CHEM113 – LECTURE

  COVERAGE
  1. Cell
  2. Carbohydrates
 
 
 
CELL
- The basic structural and functional unit of living Shape of Cells
organisms. - Variation depends mainly upon the function of cells
- Make up living things and carry out activities that keep - Some cells like euglena and Amoeba can change their
a living thing alive. shape, but most cells have a fixed shape.
Cell Theory  Human RBCs are circular biconcave for easy
- A collection of ideas and conclusions from many passage through human capillaries
different scientists over time that describes cells and  Nerve cells are branched to conduct impulses from
how cells operate. one point to another
1. Robert Hooke (1665) – discovered cell  Human WBCs can change their shape to engulf the
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) – observed living microorganisms enter the body.
cell Structure of Cell
3. Robert Brown (1883) – discovered nucleus - The detailed structure of a cell has been studied under
4. Felix Dujardin (1835) – discovered fluid content of compound microscope and electron microscope
cell - Certain structures can be seen only under an electron
5. Matthias Schleiden (1838) – proposed all plants are microscope.
made up of cells. - The structure of a cell as seen under an electron
6. J.E. Purkinje (1839) – named fluid content of cell as microscope is called ultrastructure.
protoplasm.  Compound microscope – 2000x
Unicellular Organisms  Electron microscope – 500,000x
- made up of only one cell
- Ex: Euglena, Paramecium, Yeast Animal Cell
Multicellular Organisms
- Made up of more than one cell
- Ex: Plants, animals, fungus

Size of Cells
- Most cells are very small (microscopic), some may be
very large (macroscopic)
- The unit used to measure size of a cell is micrometer
- 1 μm = 1/1000 micrometer

Aki | 1
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Plant Cell  Protects internal contents
 Regulates entry and exit of substances in and out
of the cell
 Maintains homeostasis
Cell Wall
- Non-living and outermost
covering of a cell (plants
and bacteria)
- Can be tough, rigid and
sometimes flexible
- Made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin
- May be thin or thick,
multilayered structure
- Thickness varies from 50-1000 A
Functions:
 Provides definite shape, strength and rigidity
 Prevents drying up (desiccation) of cells
Bacterial Cell  Helps in controlling cell expansion
 Protects cell from external pathogens
2. Nucleus
- Dense spherical body located
near the center of the cell
- Diameter varies from 10-25 μm
- Present in all the cells except
red blood cells and sieve tube
cells
- Well developed in plant and
animal cells
- Undeveloped in bacteria and
blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria)
- Most of the cells are
uninucleate (having only one
Structure of Cell nucleus) 
1. Plasma Membrane - Nucleus has a double layered
- Extremely delicate, covering called nuclear
think, elastic, living membrane
and semi-permeable - Nuclear membrane has pores
membrane of diameter about 80-100 nm
- Made up of two layers - Colorless dense sap present
of lipid molecules in inside the nucleus known as
which protein nucleoplasm
molecules are floating - Nucleoplasm contains round shaped nucleolus and
- Thickness varies from network of chromatin fibers
75-110 A - Fibers are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Can be observed under an electron microscope only and protein histone
Functions: - These fibers condense to form chromosomes during
 Maintain shape and size of the cell cell division

