Topic 2: Cells and Tissues -it prevents the plant cell from bursting

when the plant absorbs water.

Cells ⮚ Nucleus
-inside the cell.
- basic unit of living organisms. -control center of cell.
- Carry out metabolism, sum of all the -it is the genetic material or DNA inside of
body’s physical and chemical the nucleus that determines everything
activities. about the cell.
*the DNA determines the type of the cell
Levels of Organization and when the cell will replicate.
⮚ Vacuole
-found in both plant and animal cells.
-the size varies between the two
-storage tanks for water. (Store water
inside of the cell)
>> Plant Cell have large vacuole; Animal
Cell have multiple smaller vacuoles.
⮚ Chloroplasts
-found only in plant cells and location of
photosynthesis.
⮚ Mitochondria
-takes nutrients in and breaks them down
to create energy in the process of cellular
Parts of a Cell respiration.
-found in both plant and animal cell.
All living things are made of microscopic units -bound cell organelles (mitochondrion,
called “cells”. singular) that generate most of the
chemical energy needed to power the
Two Kinds of Cell: cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical
energy produced by the mitochondria is
● Plant Cell stored in a small molecule called
10 – 100 micrometers in length.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
typically rectangular, or cubic in shape.
*Power house of the cell because it makes
● Animal Cell energy.
10 – 30 micrometers in length. ⮚ Cytoplasm
typically round, or irregular shape. -is the gel-like fluid inside the cell.
- it also contains many specialized cell
Cells are made of parts called “organelles”, organelles.
each part has a specific job to do in order to - each of these organelles performs a
keep the cell functioning. specific function for the cell.

⮚ Cell Membrane
-semi permeable membrane that surround
organelles.
-similar to a doorway just like door lets
things in and out, C.M. lets the materials in
and out of the cell.
> C.M. is the outer layer of the animal cell.
> C.M. is not the outer layer of a plant cell.
(its surrounded by a rigid outer layer
called “cell wall”)
⮚ Cell Wall
-similar to a brick wall
-it gives structure and support to a plant
cell.
 Four Basic Types of Tissues:
⮚ Epithelial tissue covers and protects
body structures and line, organs, vessels,
and cavities.
⮚ Connective tissue supports and binds
body structures. It contains fibers and
other non-living material between the
cells. Included are Adipose(fat) tissue,
cartilage, bone, and blood.

Tissues
Composed of cells
grouped by:

- Size
- Shape
- Function ⮚ Muscle tissue contracts to produce
movement.
⮚ Nervous tissue makes up the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves. It coordinates
and controls body responses by the
transmission of electrical impulses.

Epithelial Tissue

Connective Tissue
Functions:

1. Provide support
2. For protection
3. Bind together other tissues
4. Produces blood cell
5. Stores fat
Example: ⮚ elastic (yellow) fibers
⮚ reticular (fine collagen) fibers
⮚ Bone, or osseous tissue
⮚ Ligaments
⮚ Tendons

>> bind the bones together or bind skeletal

muscles to bones.

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

- C. tissues have a rich supply of blood
vessels. Except cartilages, tendons,
and ligaments, which are poorly
vascularized Connective Tissue Types
- C. tissues are composed of many types
of cells. ⮚
- There is a great deal of noncellular,
nonliving material (matrix) between
the cells of connective tissues.

Extracellular Matrix
The matrix is primarily responsible for the
STRENGTH made up of:
Fibers, protein, glycoproteins collagen
Areolar
Matrix has two components:

⮚ Ground substance – bone, cartilage, and the

dense fibrous, have a firm ground substance ⮚ Adipose
⮚ Fibers

Ground substance composed of:

- may be
liquid
- semi solid
⮚ Reticular
- gel-like
- very hard

*when the matrix

is firm, as in
cartilage and bone,
the connective
tissue cells reside
in cavities in the
matrix called lacunae. ⮚ Dense (fibrous)
Fibers (provide support)

⮚ collagen (white)
fibers, most
abundant
 ⮚ Dense regular

⮚ Dense irregular

⮚ Elastic Cartilage

⮚ Fibrocartilage

● Connective Tissue – Areolar

⮚ Bone

⮚ Blood
C.T. – Adipose

● C.T. – Reticular

Four Main Types of Connective Issue

1. Conn
ective
tissue

proper
a. Areolar ● C.T. – Dense
b. Adipose regular
c. Reticular
d. Dense (fibrous)
2. Cartilage
3. Bone
4. Blood

