WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS

DOI: 10.37394/232016.2023.18.7 Georgios Fotis, Christos Pavlatos, Vasiliki Vita

Power System Control Centers and Their Role in the Restoration

Process after a Major Blackout
GEORGIOS FOTIS, CHRISTOS PAVLATOS, VASILIKI VITA
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Educators, ASPETE,
School of Pedagogical and Technological Education of Athens,
N. Heraklion, 14121,
GREECE

Abstract: - Power control centers have evolved since their ground-breaking inception in the 1960s, and they
are extremely important for the operation of the power system, ensuring maximum reliability. There has been
much discussion about mandating reliability requirements, but for the most part, reliability standards are
already in place for electricity grid design and operation. Unfortunately, these standards do not examine in
detail monitoring and control, possibly due to the false belief that reliability primarily comes from redundancies
in transmission and generation. The grid can operate even more closely to its limits thanks to improved grid
control and monitoring, which also increase reliability. In this paper, the significant role of the power system
control centers in the event of a major blackout is discussed, proving their significance in the restoration
process.

Key-Words: - Blackout, Power Energy Control Centers, Transmission System Operators, Restoration plan,
Stability

Received: July 14, 2022. Revised: January 17, 2023. Accepted: February 22, 2023. Published: March 28, 2023.

1 Introduction scalability and replicability, [12]. However,

A practical dispatching automation system has been Variable Renewable Energy Sources (VRES)
steadily developed over the years and is crucial to intrinsic variability decreases the power system’s
ensure the reliable operation of the power grid. reliability, in severe weather conditions, [13]
However, there is a significant disconnection proving the need for energy storage and flexibility
between the current standards and the ongoing of the power system, [14]. From this fact is clear
growth of the power system, particularly in the that in a power system, a blackout risk is always
following areas: (1) As the electricity grid's present with an unpredictable impact on the society
operating characteristics become more complex, the and the economy, [15], [16]. It must be mentioned
difficulty of security control follows as well; (2) in here that this high penetration of VRES also affects
an economic dispatch, the need of energy saving is the power quality of the grid as the voltage levels,
increasing; and (3) the optimization level of power [17], [18], that may cause voltage collapse and a
system operation needs improvement, [1], [2], [3]. possible blackout, [15].
Worldwide, blackouts occur regularly every day, There isn't a single solution to the question of
[4]. Most are brief and have minimal bearing on figuring out the ideal VRES penetration, [19], and
consumers without access to power, [5]. However quantity of storage, [20], but various standards
large blackouts that had a big impact have happened might apply in each instance, [21]. Also, despite the
all around the world over the past 20 years, [6], [7]. fact that almost every country in Europe has a
In recent decades there is a turn in renewable energy connected power system and that the European
sources such as solar and wind energy to reduce the Network of Transmission System Operators for
CO2 emissions that affect the world’s climate, [8]. Electricity (ENTSO-E) has provided guidelines for
Recent research works have shown the necessity of the European grid, [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27],
renewable energy sources in a power system for the [28], [26], there is always a chance of a significant
reduction of CO2 emissions, [9], [10]. Using other disruption or, even worse, a complete blackout.
energy sources different than fossil fuels may have Reduction of losses and restoration time,
risks but their use is preferable in techno-economic minimization of adverse social effects, and quick
terms, [11]. The penetration of renewable energy and safe return of the power system to regular
sources must follow certain rules ensuring operation are the goals of restoration. The

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development of restoration methods has made 2 Power System Control Centers