Aki | 2
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
- Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA called Golgi body
genes - Discovered by Camillo
- Genes transfer the hereditary information from Golgi
one generation to the next - Formed by stacks of S-8
Functions: membranous sacs
 Control all the cell activities like metabolism, - Sacs are usually flattened
protein synthesis, growth and cell division and are called the
 Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid (RNA) to cisternae
constitute ribosomes - Has two ends: cis face
 Store hereditary Information In genes situated near the
endoplasmic reticulum
3. Cytoplasm and trans face situated near the cell membrane
- Jelly-like material formed by 80 % of water Functions:
- Present between the plasma membrane and the nucleus  Modifies, sorts and packs materials synthesized in
- Contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and the cell
various particles  Delivers synthesized materials to various targets
- Particles are proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, Inside the cell and outside the cell
lipids and inorganic ions  Produces vacuoles and secretory vesicles
- Also contains many organelles with distinct structure  Forms plasma membrane and lysosomes
and function
- Some of these organelles are visible only under an Lysosomes
electron microscope - Small, spherical, single
- Granular and dense in animal cells and thin in plant membrane sac
cells - Found throughout the
cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum - Filled with hydrolytic
- Network of tubular enzymes
and vesicular - Occur in most animal cells
structures which are and in few types of plant cells
interconnected with Functions:
one another  Help in digesting of large molecules
- Some parts are  Protect cell by destroying foreign invaders like
connected to the bacteria and viruses
nuclear membrane,  Degradation of worn-out organelles
while others are  In dead cells perform autolysis
connected to the cell
membrane Vacuoles
- Two types. Smooth (lacks ribosomes) and rough - Single membrane sac filled
(studded with ribosomes) with liquid of sap (water,
Functions sugar and ions)
 Gives Internal support to the cytoplasm - In animal cells, vacuoles
 RER synthesize secretory proteins and membrane are temporary, small in size
proteins and few in number
 SER synthesize lipids for cell membrane - In plant cells, vacuoles are
 In liver cells SER detoxify drugs & poisons large and more in number.
 In muscle cells SER store calcium Ions - May be contractile or non-contractile
Functions:
 Store various substances including waste products
 Maintain osmotic pressure of the cell
Aki | 3
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
 Store food particles in amoeba cells Chromoplasts
 Provide turgidity and rigidity to plant cells - produce and store pigments
- They are responsible for different colors found in
Mitochondria leaves, fruits, flowers and vegetables.
- Small, rod shaped  Carrot - Pigment: Carotene
organelles bounded  Mango - Pigment: Xanthophyll
by two membranes -  Tomato - Pigment: Lycopene
inner and outer Leucoplasts
- Outer membrane Is - colorless plastids that store foods.
smooth and encloses - They are found in storage organs such as fruits,
the contents of tubers and seeds.
mitochondria  Potato tubers - Food: Starch
- Inner membrane Is folded in the form of shelf like  Maize grains - Food: Protein
inward projections called cristae  Castor seeds - Food: oil
- Inner cavity Is filled with matrix which contains many
enzymes Chloroplasts
- Contain their own DNA which are responsible for - Double membrane-
many enzymatic actions bound organelles
Functions: found mainly in plant
 Synthesize energy rich compound ATP cells
 ATP molecules provide energy for the vital - Usually spherical or
activities of living cells discoidal in shape
- Shows two distinct
Plastids regions-grana and
stroma
- double membrane-bound organelles found inside
- Grana are stacks of
plants and some algae. thylakoids (membrane bound, flattened discs)
- They are responsible for activities related to making - Thylakoids contain chlorophyll molecules which are
and storing food. responsible for photosynthesis
- They often contain different types of pigments that can - Stroma is a colorless dense fluid
change the color of the cell. Functions:
 Convert light energy into chemical energy in the
form of food
 Provide green color to leaves, stems and
Vegetables

Centrosome
- Centrosome is the
membrane bound
organelle present near the
nucleus
- Consists of two structures
called centrioles
- Centrioles are hollow,
cylindrical structures
made of microtubules
- Centrioles are arranged at right angles to each other
Functions: 
 Form spindle fibers which help in the movement
of chromosomes during cell division
 Help in the formation of cilia and flagella

Aki | 4
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Cytoskeleton  Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce
- Formed by carbohydrates via photosynthesis
microtubules and
microfilaments
- Microtubules are
hollow tubules  Plants have two main uses, the produce:
made up of protein - Cellulose – serves as structural elements
called tubulin - Starch – provide energy reserves
- Microfilaments are  Dietary intake of plant materials is the major
rod shaped thin carbohydrate source for humans and animals
filaments made up
 The average human diet should ideally about two-
of protein called actin
thirds carbohydrates by mass
Functions:
Functions of Carbohydrates in Human
 Determine the shape of the cell 1. Oxidation provides energy
 Give structural strength to the cell 2. Storage, glycogen, provides a short-term every source
 Responsible for cellular movements 3. Supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other
biochemical substances
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell 4. Form part of the structural framework of DNA and
Nucleus is undeveloped Nucleus is well developed RNA molecules
Only one chromosome is More than one 5. Linked to lipids are structural components of cell
present chromosome are present membranes
Membrane bound Membrane bound 6. Linked to proteins function in a variety of cell-cell and
organelles are absent organelles are present cell-molecule recognition process
Size ranges from 0.5-5 Size ranges from 5-100 Classification of Carbohydrates
μm μm - Most simple carbohydrates have empirical formula
Examples: Bacteria and Examples: All other that fit the general formula 𝑪𝒏 𝑯𝟐𝒏 𝑶𝒏
blue green algae organism - Early observation by scientists that the above-
mentioned formula can also be written as
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Generally small in size Generally large in size
𝑪𝒏 𝑯𝟐𝒏 𝑶 𝒏 hydrate of water
- A polyhydroxy aldehyde, a polyhydroxy ketone or a
Cell wall is absent Cell wall is present
compound that yields polyhydroxy aldehydes or
Plastids are absent Plastids are present
polyhydroxy ketones upon hydrolysis
Vacuoles are smaller in Vacuoles are larger in size
size and less in number and more in number
Centrioles are present Centrioles are absent