Note: all of these derive from an

embryonic tissue called mesenchyme.
 ● Cartilages are part of connective
tissues that also form a structural
part of various organs like the ear and
nose.
● Cartilages are not as hard, rigid, or
dense as bones because they have
more collagenous tissue in their
matrix.
● The extracellular matrix is composed
● C.T. – Dense irregular of collagen fibers, elastins, and
proteoglycans.
● The specialized cells in cartilage are
termed chondrocytes which divide to
give rise to new cells.
● Cartilages lack blood vessels or
nervous supply, and the nutrition and
oxygen are provided to chondrocytes
via diffusion.
● The division and growth of
chondrocytes take place at a very slow
rate, which is why they don’t increase
much in size or mass.
● Based on the number of different
components in the cartilage, cartilages
are of three types: hyaline cartilage,
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
a. Hyaline cartilages are translucent
and shiny and are mostly found in
ribs, joints, nose larynx and
trachea.
● Fibrocartilages are mostly found in
joints and have more collagen
● C.T. – Cartilage compared to other cartilages.
a. These are mostly found in the
intervertebral discs, the pubic
symphysis, and other joints.
● Elastic cartilage is more flexible than
other cartilages and has more amount
of elastin protein. It is primarily found
in the pinna of the ear.

⮚ Cartilages consist of a glycoprotein called

lubricin, which helps in bio-lubrication and
● Cartilage is a strong, flexible, fibrous
protects the cartilage against wear and
tissue that forms rubber-like padding tear.
at the ends of long bones that help in ⮚ It is difficult to repair cartilages as they
the movement of bones. have limited repair properties. The
 chondrocytes are localized within lacunae

Connective Tissue
and thus cannot move to the damaged – Hyaline
areas. Thus, cartilage damage takes longer
to heal.

Connective Tissue – Fibrocartilage

⮚ The primary function of cartilage is to

provide a smooth surface over which

Connective Tissue – Bone

other

tissues and
move and
glide easily.
Besides, they
also

provide a site of attachment to the

muscles.
Connective Tissue – Elastic
Connective Tissue – Blood Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Muscle
Tissue

Types of Muscle
Three types:
o

Skeletal or voluntary muscle moves the

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

skeleton.
o Cardiac muscle forms the heart. It
functions without conscious control
and is described as in-voluntary.
 o Smooth, or visceral, muscle forms the
walls of the abdominal organs; it is
also involuntary.

Nervous Tissue
Two types of cells in Nerve Tissue
Nervous Tissue Cells
a. neuron
b. neuroglia, or glial cell The Neuroglia cells:
>Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the ⮚ produce myelin support
functions of the nervous system by ⮚ nourish
conducting nerve impulses. ⮚ protect the neurons
They are highly specialized cells. ⮚ are capable of mitosis

Parts of the Neuron Note: Do not conduct nerve impulses

Cell Body Parts of Neuroglia and function

▪ nucleus located in the neuron o Microglia
>Phagocytosis
Dendrite
o Oligodendrocyte
▪ receptive surface >Form
myelin
Axon like
▪ which carries information from the Schwann
soma to other cells, but many small cells
cells do not. Axons terminate in end
feet, or terminal boutons (buttons),
which transmit information to the
receiving cell.
▪ Dendrites and axons, both extensions
of the cell body, are also referred to as
processes.

Neurons are classified as:

1. afferent
2. efferent
3. interneurons (association neurons)

Tissue Cell

Nerve Tissue
 o Astrocyte
>Support
o Ependymal
>Form lining in ventricles

Glia Cells
- The term glia means "glue"
- a reflection of the fact that glial cells
really do hold the brain together
occupying the space between
neurons.
- Glia are usually very small cells, but
many
⮚ two types of glial cells in the
nervous system
1. macroglia- larger ⮚ Astrocytes
2. microglia- smaller ❖ a numerous type of glia named
⮚ There are two classes of macroglia for their star-shaped
appearance when Golgi-
in the central nervous system
stained
>astrocytes
>oligodendrocytes ⮚ Oligodendrocytes
❖ small cells that lack the
spidery processes of the
astroglia. cell bodies contain a
large number of organelles
❖ contain many microtubules
that are arranged in parallel
arrays
⮚ Oligodendrocytes produce myelin
❖ which surrounds the axons of
many neurons. v this
insulating coating is called a
myelin sheath.
⮚ Schwann Cells
❖ It is similar to
Oligodendrocytes
❖ along the peripheral nerves
that connect the brain and
spinal cord with the muscles,
glands, and sensory organs of
the body
❖ encircles an axon, then wraps
itself around the neuron,
building a myelin sheath
Organs and Organs System
Tissues are
arranged into
organs, which serve
specific functions.
The organs, in turn,
are grouped into
systems.
They work together
to maintain the
body’s state of
internal stability,
termed
homeostasis.
Proceed to Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory Manual (2019). 10th Edition. McGraw Hill.
(pages 6-7)