extensive use of non-structured approaches,
technologies, and object-oriented expert systems to
(PSCC)
accomplish the goals, [30]. As computational
intelligence has advanced, some intuitive
2.1 The Main Scope of a PSCC
A fundamental design feature of PSCC is that it
algorithms, including genetic algorithms, [31],
increases system reliability and economic feasibility
artificial neural networks, [32], and fuzzy logic,
by performing Energy Management (EM), [39],
[33], are used to restore systems. Based on the
[40], [41], [42]. The PSCC has existed for decades
regional distribution features in space, multi-agent
as the interconnected system's central decision-
technologies, [34], [35], [36], [37], have been
making body for electric transmission and
created with promise. Expert systems and heuristic
production has been extended as well. It performs
rules are effectively extended by decision support
the tasks required for supervising and organizing the
systems, [38].
electricity system's economic and physical
For the efficient use of a power system, the
operations on a minute-by-minute basis. An
loadability limits must be calculated online.
interconnected electricity system needs carefully
Maximum loadability limits were formerly
coordinated decision-making to maintain its
calculated in power system control centers using
integrity and economy. As a result, one of the
time-consuming simulations and off-line studies,
PSCC's main responsibilities is to regulate and
which were particularly difficult to be done when
monitor the physical functioning of the connected
stability considerations were included. There are
grid. A high-level view of the PSCC is illustrated in
now straightforward applications that can determine
Figure 1, where we can identify the SCADA system
very fast how unstable is a certain operating state.
with the related telemetry and communications
The goal after a blackout is to restore the power
equipment with all the elements of the power system
system. In this process, the power system control
(circuit breakers, disconnectors, etc.) and how the
centers (PSCC) have a significant role. In the
software applications of the Automatic Generation
current work the main principles of the power grid’s
Control (AGC) are implemented in it.
stability, the role of the PSCCs, and basic guidelines
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the
after a blackout are presented. This paper also
information flow between various computer-based
emphasizes the dispatcher's significance in the event
tasks to be carried out in a PSCC. Remote terminal
of a major blackout. If a dispatcher is not competent
units (RTUs), which encode measuring transducer
and well-trained, the restoration plan as it will be
outputs and opened/closed status information into
described in section 6 will not be possible to be
digital signals and transfer them to the operations
carried out. This work also examines and shows that
center across communication circuits, provide the
a power system cannot be operated just by fast and
system with information on the power system. The
intelligent software tools, but it also heavily relies
PSCC can communicate control data, such as set
on human skills and abilities. The restoration
points to raise or lower the speed of generators, and
requires dispatchers who can adapt it to the current
commands to open or close circuit breakers (CBs).
state of the transmission system.
Analog measurements and breaker/switch status
The structure of this work is as follows. The
indications are also data entering the control center.
significance of the PSCC and its role in the
The Automatic Generation Control (AGC) program
electricity system is discussed in section 2. The
must use the analog measurements of generator
dispatchers, who work in these centers, are familiar
outputs directly, but all other data must first go
with the monitoring importance and a thorough
through the state estimator before being used by the
examination of the hardware and software systems
other programs.
that the PSCCs are based on, so they are prepared to
The control in PSCC consists of the three
handle any issue that might arise in the transmission
following levels:
system. Section 3 presents the evaluation of the
power system state, and Section 4 analyzes the  Level 1: Instantaneous control of the turbine
assessment of steady-state stability. The design of governor, which adjusts generation to balance
the dynamic security evaluation in a PSCC is changing load.
provided in section 5, and the restoration plan and  Level 2: The ACG, also known as load
the steps that must be taken after a significant frequency control (LFC), repeats the process
blackout are thoroughly examined in section 6. The every 2 to 6 seconds to keep frequency and net
two final sections, 7 and 8, provide the concluding power interchange.
notes.

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 Level 3: Economic Dispatch divides the load

amongst the units such that the fuel cost is
minimized at intervals of 5 to 10 minutes.
The PSCCs are also in charge of the main
voltage control in the power system for:
• The generator bus voltage, regulated by
excitation controls.
• The Static VAR Controllers (SVC), shunt
capacitors, transformer taps, and other
transmission voltage control devices.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of the information flow between various computer-based tasks carried out in a
PSCC.

2.2 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) explained in detail below. Interchange scheduling,
To adjust the generation against the load at the which starts and finishes scheduled interchanges,
lowest possible cost, AGC consists of two main and reserve monitoring, which ensures there is enough
a number of minor functions that run in real-time reserve on the system, and other comparable
online. Load frequency control and economic monitoring and recording operations are the minor
dispatch are the two main tasks, and each is functions.

