General Biology 1 Different Tissue Types and Cell Modification

Prokaryotes EPITHELIAL TISSUE - commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as linings of organs
and cavities.
 The first cells to appear on Earth
 an organism made of a single prokaryotic cell or cell with no true nucleus. - characterized by closely-joined cells with tight junctions.
 The earliest prokaryotes may have arisen more than 2.5 billion years ago. - For protection, absorption, secretion and sensation.
 They are very small cells (1-10 nm in diameter) with a simple structure.
 do not have a nucleus. Classification of epithelial tissues based on the shape;
 their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane inside the cell.
 Squamous epithelium - has cells that are wider than their height and Function for
 have a single loop of circular DNA called nucleoids that floats in the cell’s cytoplasm, but they
lack membrane-bound organelles. exchange of material through diffusion.
 ribosomes also form part of the cytoplasm.  Cuboidal epithelium - has cells whose height and width are approximately the same
 have a cell membrane. (cube shaped) and is intended for secretion.
 cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.  Columnar epithelium - has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped).
 enclosed by an additional layer called a capsule.  Transitional Epithelium - has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal,
 The capsule has a sticky surface area, so it allows prokaryotes to cling to surfaces, such as depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium.
your skin and your teeth.
 reproduce asexually. Classification of epithelial tissues based on the number of layer;

 Examples: Kingdom Eubacteria and Kingdom Archaea, such as bacteria, blue-green algae,  Simple epithelium - only one cell thick (unilayered)
archaeans, and spirochetes, are examples of prokaryotes.  Stratified epithelium – having two or more cells in thickness or multi-layered
 Pseudo stratified columnar - single layer of cells; may just look stacked because of
Eukaryotes
varying height and function for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia.
 are more complex than prokaryotic cells.
 are generally larger (10-100 mm in diameter) than prokaryotic cells.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Include a large group of different tissues characterized by having
 have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and DNA as prokaryotic cells do. dispersed cells and large extracellular space called extracellular matrix.
 the DNA of eukaryotic cells are double-stranded and arranged into chromosomes and does - The extracellular matrix may be solid (as in bone), soft (as in loose connective
not float freely in the cytoplasm but it is found in the nucleus.
tissue), or liquid (as in blood).
 Organelles are structures that perform specific functions.
- It functions mainly for binding and support of other tissues.
 are organisms made of one or more eukaryotic cells.
- protection, provision of cushion, maintenance of body form, filling body space,
 The earliest eukaryotes, like the first prokaryotes, were single-celled organisms.
storage of fats, transport of nutrients and wastes, body defense and repair of body
 arose about 1 billion years later than the earliest prokaryotes.
 reproduce sexually and/or asexually. part.
 multicellular organism (Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists) that exists is Connective tissues are classified into three large groups;
made up of eukaryotic cells.
  Connective tissue proper- (loose and dense connective tissues, reticular Nerve Cell - neurons are branching cells; cell processes that maybe quite long extend from
connective tissues, elastic connective tissues, and adipose tissues.) the nucleus-containing cell body; also, contributing to nervous tissues are no irritable
 Supportive connective tissue (cartilage and bones) supporting cells (glial cells).
 Fluid connective tissues (blood and lymph)
Functions: transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and
The supportive and fluid connective tissues are further grouped into specialized glands) which control their activity.
connective tissue.
Location: brain, spinal cord and nerves.
- Loose connective tissue - Cartilage
CELL MODIFICATIONS
- Fibrous connective tissue - Adipose tissue
- Blood - Bone Sperm cells - are produced in the testes.
Muscular Tissue - are contractile tissues responsible for movement. - is small and streamlined, allowing it to move easily and has a flagellum (a whip-like
tail) that propels it.
muscle fibers - make up muscle tissues contain myosin and actin, proteins involved
- fertilize eggs cells during reproduction.
in muscle contraction.
- contain half the number of chromosomes as the other in the body.
3 TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE:
Root hair - are found in the roots of plants and absorb water for the plant more efficiently.
Skeletal Muscle - Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations.
Red blood cells - have a biconcave shape that increases surface area.
Functions: Voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial
- used to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
expression; voluntary control.
- They well-adapted for this function because they contain hemoglobin.
Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin.
Microvilli - are tiny little microscopic projections that exist in, on, and around cells.
Cardiac Muscle - Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at
- involved in a wide variety of other functions, which include absorption, secretion,
specialized junctions (intercalated discs).
cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.
Functions: as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control.
Cilia and flagella - fine, whiplike/hairlike structures that extend from the body of a
Location: The walls of the heart. variety of cells.