Tissues Sample Slides

MICROSCOPES
 Example of Negative Feedback:

Interdependence means that systems must

work together to support human life.
Homeostasis Examples:
- is the tendency of organisms or • The cardiovascular system works with the
cells to regulate their internal respiratory and digestive systems to supply
environment and maintain the oxygen and nutrients from outside sources to
body’s equilibrium. the cells in the body.
- this is attained by the system of
• The nervous system works together with the
feedback control, which helps in sensory system to recognize changes and
stabilizing the body’s functioning respond to them.
Two types of feedback mechanisms: • The muscular and skeletal systems work
together to
1. Negative feedback produce
>the activity or function of certain
movement.
cells is reduced in response to a
stimulus the primary principle of • The
Homeostasis endocrine
2. Positive feedback system
> less common in nature supplies
>in the case of fever, it amplifies hormones
harmful metabolic. that direct
activities in
many other
body
systems,
Example of Positive Feedback: including the urinary and reproductive
systems.
Disease an impairment of the normal state of References:
a human being that interrupts or modifies its Elaine N. Marieb, Susan J. Mitchell, Lori A. Smith (2018).
vital functions Human Anatomy & Physiology, Laboratory Manual. 11th
Edition. Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.
Causes of disease:
https://www2.d125.org/science/anatomy/review/9ner
vous_files/9nervous.ppt
• Genetic or developmental errors
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/
• Infection tissue.html
https://www.albany.edu/faculty/cafrye/apsy601/Ch.02
• Poisons cellsofthenervoussystem.html

• Nutritional deficiencies or imbalance https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction-

to-biology/positive-feedback-inanatomy-and-physiology
• Toxicity
https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/tissue_types/
• Unfavorable environmental factors connective/connective_tissue_types.php
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter
/connective-tissue-supports-andprotects/

https://microbenotes.com/bone-vs-cartilage/

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-d-
humanphysiology/d4-the-heart/cardiacmuscle.html

Signs vs. Symptoms

Signs vs. Symptoms

Abnormal cell growth includes:

⮚ Atrophy – a decrease in size of cells as
a result of age or disease.
⮚ Hyperplasia – an increase in the
number of cells.
⮚ Metaplasia – cells being replaced by
another type of cell.
⮚ Dysplasia – cells changing in shape or
organization.
⮚ Neoplasia – cells changing in
structure with an uncontrolled growth
pattern.

Benign tumors are tumors that only grow in

one place.

Malignant tumors are also called cancer. This

type of tumor crowds out healthy cells as it
continues to grow.
 Integumentary System

Functions of the Integumentary System

Skin
⮚ protects against bacterial invasion
⮚ reservoir for food and water
⮚ sensory receptor
⮚ synthesis of vitamin D
⮚ regulate body temperature and water
⮚ prevents dehydration

Epidermis Layers of the Epidermis

⮚ outermost layer Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
⮚ epithelium
● strata or layers ⮚ Deepest layer of epidermis
● keratin (a fibrous protein) ⮚ Lies next to dermis
⮚ no blood vessels or nerve supply in ⮚ Wavy borderline with the dermis
epidermis anchors the two together
⮚ Stratified squamous epithelium ⮚ Cells undergoing mitosis
⮚ Cornified or keratinized (hardened by ⮚ Daughter cells are
keratin) to prevent water loss pushed upward to
⮚ Avascular become the more
⮚ Most cells are keratinocytes superficial layers
 Stratum spinosum
⮚ stratified cuboidal epithelium
⮚ several layers of live keratinocytes
● created by stem cells in
stratum basale
⮚ cells attach to each other
⮚ epidermal dendritic cells
⮚ immune cells, help fight infection by
engulfing invaders

