltaic array model for use
in power-electronics simulation studies,” IEE Proceedings - Electric Power
Applications, vol. 146, no. 2. p. 193, 1999.

[22] E. Romero-Cadaval et al., “Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Generation Plants:

Components and Operation,” IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3.
pp. 6–20, Sep. 2013.

[23] T. Esram and P. L. Chapman, “Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power

Point Tracking Techniques,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22, no.
2. pp. 439–449, 2007.

[24] M. A. G. de Brito et al., “Evaluation of the main MPPT techniques for photovoltaic
applications,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 60, no. 3. pp.
1156–1167, Mar. 2013.

[25] D. Sera et al., “On the Perturb-and-Observe and Incremental Conductance MPPT
Methods for PV Systems,” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 3, no. 3. pp. 1070–
1078, Jul. 2013.

[26] S. E. Babaa et al., “Overview of Maximum Power Point Tracking Control Methods
for PV Systems,” Journal of Power and Energy Engineering, vol. 2, no. 8. Scientific
Research Publishing, pp. 59–72, 2014.

[27] K. H. Hussein et al., “Maximum photovoltaic power tracking: an algorithm for

rapidly changing atmospheric conditions,” IEE Proceedings-Generation,
Transmission and Distribution, vol. 142, no. 1. IET, pp. 59–64, 1995.
 62

[28] G. Walker, “Evaluating MPPT converter topologies using a MATLAB PV model,”

Journal of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, vol. 21, no. 1. Engineers Australia,
p. 49, 2001.

[29] M. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications, 3rd ed. Prentice
Hall, 2003.

[30] N. Mohan et al., Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design, 3rd ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2003.

[31] P. P. Krause et al., Analysis of electric machinery and drive systems, 3rd ed. Wiley,
2013.

[32] A. Timbus, “Grid monitoring and advanced control of distributed power generation
systems,” Aalborg University, 2007.

[33] A. Timbus et al., “Synchronization methods for three phase distributed power
generation systems - An overview and evaluation,” IEEE 36th Power Electronics
Specialists Conference. pp. 2474–2481, 2005.

[34] A. Nagliero et al., “Monitoring and synchronization techniques for single-phase

{PV} systems,” International Symposium on Power Electronics Electrical Drives
Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM). Ieee, pp. 1404–1409, 2010.

[35] Y. Yang and F. Blaabjerg, “Overview of Single-phase Grid-connected Photovoltaic

Systems,” Electric Power Components and Systems, vol. 43, no. 12. Taylor &
Francis, pp. 1352–1363, Jul. 2015.

[36] G. Hsieh and J. Hung, “Phase-locked loop techniques. A survey,” IEEE

Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 1996.

[37] M. Boyra and J.-L. Thomas, “A review on synchronization methods for grid-
connected three-phase VSC under unbalanced and distorted conditions,” in
European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, 2011, pp. 1–10.

[38] “IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
Systems,” 2003.

[39] “Photovoltaic (PV) systems – Characteristics of the utility interface.” 2004.

[40] “Automatic Disconnection Device between a Generator and the Public Low-
Voltage Grid, VDE V 0126-1-1 Std., 2006.” 2006.
 63

[41] F. De Mango et al., “Overview of Anti-Islanding Algorithms for PV Systems. Part

I: Passive Methods,” 12th International Power Electronics and Motion Control
Conference. pp. 1878–1883, 2006.

[42] F. De Mango et al., “Overview of Anti-Islanding Algorithms for PV Systems. Part

II: Active Methods,” 12th International Power Electronics and Motion Control
Conference. pp. 1884–1889, 2006.

[43] W. W. Y. Teoh and C. W. C. Tan, “An Overview of Islanding Detection Methods

in Photovoltaic Systems,” World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,
vol. 5, no. 58. pp. 674–682, 2011.

[44] D. Velasco et al., “Review of anti-islanding techniques in distributed generators,”

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 14, no. 14. pp. 1608–1614, Aug.
2010.

[45] F. Blaabjerg et al., “Power Electronics for Renewable Energy Systems – Status and
Trends,” 8th International Conference on Integrated Power Systems (CIPS). pp.
25–27, 2014.

[46] J. M. M. Carrasco et al., “Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of

Renewable Energy Sources: A Survey,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 53, no. 4. pp. 1002–1016, Jun. 2006.

[47] R. H. H. Lasseter, “MicroGrids,” in IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter

Meeting, 2002., 2002, vol. 1, pp. 305–308 vol.1.

[48] Blaabjerg et al., “Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed power

generation systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 19, no. 5. IEEE,
pp. 1184–1194, 2004.

[49] F. Blaabjerg and F. Iov, “Power electronics-key technology for renewable energy
systems,” Power Electronics, Drive Systems and Technologies Conference
(PEDSTC). pp. 445–466, 2011.