Smooth Muscle - spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged - are generally identical in structure and composition.
closely to form sheets.
Cilia - can be used for filtering air (in the trachea, for example)
Functions: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal
Flagella - are used for movement.
passageways; involuntary control.
Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs.
CELL DIVISION
 All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
Mitosis - Production of somatic cells
 the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to microtubules from
- Cell growth
- Cell repair opposite spindle poles.
- Fertilization (cell division of the zygote) Anaphase - the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards
- Regeneration of body parts opposite ends of the cell.
- Asexual reproduction such as:  The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down,
allowing them to separate.
o budding (Hydra, yeasts)

o binary fission (prokaryotes such as bacterium)  Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating

o vegetative reproduction (grafting, cutting, layering, tuber, bulb or stolon the poles and making the cell longer.
formation, suckering and tissue culture)
Telophase - the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal structures
Stages
as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.
Prophase - the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up, setting the
stage for division of the chromosomes.  The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
 The chromosomes start to condense  Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
 The mitotic spindle begins to form.
 The nucleolus disappears. nucleoli reappear.

Prometaphase - the mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
 The chromosomes become even more condensed stages of mitosis.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down
 The mitotic spindle grows more When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete set of

chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell.

Metaphase - the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the middle

of the cell, ready to divide.

 Autosomes - The first 22 pairs XY - Male
Meiosis - Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis and oogenesis) which is important in sexual
Sex Chromosomes – The last pair XX - Female
reproduction.
Mechanisms for controlling progress through the cell cycle are Checkpoints, Length of
Phases of Meiosis I Telomeres, and Chemical Signals from within and outside the cell.

The daughter cells produced in mitosis should be identical to the mother cell.
Normal cells divide only when attached to a surface, continue dividing until they
 One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the diversity it produces within a touch one another or will further divide with the aid of growth factor.
population. Here are disorders resulting from nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes in
 Every sex cell made from meiosis has a unique combination of chromosomes. meiosis. The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a
 no two sperm or egg cells are genetically identical. cell is said to be “aneuploid”.
 Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long strands of DNA.
 human cells have 46 chromosomes, with the exception of sperm and eggs, which
contain only 23 chromosomes each. Aneuploidy, an extra or missing chromosome is a common cause of genetic
 Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes disorders (birth defects). Some examples of abnormalities that chromosome
analysis may reveal are:

 Mitosis is indirectly important for sexual reproduction. 1. Trisomy - the presence of an extra chromosome, a third instead of a pair.

Diseases and Disorders in Cell Cycle 2. Monosomy - the absence of one of the chromosomes.

Disjunction - the normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in 3. Deletions -These are missing pieces of chromosomes and/or genetic
meiosis II material. Some may be small and difficult to be detected.

Non-disjunction - the abnormal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids 4. Translocations -with these, pieces of chromosomes break off and reattach
in meiosis II. to another chromosome. If a one-to-one switch and all of the genetic material is
present (but in the wrong place), it is said to be a balanced translocation. If it is not,
Karyokinesis - the normal process of mitosis or the division of nucleus
then it is called an unbalanced translocation.
Chromosomal abnormality - once there is an addition, deletion, translocation, and non-
disjunction of a piece or a whole of chromosome, chromosomal mutation occurs

Karyotype - A picture of the chromosomes from the human cell arranged in pairs by size.