Stratum lucidum (Clear layer)

>Formed from dead cells of the
deeper strata
>Occurs only
in thick,
hairless skin of
the palms of
hands and
soles of feet

Stratum
granulosum (Granular layer) Stratum
⮚ Four to six layers thick corneum
⮚ Accumulates :2 types of granules:
❖ Keratohyaline granules – help
(Horny layer)
to form keratin in the upper
layer
⮚ Outermost layer of epidermis
❖ Lamellar granules – contain
⮚ Shingle-like dead cells are
water resistant glycolipid for
filled with keratin (protective
slowing water loss across the
protein prevents water loss
epidermis
from skin)
 Four important events occur in stratum
granulosum
1.Keratohyalin granules release filaggrin

❖ a protein that binds keratin

into tough bundles

2. Cells produce tough envelope proteins

Cells in the Epidermis beneath their membranes
Keratinocytes 3. Membrane-coating vesicles release lipid
⮚ Produce keratin, fibrous protein that mixture that spreads out over cell surface and
helps waterproofs it
⮚ give the epidermis its protective 4. Keratinocytes’ organelles degenerate and
properties the cells die
⮚ Arise in the deepest part of the
epidermis, stratum basale

Epidermal water barrier

⮚ Water retention is fostered by tight
junctions between skin cells and the
waterproofing that occurs in the
stratum granulosum
⮚ Helps prevent dehydration
⮚ Does not prevent the absorption of
water by the stratum corneum when
Life History of Keratinocytes we soak in a bath (“prune fingers”)
● New keratinocytes push older ones Melanocytes
toward the surface
● Over time, keratinocytes flatten, ⮚ Spider-shaped
produce more keratin and membrane- epithelial cells
coating vesicles ⮚ Synthesize
● In 30 to 40 days a keratinocyte makes melanin
its way to the skin surface and flakes pigment
off (exfoliates) as dander ⮚ Found in the
❖ Slower in old age deepest part of
❖ Faster in injured or stressed
the epidermis
skin
● Calluses or corns
❖ thick accumulations of dead
keratinocytes on hands or feet
Tactile (Merkel) Cells
⮚ Present at the epidermal-dermal
junction
⮚ Functions as sensory receptor for
touch
Dermis or Corium
⮚ living tissue
⮚ capillaries
⮚ lymphatics
⮚ nerve endings
⮚ hair follicles
⮚ glands (sebaceous and sweat)
⮚ dense connective tissue
⮚ vascular smooth muscle cells

Layers of the Dermis

Papillary layer (upper dermal region)

⮚ Areolar connective tissue
⮚ Collagen and elastic fibers form a loosely
woven mats Projections called dermal
papillae
⮚ Some contain capillary loops
⮚ Others house pain receptors and touch
receptors called tactile or Meissner’s
corpuscles

Reticular layer
⮚ 80% of the thickness of the dermis
⮚ Dense fibrous connective tissue
⮚ Cleavage (tension lines) – important to
surgeon Flexure lines – dermal folds
that occur at or near joints

Subcutaneous or Hypodermis
⮚ Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is
deep to dermis
⮚ connective tissue layer
⮚ specializes in formation of fat
⮚ adipose or fat cells provide a food
reserve and insulation
⮚ Not technically part of the skin
⮚ Anchors skin to underlying organs
Composed mostly of adipose tissue
 ⮚ Addison’s disease

Bruises

Skin Color ❖ clotted blood under skin

⮚ Hematomas
Normal Skin Color Determinants
Albinism
A. Melanin
❖ milky white skin and blue-gray eyes due
- Polymer made of tyrosine amino acids
to genetic lack of melanin synthesizing
- Yellow, brown, or black pigments
enzyme
B. Carotene