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2.3 Monitoring consists of measurements of both an angle and a

An energy control center performs the task of magnitude—using samples from a waveform. These
coordinating the system components' responses time-synchronized data are essential because
during both routine operations and emergency frequency imbalances can strain the grid's supply
situations. In typical circumstances, the digital and demand, which could result in power outages.
computer is given the responsibility of repetitive PMUs can gauge the electrical frequency of the
control, while human operators do selected power grid. A typical PMU may report
monitoring. The incoming stream of data is measurements up to 120 times per second with a
processed by the digital computer to look for very high temporal resolution.
anomalies, and the human operator is alerted by Unlike traditional SCADA measurements, which
lights, buzzers, and monitor presentations. Digital generate a measurement every two to four seconds,
computers frequently handle much lower-level or engineers can now analyze dynamic grid events. As
less serious incidents of exceeding normal a result, PMUs give utilities improved monitoring
boundaries. Normal control operations might be and control capabilities, making them one of the
suspended if the digital computer detects a more most crucial measuring tools for the development of
serious problem. Many alerts may be found in power systems. A PMU can be a separate device, or
emergency situations, such as the failure of a it can be integrated with another device, such as a
significant generator or excessive power demands protective relay, to perform the PMU function.
placed on tie lines by a nearby utility. In these EMS and SCADA are examples of existing
situations, the system may enter an emergency power grid technologies that can only provide a
status. steady state picture of the power system with a high
data flow delay. Due to technical issues
2.4 Data Acquisition and Control synchronizing measurements from various
Data acquisition supplies the status and locations, it is not possible to use SCADA to
measurement data required to oversee the overall measure the phase angles of bus voltages of the
operations of computer control systems. The power system network in real-time.
purpose of security control is to establish operating Measurements were made more slowly, and the
conditions by analyzing the effects of errors operator only received a limited amount of
between the master station and remote terminal unit information on the power system's dynamic
(RTU) of a Supervisory Control and Data behavior. By synchronizing voltage and current
Acquisition system (SCADA). To observe and waveforms at separated places, PMUs helped to
manage power plants, the master station sends data solve this issue. PMU outperforms SCADA in terms
to the RTU. At generating stations, transmission of performance, reliability, and speed.
substations, and distribution substations, RTUs are A PMU is a device that uses voltage, current,
placed. RTUs broadcast measurements and device and/or time synchronizing signals to estimate
status to the master station, and they also receive frequency, rate of change of frequency, and phasor.
control instructions from the master station. PMUs use Global Positioning System (GPS) signals
The steady-state reading can be simultaneously to give real-time synchronized measurements in the
gathered from numerous instrument sites and power system with better than 1 ms synchronization
preserved for later analysis using a computer-aided precision. In power system substations, PMUs
data-collecting technique. Voltage or current measure the time-stamped positive sequence
variations could be the outcome of the transient. It voltages and currents of all the tracked buses and
can be challenging to pinpoint the transient's origin feeders. A suitable location is chosen for the
in a real power system, where it may cause collection of data from several substations, and a
component failure. The transients can be lowered coherent image of the state power system is
and analyzed using a data acquisition system. produced by lining up the time stamps of
measurements.
2.5 Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) for
Power Systems The major applications of the PMUs are:
A PMU is a device that determines the phase angle  Monitoring thermal overloads
and magnitude of an electrical phasor quantity (such  Analysis of disturbances
as current or voltage) in the electrical grid using a  Stability monitoring
shared time source for synchronization. PMUs can  Restoration of the power system after a
rapidly reconstruct the phasor quantity—which blackout
 State estimation

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 Control in real time between the digital computer and remote