CARBOHYDRATES
Biochemical substance
- It is a chemical substance found within a living
organism
- These substances are divided into two groups:
bioinorganic substances and bioorganic substances
- Human uses carbohydrates of the plat kingdom extend
beyond food
 Carbohydrates in the form of cotton and linens
are used as clothing Monosaccharide
 Carbohydrates in the form of wood are used - Contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or
for shelter and heating and in making paper polyhydroxy ketone unit
Occurrence and functions - Cannot be broken down into simpler units by
 The most abundant class or bioorganic molecules on hydrolysis (addition of water module)
planet earth - Pure monosaccharides are water-soluble, white,
 In plants, it constitutes about 75% by mass of dry plant crystalline solids
materials - Ex: Glucose and Fructose
Aki | 5
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Oligosaccharide
- Contains 2-10 monosaccharide units covalently
bonded to each other
- Disaccharide – most common type of oligosaccharide
units covalently bonded to each other
- Example: Sucrose (table sugar)
- Upon hydrolysis, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides produce monosaccharide units
Polysaccharide
- Contains many monosaccharide units covalently
bonded to each other
- Ex: Cellulose, Starch
Chirality: Handedness in Molecules
Handedness
- An important general structure property of most
monosaccharide
- Two forms: left-handed and right-handed (mirror
images)
- This property in not restricted to carbohydrates
Mirror image
- The reflection of an objects in a mirror  organic molecules, especially monosaccharides, may
a) Superimposable mirror image contain more than one chiral center.
- Coincide at all points when the image is laid
upon each other
b) Nonsuperimposable mirror image
- Not all points coincide when the images are
laid upon each other
- Exists in left-handed and right-handed

Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diastereomers

Stereoisomers
- Are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular
formula and sequence of bonded atoms but differ in
three-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space
Features that generate stereoisomerism:
 Presence of a chiral center in a molecule
 Presence of “structural rigidity” in a molecule
Enantiomers
- Sometimes called optical isomers
- Molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images of
each other
- Left and right-handed forms of a molecule with a
single chiral center are enantiomers
 Not all molecules possess handedness - Came from the Greek word “enantios” meaning
 Any organic molecule that contains a carbon atom with opposite
four different groups attached to it in a tetrahedral Diastereomers
orientation possesses handedness - Molecules are not mirror images of each other
 Chiral center – an atom in a molecule that has four - Ex: Cis-trans isomers of alkenes and cycloalkanes
different groups tetrahedrally bonded to it - Contain more than one chiral center can also exist in
a) Chiral molecule – not superimposable diastereomeric as well as enantiomeric forms
b) Achiral molecule – superimposable

Aki | 6
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Interaction between chiral compounds
- Enantiomeric pair have the same interaction with
achiral molecules and different interactions with
chiral molecules
1. Enantiomers have identical:
 Boiling points
 Melting points
 Densities
 Intermolecular force strength
2. A pair of enantiomers have the same solubility in an
achiral solvent, such as ethanol, but differing
solubilities in a chiral solvent, such as D-2-Butanol
3. The rate and extent of reaction of enantiomers with
another reactant are the same if the reactant is achiral
but differ if the reactant is chiral
4. Receptor sites for molecules within the body have
chirality associated with them
Examples:
 Spearmint (D-Carvone) and Caraway (L-Carvone)
 D-Epinephrine (perfect fit with the cellular
receptor) and L-Epinephrine
Classification of Monosaccharide
Properties of Enantiomers - The term saccharide comes from the Latin word for
 When plane-polarized light is passed through a sugar, which is saccharum
solution containing a single enantiomer, the plane of - Only monosaccharide with 3-7 carbon atoms is
the polarized light is related counterclockwise (to the commonly found in nature
left) or clockwise (to the right), depending on the
enantiomer
 The extent of rotation depends on the concentration of
the enantiomer as well as on its identity
 The two enantiomers of a pair rotate the plane-
polarized light the same number of degrees, but in
opposite directions.
 Additional notations
- (+) means rotation to the right (clockwise)
- (-) means rotation to the left (counterclockwise) Aldose
 D-L configuration is not directly related to + and – - Monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde functional
designations. group
 D (+) – Mannose – right-handed isomer that rotates - A polyhydroxy aldehyde
plane-polarized light in a clockwise direction (to the Ketose
right) - A monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional
Optically Active Compound group
- A compound that rotates the plane polarized light - A polyhydroxy ketone
- Achiral compound – are optically inactive
- Chiral molecules – optically active
Dextrorotatory compound
- Chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized
light in a clockwise direction
Levorotatory compound
- Chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized
light in a counterclockwise direction