- Orange-yellow pigment from some

vegetables Evolution of Skin Color
- Accumulates in the stratum corneum and
in fatty tissue of the hypodermis ❖ Variations in skin color result from
multiple evolutionary selection
C. Hemoglobin pressures, especially differences in
- Red coloring from blood cells in dermal exposure to UV light (UV accounts for
capillaries up to 77% of skin tone variation)
- Oxygen content determines the extent of ❖ UV light has both harmful and
red coloring beneficial effects
- Adversely: it causes skin
cancer, breaks down folic acid
- Beneficially: it stimulates
vitamin D synthesis
Alterations in Skin Color ❖ Populations that evolved in the tropics
Redness (erythema) have well melanized skin to protect
against excessive UV.
❖ due to increased blood flow to skin ❖ Populations that evolved in far
- embarrassment northern and southern latitudes (weak
- inflammation sun) have light skin to allow adequate
- hypertension UV
- fever ❖ Populations that evolved at high
- allergy altitudes or dry climates (less UV
filtering) also are darker skinned
Pallor (blanching) ❖ Importance of vitamin D for calcium
❖ paleness due to decreased blood flow (crucial for pregnancy, lactation)
to skin might explain why women are lighter
- emotional stress skinned than men
- fear Other factors complicate the association
- anemia between UV exposure and skin tone
- low blood pressure
- impaired blood flow to an area ⮚ Migration, cultural differences in
clothing, and shelter
Jaundice (yellowing) ⮚ Intermarriage of people of different
❖ yellowing due to bilirubin in blood geographic ancestries
⮚ liver disorder ⮚ Sexual selection: a preference in mate
choice for partners of light or dark
Bronzing complexion
 Skin Markings

A. Friction ridges

⮚ markings on the fingertips that leave

oily fingerprints on surfaces we touch
- everyone has a unique pattern
formed during fetal
development that remains
unchanged throughout life
- not even identical twins have
identical fingerprints
- allow manipulation of small
objects

B. Flexion lines (flexion creases)

Skin Appendages

❖ lines on the flexor surfaces of the ⮚ Cutaneous glands are all exocrine
digits, palms, wrists, elbows glands
✔ mark sites where skin folds during - Sebaceous glands
flexion of joints - Sweat glands
✔ skin bound to deeper tissues along ⮚ Hair
these lines ⮚ Hair follicles
C. Freckles and moles ⮚ Nails

-tan to black aggregations of melanocytes

❖ Freckles Sebaceous glands (Oil)

✔ flat, melanized patches ⮚ Produce oil (sebum), accumulated
❖ Moles (nevi) lipids and cell fragments
✔ elevated, melanized patches often - Lubricant for skin
with hair - Prevents brittle hair
Moles should be watched for changes in color, - Kills bacteria
diameter, or contour that may suggest cancer ⮚ Most have ducts that empty into hair
follicles; others open directly onto
D. Hemangiomas (birthmarks) skin surface
⮚ Glands are
⮚ patches of discolored skin caused by
activated at
benign tumors of dermal capillaries
puberty
✔ some disappear in childhood, others
last for life
✔ capillary hemangiomas, cavernous
hemangiomas, port-wine stain
 Types of Sudoriferous glands
Whitehead
⮚ accumulated sebum blocks a A. Eccrine (Merocrine) sweat glands
sebaceous gland duct
Blackhead ⮚ Numerous and abundant in the
⮚ material oxidizes and dries palms, soles of the feet and
Acne forehead
⮚ an active inflammation of ⮚ Open via duct to pore on skin
sebaceous glands surface
accompanied by pimples
⮚ Produce sweat (clear)
⮚ caused by bacterial infection
(Staphylococcus)
Seborrhea
⮚ overactive sebaceous gland, in
infants it is known as “cradle
cap”

Sudoriferous glands (Sweat)

⮚ Produce sweat
⮚ Widely distributed in skin
except nipples and parts of
external genitalia
2 Types of

B. Apocrine sweat glands

⮚ Approximately 2,000 are largely

confined to the axillary and anogenital
areas
Sudoriferous glands: ⮚ Ducts empty into hair follicles
1. Eccrine ⮚ Begin to function at puberty
2. Apocrine
⮚ Release sweat that also contains fatty
⮚ acids and proteins (milky/yellowish
color) Ceruminous glands
- Modified apocrine glands found in the
lining of the external ear canal
- Secretion mixes with sebum to
produce cerumen or ear wax.
⮚ Mammary glands
- Secretes milk

Reference:
Elaine N. Marieb (2012). Essentials Human
Anatomy & Physiology, Laboratory Manual.
10th Edition. Pearson Education South Asia
Pte. Ltd.
https://www.palmbeachstate.edu/slc/Docu
ments/AandP1ch06 Lecture.pdf
https://slideplayer.com/slide/16146767/
https://www.news-medical.net/health/Wha
t-is-the-Dermis.aspx
https://metro.style/beauty/skincare/young-
son-ye-jinphotos/26776