 Adaptive protection equipment.
Every 4 seconds, the turbine generators are
2.6 System Hardware Configuration frequently instructed to operate at higher power
A small number of operators can keep an eye on the levels, with load adjustments dependent on each
generating and high voltage transmission system unit's response capacity in MW/min. The computer,
thanks to the supervisory control and data while running an economic dispatch program,
acquisition systems. Electric utilities almost always adjusts the base power settings for each unit's
use a redundant set of dual digital computers for the reaction capabilities every 5 minutes on average.
purposes of remote data acquisition control, energy
management, and system security in accordance
with the concepts of high reliability and fail-safe 3 Power System State Estimation
failures. The system states produced from unsophisticated
The online units, which are typically one measurements in power systems are not precise
computer, monitor and manage the power system. enough to be used for complex system operations
Off-line batch applications like load forecasting or and online control due to the inherent flaws in
hydro-thermal allocation might be running on the metering devices and communication networks.
backup computer. A shared disk memory between This is why correct state estimation is a crucial
the two computers is frequently updated by the feature in power systems. Based on a collection of
online computer. The common disk's stored data is real-time measurements, a state estimator (SE)
loaded into the online computer's memory in establishes the state of the system. There are three
response to a failure over or switch-in status kinds of real-time measurements that can be made
instruction. within the framework of a PSCC:
The online computer's information has a  Examples of analog metrics are real and
maximum age of updating cycle. Using input-output reactive power flows over transmission
microprocessors that have been configured to lines, real and reactive power injections, and
interact, as well as pre-process the analog bus voltage magnitudes.
information, check for limits, convert to another  Switch and breaker state, as well as
system of units, and other tasks, all peripheral transformer LTC positions, are measured
equipment is connected to the computer. The central using logic.
processing unit is not hampered by the  Predicted bus loads and production are
microprocessors' ability to move data in and out of examples of pseudo-measurements.
computer memory. These safeguards frequently
result in a 99.8% or higher availability guarantee for Telemetered readings of analog and logic are
all crucial hardware operations. sent to the PSCC. The statistics may contain noise
In addition to hardware, fresh digital code for the and errors. Data errors can be brought on by noisy
system's control can be created, tested, and put communication systems, malfunctioning measuring
online on the backup computer. Most of the time, and telemetry equipment, and delays in data
digital computers are used in fixed cycle operating transmission. A system's state is described by a set
mode with priority interrupts, which causes them to of variables that, at any given moment, contain all
run a series of tasks on a recurring basis. The scan the data necessary for us to fully predict how the
cycle for the most important functions is the system will behave at time t. A practical decision is
quickest. The following categories are typically to choose a small number of variables, designating a
scanned every two seconds: small number of state variables that are adequate. It
 Every status point, including the location of the should be noted that the state variables may not
switchgear, the loads and voltages in the always be easily available, quantifiable, or
substation, the tap positions of the transformers, observable. The system model used is built on a
and the capacitor banks. nodal depiction, making the choice of the state
 Schedules for interchanges and tie-line flow. variables simple.
 Lines’ capacity, operational restrictions, and The voltage magnitudes and angles are the state
generator loads and voltage. variables, while line impedances are assumed as
 Telemetry verification to find errors and failures known. This follows because, once the state values
in the distant bidirectional communication links are known, all other values can be specified
uniquely. State estimation is a mathematical

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procedure that generates a description of the power 𝐽(𝑥) = ∑𝑚

1 𝑘𝑖 (𝑧𝑖 − ℎ𝑖 (𝑥))
2
(3b)
system by computing the best estimation of the state
variables (bus voltages and angles) of the power To have a minimum the following equation must be
system based on the incorrect data that was fulfilled:
received.
𝜕𝐽(𝑥)
Secondary quantities (like line flows) are easily
𝜕𝑥
= −𝐻(𝑥)𝑇 𝑅−1 [𝑧 − ℎ(𝑥)] = 0 (4)
derivable once state variables are approximated. The
network configuration is established by the network Where H(x) is the Jacobean measurement matrix
topology module after processing the logic data. In with m x n dimensions:
addition to using data from the network parameters,
the configuration of the network provided by the 𝜕ℎ(𝑥)
topology of the network, and occasionally pseudo 𝐻(𝑥) = 𝜕𝑥
(5)
measurements, the state estimator processes the
collection of analog measurements to determine the After h(x) is linearized:
system state. Since it is not feasible to measure all
network parameters in-depth in the field, one-line ℎ(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥) ≅ ℎ(𝑥) + 𝛥𝑥 (6)
diagrams and manufacturer data are used to
calculate parameter values. This could then add The following obtained:
another potential error source. (𝐻 𝑇 𝑅−1 𝐻)𝛥𝑥 = 𝐻 𝑇 𝑅−1 [𝑧 − ℎ(𝑥)] (7)
The fundamental power system state estimator's 𝑥 𝑘+1 = 𝑥 𝑘 + 𝛥𝑥 (8)
mathematical formulation assumes that the power
system has static behavior. Assume a system with n The best estimations are found by applying the
state variables, represented by xi where i=1,...,n. equation below:
Suppose there are m measurements accessible. The
−1
state vector is x, and the measurement vector is 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + [𝐻𝑘𝑇 𝑊𝐻𝑘 ] 𝐻𝑘𝑇 𝑊[𝑧 − ℎ(𝑥𝑘 )] (9)
indicated by the letter z. If the noise is v, then the
relation between measurements and states denoted
by h is given by: This means that a criterion of convergence
decides when the iteration is halted, and the state
𝑧𝑖 = ℎ𝑖 (𝑥) + 𝑣𝑖 (1a) variables are incrementally approximated to a value.
The measurements are related to one another
or: separately by the matrix W, also known as the
weighting matrix. The selection of W components
𝑧 = ℎ(𝑥) + 𝑣 (1b) affects the outcomes. All measurements are of
identical quality if W=I is chosen.
If h(x) is linearized, then:

𝑧 = 𝐻𝑥 + 𝑣 (2)
4 Assessment of Steady State Stability
The measurement matrix, or H, is unaffected by The analysis of steady-state stability goes far
the state factors. beyond merely estimating the probability of
The goal is to find the best estimation of x, instability as small, gradual changes in load near the
denoted by 𝑥̂. The weighted least squares (WLS) maximal loadability limit. The steady-state stability
idea is the foundation of the most widely used analysis calculates the separation from a system
method. The technique seeks to reduce the state where voltages may collapse and units may
differences between the related equations and the lose synchronism, regardless of the underlying
measurements. To achieve this, the next solution technique. This distance is measured using
optimization function must be minimized: a straightforward indicator called the steady-state
stability reserve. System-wide and for transmission
1 𝑇 corridors with stability restrictions, the evaluation is
min 𝐽(𝑥) = 2 (𝑧 − ℎ(𝑥)) 𝑅 −1 (𝑧 − ℎ(𝑥)) (3a) conducted.
Where R is a diagonal matrix that has the
variances of the measurement error. (3a) can be
rewritten as:

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4.1 Steady-State Stability (Power and Maximum MW network utilization, also known
Voltage Reserve Indicators) as maximum MW loadability, or the system
The idea of steady-state stability reserve provides a operating conditions just before the state of voltage
very simple way to express "how far" the present, or collapse is achieved by alternating steady-state
actual, system state is from the "critical" state where stability calculations that determine whether the
even a small change in the operating parameters system is stable or unstable.
may result in steady-state instability. These are the
two categories of stable reserve indicators:
5 Dynamic Security Assessment (DSA)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ∙ 100[%] (10) The design of a DSA system enables the selection of
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒
various load-flow situations and the construction of
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 −𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
∙ 100[%] (11) individual contingencies for automatic evaluation.
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒
User-defined parameters are used to evaluate the
contingencies. Figure 2 shows the procedure
where: graphically. Several user-selectable load-flow
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 : determines the stable scenarios are offered at the simulation level. The
reserve's power capacity (in MW). most serious scenarios can be chosen and calculated
stability reservevoltage : determines the voltage using the contingency builder. The software defines
values for the stable reserve. the security criteria that can be combined to create
Pmax : is the total power (in MW) of the system’s sets of standards characterizing the constraints of
utilization, including generation and imports. the system and are appropriate for each user's
Pbase case : is the power (in MW) in the actual (base) requirements. The DSA notifies and records the
case. events that result in system limit breaches, such as
Vcritical : is the average system voltage in the critical unstable generators, voltages below 80%, angles
case. between nodes greater than 40°, and so on.
Vbase case : is the voltage in the base case.

Fig. 2: The structure of the DSA system.