Aki | 7
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Biochemically important monosaccharide
D-Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone
- The simplest of the monosaccharides
- Are important intermediates in the process of
glycolysis

Cyclic forms of Monosaccharides

Pyranose
- Contains a six-atom ring
Furanose
- A five-atom ring

D-Glucose Reactions of Monosaccharides

- Ripe fruits are a good source of 1. Oxidation to acidic sugars
glucose, which is often referred to 2. Reduction to sugar alcohols
as grape sugar 3. Glycoside formation
- Other names are dextrose and blood 4. Phosphate ester formation
sugar 5. Amino acid sugar formation
- The normal glucose in human blood Oxidation to Acidic Sugars
is in the range of 70-100 mg/dL (1 - Monosaccharide oxidation can yield three different
dL = 100 mL) types of acidic sugars depending on the oxidizing
- Cells use glucose as a primary agent used
source of energy
D-Galactose
- D-Galactose and D-Glucose are
epimers (C-4)
- Seldom encountered as a free
 Weak Oxidizing Agent
monosaccharide
- Tollen’s and benedict Reagents
- In human body, it is synthesized from
- Aldoses are converted into aldonic acid
glucose in the mammary glands for
use in lactose (milk sugar), a  Aldoses are reducing sugars
disaccharide consisting of a glucose - Reduces Ag to Ag in Tollen’s Reagent
unit and galactose unit - Reduces Cu to Cu in benedict reagent
- Also called brain sugar because it a component of  A reducing sugar is a carbohydrate that gives a positive
glycoproteins (protein-carbohydrate compounds) test with Tollen’s and Benedict’s solutions
found in brain and nerve tissue  In basic conditions, ketoses also give positive results
- Also present in the chemical markers that distinguish with these reagents
various types of blood – A, B, AB, and O  Theses tests are used to test glucose in the urine
D-Fructose  The color of the strip is compared with a chart to
- Most important ketohexose determine the concentration of the glucose in the urine
- Also known as levulose and fruit sugar sample
- The sweetest-tasting of all sugars  Strong oxidizing agent
- Found in fruits and honey - Oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the
- Sometimes used as dietary sugar same time to produce a dicarboxylic acid, aldaric
- Different in C-1 and C-2 with D- acid
Glucose  Oxidation to acidic sugars
D-Ribose - In biochemistry systems, enzymes can oxidize the
- An aldopentose primary alcohol end of an aldose to produce
- A component of a variety of complex molecules such alduronic acid
as RNA and ATP
- The compound 2 deoxy-D-ribose is an important
component in nucleic acid chemistry