[50] S. B. Kjaer et al., “A review of single-phase grid-connected inverters for

photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 41, no. 5.
pp. 1292–1306, 2005.

[51] T. Orłowska-Kowalska et al., Advanced and Intelligent Control in Power

Electronics and Drives, vol. 531. Cham: Springer, 2014.
 64

[52] D. Meneses et al., “Review and comparison of step-up transformerless topologies

for photovoltaic AC-module application,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, vol. 28, no. 6. pp. 2649–2663, 2013.

[53] F. Luo and H. Ye, Advanced DC/AC Inverters: Applications in Renewable Energy.
CRC Press, 2013.

[54] T. Kerekes et al., “A New High-Efficiency Single-Phase Transformerless PV

Inverter Topology,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 1. pp.
184–191, 2011.

[55] L. G. Franquelo et al., “The age of multilevel converters arrives,” IEEE Industrial
Electronics Magazine, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 28–39, 2008.

[56] M.-Y. Park et al., “LCL-filter design for grid-connected PCS using total harmonic
distortion and ripple attenuation factor,” The 2010 International Power Electronics
Conference - ECCE ASIA -. Ieee, pp. 1688–1694, Jun. 2010.

[57] H. Cha and T. Vu, “Comparative analysis of low-pass output filter for single-phase
grid-connected Photovoltaic inverter,” in 2010 Twenty-Fifth Annual IEEE Applied
Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2010, pp. 1659–1665.

[58] J. Lettl et al., “Comparison of different filter types for grid connected inverter,”
PIERS Proceedings. 2011.

[59] Kyocera, “KC200GT High Efficiency Multicrystal Photovoltaic Module

Datasheet.” .

[60] G. Spagnuolo et al., “Efficient Approaches for Modeling and Simulating

Photovoltaic Power Systems,” Photovoltaics, IEEE …, vol. 3, no. 1. pp. 500–508,
2013.

[61] B. M. Hasaneen and A. A. E. Mohammad, “Design and Simulation of DC/DC Boost

Converter,” 12th International Middle-East Power System Conference. pp. 335–
340, 2008.

[62] R. Zaitsu, “Voltage Mode Boost Converter Small Signal Control Loop Analysis
Using TPS61030,” 2009.

[63] K. Zhou and D. Wang, “Relationship between space-vector modulation and three-
phase carrier-based PWM: a comprehensive analysis [three-phase inverters],” IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 49, no. 1. pp. 186–196, 2002.
 65

[64] W.-F. Zhang et al., “Comparison of Three SVPWM Strategies,” Journal of

Electronic Science and Technology, vol. 5, no. 3. Editorial Board of Journal of
University of Electronic Science and Technology, pp. 283–287, 2007.

[65] X. Wei et al., “Design of LCL filter for wind power inverter,” in 2010 World Non-
Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference, 2010, pp. 1–6.

[66] T. C. T. C. Y. Wang et al., “Output filter design for a grid-interconnected three-

phase inverter,” in IEEE 34th Annual Conference on Power Electronics Specialist,
2003, vol. 2, pp. 779–784.

[67] L. M. et al., “Design and control of an LCL-filter-based three-phase active

rectifier,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 41, no. 5. pp. 1281–
1291, Sep. 2005.

[68] M. Liserre et al., “Design and control of an LCL-filter-based three-phase active

rectifier,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 41, no. 5. pp. 1281–
1291, 2005.
 66

Appendix A MATLAB CODES

A.1 MATLAB code to get the PV characteristic curves

open_system('PVArray2')
S=1;
P=1;
Rsh=1e5;
Voc=35;
Isc=8.5;
Pmax=205;
Temp=25;
for (G=200:200:1000)
sim('PVArray2')
v = V.signals.values;
i= I.signals.values;
p=v.*i;
[pmax,I] = max(p)
figure(1);
hold all
plot (v,i,'DisplayName',['T=' num2str(Temp) '^{\o}C, G=' num2str(G) 'W/m{^2}'])
plot(v(I),i(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20,'HandleVisibility','off');
figure(2);
hold all
plot (v,p,'DisplayName',['T=' num2str(Temp) '^{\o}C, G=' num2str(G) 'W/m{^2}'])
plot(v(I),p(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20,'HandleVisibility','off');
end
figure(1);
title('I-V Characteristics')
plot(v(I),i(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20','DisplayName','MPP');
legend(gca,'show','Location','Best')
xlabel('Output Voltage, V')
ylabel('Output Current, I')
axis([0 S*Voc 0 P*Isc])
grid on
figure(2);
title('P-V Characteristics')
plot(v(I),p(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20','DisplayName','MPP');
legend(gca,'show','Location','Best')
xlabel('Output Voltage, V')
ylabel('Output Power, P')
axis([0 S*Voc 0 S*P*Pmax])
grid on
G=1000;
for (Temp=25:25:75)
sim('PVArray2')
v = V.signals.values;
i= I.signals.values;
p=v.*i;
[pmax,I] = max(p)
%legend_info = ['T=25^{\o}C, G=' num2str(c) 'W/m{^2}'];
 67