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These scenarios are very simple to recalculate, 6 Restoration Plan

and the analyst can see all the usual characteristics
to get a clearer understanding. The operator can also
6.1 General Guides after a Blackout
keep track of the key contingencies concurrently.
The ability to restore an Electric Power System after
One of a DSA system's primary design criteria
any fault is critical to its operation. Many European
should be its capacity to:
Transmission System Operators (TSOs) have
 Simulate key elements of active switching or available online their restoration plans as the
control equipment, such as capacitor banks and Belgian TSO (ELIA), [43], or the Irish TSO
FACTS devices, along with their control (EIRGRID), [44]. There have been plenty of
mechanisms. These elements include lines, research works on the restoration process after a
cables, transformers, and other inactive grid blackout, [45], [46], [47]. The restoration process
equipment. can be divided into three stages: start-up of
 When simulating cascading faults, depict the generators, restoration of the transmission system,
essential protection's action. and restoration of supply to consumers (loads).
 When simulating contingencies, use a After the start-up sequence of the generating units is
straightforward method for building determined, it is very important to find the shortest
contingencies. "path" to transfer the energy to the transmission
network, so that we have an immediate energy
supply to the network. In Table 1 the general guides
for restoration after a blackout are shown.

Table 1. General guides for restoration after a blackout for the dispatchers of a PSCC
Actions Tools
Communication
Wind farm shutdown signal
Communication of the National Control Center with all the Regional Landlines, Mobiles Phones, or other
Control Centers, the Distribution System Operator (DSO), and TSOs communication systems each TSO has (e.g.,
of neighboring countries power line carrier)
Status determination of Black Start (BS) and Non-Black (NBS) Start production units
Communication with Black Start units – setting time for black start
Communicating with non-Black Start units, determining their status and Relevant information must be referred to the
the critical time to restore power and restart time after power is restoration plan of each regional control
restored. center
Priority of non- Black Start units for power supply
Division of the transmission system into subsystems
Division of the transmission system into subsystems Use of the restoration plan as a guide and designing
Clear demarcation of the subsystems dividing lines in the network plan.
Route selection from BS units to NBS units with priority
Estimation of the transmission system status Studies, reports, and information from the Energy
Collaboration with the TSOs to ensure that the route has the required Management System (EMS) that the TSO
technical staff uses
Subsystem electrification and load supply
Subsystem electrification either using the bottom-up or the top-down
method
During the load supply, ensure that the frequency is high enough and the
Priority of loads for reconnection in consultation
voltage drop that will occur with the connection will not create very
with the DSO
low voltages
Synchronization of subsystems
Use synchronization points as defined in the restoration plan if possible. Use of the restoration plan that each TSO has
Providing instructions to the operators during the synchronization process issued
Completion of the restoration process
Gradual System’s restoration EMS contingency analysis

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Some important issues during a blackout are the The current practices across Europe are:
following: a. In the Baltic region, restoration plans are based
 The operators of black start power stations and on the top-down principle.
the substations must be authorized so that, if no b. In continental Europe and the Nordic regions,
voltage is present, they will open all (external to both methodologies are used, considering the
the station) breakers. existing situation (availability of Black Start
 In thermal power plants, power to the auxiliary units and units in auxiliary feed mode within the
machinery must be restored within a short TSO's area of responsibility, duration of the two
critical time to achieve a "warm restart". principles, and the state of the voltage in the
 The TSO must declare its status (Normal, Alert, neighboring network).
Emergency, or Blackout) to the EAS System, c. In Great Britain, the restoration plans are based
informing this way all the other TSOs of on the bottom-up principle.
ENTSO-E. d. In the Ireland / Northern Ireland region, once
The cooperation of TSOs, particularly those in the Black Start units start-up, the non-Black
proximity, is a crucial factor during the repair Start target unit supply restoration routes will be
process. Typically, nearby TSOs must energize the activated and initial load restoration will be
interconnection power lines after a blackout during required to stabilize the restoration routes
the top-down restoration process. The European (balancing the production with the demand).
Awareness System (EAS) is also a helpful The TSO determines the load restoration steps
instrument for communication between TSOs, required in terms of size and location and the
signalizing the rise of emergency situations and also relevant DSO load coordinator will implement
helping with system restoration. Distribution System them. Very good coordination between TSO and
Operators (DSOs) are typically encouraged to DSO is required, especially in the early stages of
reduce loads before a major blackout and during the restoring stable operation and minimizing frequency
TSOs' attempt to prevent it. The DSO's "strategy" and voltage deviations.
up to this point in the event of a blackout is to wait For example, in Figure 3 the geographical
for TSO restoration and increase loads while it is distribution of three separate subsystems (NW, NE,
happening. Cooperation between TSO, DSO, and S), during restoration in the Belgian TSO (ELIA),
governmental organizations like the Police and the using the bottom-up strategy is depicted, [43]. The
Fire Brigade, should be guaranteed to reduce the restoration plan defines that in case of a blackout, 4
restoration time in a blackout, particularly if it has black start units will be used for the formation of
been brought on by a natural catastrophe like flood, these three separate regions.
earthquake, fire, etc.