Aki | 8
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Reduction to produce Sugar Alcohols - The β form can be found in ice cream that has been
- The carbonyxl group can be reduced to a hydroxyl stored for a long time; its crystallizers and gives the ice
group using hydrogen as the reducing agent – sugar cream a gritty texture
alcohols
D-Glucitol
- Common name is D-Sorbitol that is used as Glycosidic Linkage
moisturizer in foods and cosmetics - Is the bond in a disaccharide resulting from the
- Used as sweetening agent in chewing gum because reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom – OH
it cannot be used by bacteria as their food - Always carbon-oxygen-carbon bond
Glycoside formation
- Reacting between monosaccharide and an alcohol Maltose
Glycoside - Often called malt sugar
- Is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide - Comes from the breakdown of starch common
by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH ingredient in baby foods and in malted sugar
group with an – OR group - Made up 2 D-Glucose units
Phosphate Ester Formation - A reducing sugar
- The hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide can react Cellobiose
with inorganic oxoacids to form inorganic esters. - Produced as an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the
- Play important roles in the metabolism of polysaccharide cellulose
carbohydrates - Like maltose, cellobiose two D-glucose units but has a
Amino Sugar Formation β(1→4) glycosidic linkage
- One of the hydroxyl group is replaced with an amino - Like maltose, cellobiose is a reducing sugar, has three
group isomeric forms in aqueous solution and upon
- The three common natural amino sugars: hydrolysis produces two D-glucose molecules
Lactose
- Made up of β-D-galactose
and a D-glucose unit joined
by β(1→4) glycosidic
linkage  
- Principal carbohydrate in
milk 
 Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are - Human – 7% - 8% lactose 
important building blocks of polysaccharides found in - Cow’s milk – 4%-5% lactose 
chitin and hyaluronic acid - Lactose intolerance: a condition in which people
 N-Acetyl-a-D-glucosamine and N-Acetyl-a-D- lack the enzyme lactase needed to hydrolyze
galactosamine lactose to galactose and glucose.  
- Are present in the biochemical markers on red
- Lactase hydrolyzes β(1-4) glycosidic linkages.  
blood cells, which distinguish the various blood
- Deficiency of lactase can be caused by a genetic defect,
types
physiological decline with age, or by injuries to
Disaccharides
intestinal mucosa.
- Has cyclic form can react with an alcohol to form a
glycoside Polysaccharides
- This is the same process in joining two or more - A polymer that contains many monosaccharide units
monosaccharide units bonded to each other by glycosidic linkages
- The most important chemical reaction of maltose is - Polysaccharides are often also called glycans
that of hydrolysis producing 2 D-glucose units 1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit in
- Acidic condition is needed or maltase is needed the polymer chain
- If not treated, galactosemia can cause mental  Homopolysaccharide
retardation in infants and even death.  Heteropolysaccharide
- Treatment involved exclusion of milk and milk 2. The length of the polymer chain
products from diet 3. The type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units
- The α form of lactose is sweeter to the taste and more 4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain
soluble in water than the β form

Aki | 9
 
 CHEM113 – LECTURE
Storage polysaccharide - In humans, it serves as dietary fiber in food –
- a storage form for monosaccharides and is used as an readily absorbs water and results in softer stools
energy source in cells and regular bowel movement
- to lower the osmotic pressure within cells - 23-35 g of dietary fiber is required everyday
- the most important storage polysaccharides are starch
Chitin
(in plant cells) and glycogen (in animal and human
cells)
- Similar to cellulose in both function and structure
- not sweet and don’t show positive tests with Tollen’s - Linear polymer with all β(1→4)glycosidic linkages
and Benedict’s solutions whereas monosaccharides are – it has a N-acetyl amino derivative of glucose
sweet and show positive tests - Function is to give rigidity to the exoskeleton s of crabs,
- limited water solubility lobsters, shrimp, insects and other arthropods
- Examples:
 Cellulose, starch in plants
 Glycogen in animals
 chitin in arthropods
Starch
- a storage form for monosaccharides and is used as an
energy source in cells
- glucose is the monomeric unit
- storage is the monomeric unit
- two types of polysaccharides isolated from starch:
 Amylose: straight chain polymer – 15 -20%
of the starch and has α (14) glycosidic bonds  
 Molecular mass: 50,000 (up to 1000 glucose units)
Amylopectin
- Branched chain polymer – 80 – 85% of the starch
α(14) glycosidic bond for straight chain and a (16)
for branch
- Molecular mass: 300,000 (up to 100,000 glucose units)
– higher than amylose
- Human can hydrolyze alpha linkage but not beta
linkage

 Iodine is often used for the presence of starch in

solution
 Starch-containing solutions turn a dark blue-black
when iodine is added
 As starch is broken down through acid or enzymatic
hydrolysis to glucose monomers, the blue-black color
disappears
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose
- Linear homopolysaccharide with β(1→4)
glycosidic bond
- Up to 5000 glucose units with molecular mass of
900,000 amu
- Cotton is approximately 95% cellulose and wood are
approximately 50 cellulose that hydrolyzes β (1→4)
linkage so humans cannot digest cellulose
- Some animals have bacteria that produces cellulase in
their guts in order for them to get free glucose from
cellulose

A k i | 10