figure(3);
hold all
plot (v,i,'DisplayName',['T=' num2str(Temp) '^{\o}C, G=' num2str(G) 'W/m{^2}'])
plot(v(I),i(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20,'HandleVisibility','off');
figure(4);
hold all
plot (v,p,'DisplayName',['T=' num2str(Temp) '^{\o}C, G=' num2str(G) 'W/m{^2}'])
plot(v(I),p(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20,'HandleVisibility','off');
end
figure(3);
title('I-V Characteristics')
plot(v(I),i(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20','DisplayName','MPP');
legend(gca,'show','Location','Best')
xlabel('Output Voltage, V')
ylabel('Output Current, I')
axis([0 S*Voc 0 P*Isc])
grid on
figure(4);
title('P-V Characteristics')
plot(v(I),p(I),'r.','MarkerSize',20','DisplayName','MPP');
legend(gca,'show','Location','Best')
xlabel('Output Voltage, V')
ylabel('Output Power, P')
axis([0 S*Voc 0 S*P*Pmax])
grid on
clear all

A.2 MPPT controller code

function D2 = PO(D_i,D_max,D_min,dD, V2, I2)
persistent V1 P1 D1;
if isempty(V1)
V1=0;
P1=0;
D1=D_i;
end
P2= V2*I2;
dV= V2 - V1;
dP= P2 - P1;
if abs(dP) >= .3
if dP < 0
if dV < 0
D2= D1 - dD;
else
D2 = D1 + dD;
end
else
if dV < 0
D2 = D1 + dD;
else
D2 = D1 - dD;
end
 68

end
else D2=D1;
end
if D2 >= D_max || D2<= D_min
D2=D1;
end
D1=D2;
V1=V2;
P1=P2;

A.3 Boost Converter Design

Ns=15;
Np=2;
fs=10e3;
ts=1/fs;
Pm=Ns*Np*200.143 %max Power
Vm=Ns*26.3 %V at max power
Vo=700;
Im=Pm/Vm;
r=.02;
D=1-Vm/Vo;
Io=Pm/Vo
Ro=Vo/Io
C_boost=ts/Ro/r % D=1
L_boost=100*Vo*ts/16/Io %D=.5

A.4 Filter Design

clc
%Step1-----Calculate Zb,Lb,Cb
%Inputs
VLL = 400; % line to line rms voltage
Vph = 400/sqrt(3); % phase rms voltage
Pn = 6e3; % rated active power (Pmpp at STC)
Vdc = 700; % dc-link voltage
fg = 50; % gride frequncy
fsw_i = 25e3; % inverter switching frequncy

%Step2-----Calculate Zb,Lb,Cb
Vb=VLL;
Pb=Pn;
Ib=Pn/(sqrt(3)*VLL);
Zb=VLL^2/Pn;
Lb=Zb/(2*pi*fg);
Cb=1/(2*pi*fg*Zb);

%Step3-----Calculate Cf (maximum power factor variation seen by the grid is less than
5%)
x=2.5/100;
Cf=x*Cb;
 69

%Step4-----Calculate Li (deltaIb=Vdc/(8*fsw_i*Li))deltaIb between 10-25%

deltaIb=.1*Ib; %(10% * Imax)
Li=Vdc/(8*fsw_i*deltaIb)

%Step5-----Calculate Lg
Af = 20/100; %attinuation factor is 20% , maximum ripple= (20/100)*(10/100)=2%
Lg=(Af+1)/(Af*Cf*(2*pi*fsw_i)^2)

%Step6-----test Lf<.1pu
Lf=Lg+Li;
Lfpu=Lf/Lb
Lfpu_tets=Lfpu<.1

%Step7-----Calculte fres
Wr=sqrt((Li+Lg)/(Li*Lg*Cf));
fres=Wr/(2*pi); % resonance frequncy

%Step7-----make sure that 10f1<(fres)<fsw/2

fres_Test=(fres>10*fg) && (fres<fsw_i/2)

%Step8-----Calculate Rf (damping resistor)

Rf= 1/(3*2*pi*fres*Cf)
%Rf=0

%step9 transfer function

num= [Cf*Rf 1];
den=[Li*Lg*Cf (Li+Lg)*Cf*Rf (Li+Lg) 0];
G1=tf(num,den)
bode(G1),grid