6.2 Activation Strategies after a Blackout

There are two central principles that guide the
process of restoring the electricity system after a
blackout:
Bottom-up: Using Black Start units and/or house
load units with islanding capabilities, the affected
areas are recovered by self-reactivating the area in
chunks ready for resynchronization with another
area.
Top-down: Using interconnection links to
transfer energy from a safe system, a normally
isolated system with a serious disruption is revived
using external voltage sources. The interrupted TSO
must vouch for its commitment to adhering to the
limits of active and reactive power flows on the
interconnection lines set forth in bilateral
agreements.

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 WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS
DOI: 10.37394/232016.2023.18.7 Georgios Fotis, Christos Pavlatos, Vasiliki Vita

Fig. 3: Geographical distribution of 3 separate subsystems (NW, NE, S), during restoration in the Belgian TSO
using the bottom-up strategy.

6.3 Factors that May Affect the Restoration voltage (HV) switch with a "dead busbar" so
Process that a subsystem cannot be formed from a single
Although there is a restoration plan from every generator.
TSO, very often there are some unpredictable  According to restoration guidelines, all
situations that may cause its modification during substations must be isolated, which means that
restoration, [46]. In [47], an estimation method of all circuit breakers must be opened. However,
the probability of restoration or recovery time for some high-voltage circuit breakers may not
electric power systems is proposed. Common have opened in time.
problems that occur during a restoration process are:  The mobile phone network will almost certainly
 Generators that lose their auxiliary loads may be congested and may even collapse due to a
not be able to remain in this state for long. In national outage. A complete failure of all
many stations, it is not possible to close the high communication systems is extremely unlikely.

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DOI: 10.37394/232016.2023.18.7 Georgios Fotis, Christos Pavlatos, Vasiliki Vita

Satellite phones must be installed at multiple  Many control centers that are unable to
key locations, including all Black Start power communicate with one another cannot control a
units and all Control Centers. If these phones single interconnected grid. It must be simple to
are the only available methods of store and exchange data automatically and
communication, recovery time will be continuously without relying on operator-to-
significantly longer. operator phone calls.
 Some electrical components of the Transmission  The monitoring systems must be standardized,
System (substations, power lines, etc.) may be including the frequency of data collection, time
unavailable as planned in the restoration plan. stamping, alarming, visualization, etc., to allow
Uncontrollable parameters such as traffic chaos dispatchers at various control centers located
and extreme weather conditions can throughout the grid to interact effectively.
significantly delay the access of personnel to the  More specificity is required in the control
substations or the control centers on the day of reliability requirements. The same ones, like
the incident. voltage control, are less common even though
this has been done for frequency control.
 The real-time data made accessible to operators
7 Discussion and control centers across the grid should be
In this work, the role of a PSCC has been chosen based on reliability requirements. The
analytically presented. The monitoring and control current argument over whether certain data
of the grid through the PSCCs provide reliability belongs to generating firms as proprietary must
because it enables the operation of the grid even end when the grid's dependability is harmed.
closer to its limits. The PSCC is the “brain” of a
power system. It detects the power system's If the above suggestions are adopted the operation
condition, finds its state, plans its movement, and of the power systems via the control centers will be
offers protection from exogenous events. However, significantly improved and the very known effects
the final decisions are taken by the personnel of the of possible back out to the society and the economy
PSCC known as dispatchers. Dispatchers are will be minimized.
electrical engineers, working in shifts to provide the
system’s balance and are the ones who will face the
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