Pattern

 Replica of the desired product

 Has somehow different dimensions than the
actual part to be manufactured
 Used to form the mold cavity

1. Materials used
2. Types of patterns
3. Pattern Allowances
 Pattern Materials

 Requirements:
1. Easily shaped, worked, machined and joined
2. Resistant to wear and corrosion
3. Resistant to chemical action
4. Dimensionally stable
5. Easily available and economical
 Pattern Materials
1. Wood:
 Easy availability, low weight and low cost
 Can be easily shaped
 More than 90% castings use wood patterns
 Absorbs moisture. So, distortions and dimensional
changes occur
 Relatively lower life, hence suitable for small quantity
production
 Pattern Materials
2. Metal:
Used for large quantity production and for closer
dimensional tolerances
Longer life
Aluminum is mostly used.
Other metals: cast iron, brass etc.
 Pattern Materials
3. Plastic:
Low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces and
durability
Do not absorb moisture. So, dimensionally stable
Corrosion resistance
 Pattern Materials
4. Polystyrene:
Changes to gaseous state on heating
Disposable Patterns. Hence, suitable for single casting.

When molten metal is poured into cavity, polystyrene

transforms to gaseous state.
Used mostly for small and complicated shaped castings.
 Difference Between Pattern and Cast

“Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made

with some modifications"
“The mould cavity is made with the help of the
pattern, Afterwards the mould cavity will be filled
with molten metal After solidification the object will
be removed from the cavity and that solidified metal
object is called casting"
 Types of Patterns

Types of patterns depend upon the following factors:

• The shape and size of casting
• No. of castings required
• Method of moulding employed
• Anticipated difficulty of moulding operation
 Types of Patterns
• Single piece pattern.
• Split piece pattern.
• Loose piecepattern.
• Match plate pattern.
• Sweep pattern.
• Gated pattern.
• Skeleton pattern
• Follow board pattern.
• Cope and Dragpattern.
 Pattern Types

1.Single piece pattern:

Used for simple shaped & large
castings.
Pattern and cavity produced by it
are completely in the lower flask (i.e.
drag)
Causes difficulty in making the
mold.
 Pattern Types
2.Split pattern:
Split pattern models the part as
two separate pieces that meet along
the parting line of the mould
Two parts are aligned by Dowel pin.
 Pattern Types
3.Loose Piece pattern
1. As pre The name Pattern Contain One or more than one loose piece
2. Loose piece is used to make removal of pattern easy from mould box
3. loose pieces are attached to main body with the help of dowel pins or
wire
4. First main pattern is drawn and then carefully loose pieces
5. Moulding with this pattern is expensive and require more skill
 Pattern Types
4. Match-plate pattern:
Similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to
opposite sides of a single plate.
Match plate confirms the parting line
Ensures proper alignment of the mould cavities in the cope and drag and the
runner system can be included on the match plate.
Used for larger production quantities.
Ic Engines piston rings
 Pattern Types
5. Cope-Drag pattern:
It is similar to split pattern
Each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mould halves
are made independently.
.Pattern is made in two halves and split along parting line
These two halves are known as cope and drag
There moulding done independently
After moulding they are assembled to form complete mould box
Often desirable for larger castings
 Cope and Drag patterns
• A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern.

• Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate metal/wood plate.

• Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded separately

in a separate molding box by an independent molder or moulders.

• The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally assembled
and the mould is ready forpouring.

• Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big castings which
as a whole
cannot be conveniently handled by one moulder alone.
Fig: Cope and drag pattern
 Pattern Types
6. Gated pattern:
In this patters of gate and riser or runner are permanently attached to regular
pattern
They are used to manufacture multiple casting in on time
Each pattern is connected with common runner .
Suitable for pouring small castings and for mass production
It save labour and time
 Gated pattern
7. The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates.

• This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a better

manner and at the same time eliminates the time and labour
otherwise consumed in cutting runners andgates.

• A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and

thus it is used in mass production systems.

• Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.

 castings

Gating
system
 Sweep pattern
8. A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps
the shape of the casting into the sand all around the circumference. The
sweep pattern rotates about the post.

• Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post can be removed.

• Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full, large circular and
Costly three-dimensional pattern.

• Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labour as compared

to making a fullpattern.

• A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of

circular
sections and symmetrical shapes.
 Skeleton pattern
9. A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape which may be S-
bend pipe or a chute or something else. The skeleton frame is mounted on
a metal base

• The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is thus a woodenwork.

• The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.

• A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and
removes extrasand.

• Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large castings.

• A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves

less material costs.
 Follow board pattern
10.
A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern
which is very thin and fragile and which may give way and collapse under
pressure when the sand above the pattern is being rammed.

• With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is
rammed, and then the fallow board is with drawn, The rammed drag
isinverted, cope is mounted on it andrammed.

• During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag and get
support from the rammed sand of the drag under it.

• Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for
manyapplications.
 Pattern Allowances
• A pattern is larger in size as compared to the final casting,
because it carries certain allowances due to metallurgical and
mechanical reasons
• For example, shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical
phenomenon where as machining, draft, distortion, shake and
other allowances are provided on the patterns because of
mechanical reasons
 Types of Pattern Allowances

The various pattern allowances are:

• Shrinkage or Contraction allowance
• Machining or finish allowance.
• Draft of tapper allowances.
• Distortion or chamber allowance.
• Shake or rapping allowance.
 Shrinkage Allowance

• Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification

and therefore the pattern to obtain a particular sized casting is made oversize
by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or contraction.
• Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the
property of the cast metal/alloy.

Liquid Shrinkage:
• It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid
state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this
shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in
the mold.

Solid Shrinkage:
• It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns.
Classification of solidification processes
 Solidification Processes

We consider starting work material is either a liquid or is

in a highly plastic condition, and a part is created
through solidification of the material

 Solidification processes can be classified according to

engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

Eng/yaser abas
 Solidification of Metals
It is the transformation of molten metal back into
solid state
 Solidification differs depending on whether the
metal is
 A pure element or
 An alloy
 A Eutectic alloy

Eng/yaser abas
 Mechanism of Solidification
 Pure metals solidifies at a constant temp. equal to its
freezing point, which is same as its melting point.
 The change form liquid to solid does not occur all at once
 The process of solidification starts with nucleation, the
formation of stable solid particles within the liquid metal
 Nuclei of solid phase, generally a few hundred atom in size,
start appearing at a temperature below the freezing
temperature
 The temp. around this goes down and is called supercooling
or undercooling
 In pure metals supercooling is around 20% of the freezing
temp.
 A nuclease, more than a certain critical size grows, and
causes solidification.
 By adding, certain foreign materials (nucleating agents) the
undercooling temp. is reduced which causes enhanced
nucleation.
 In case of pure metals fine equi-axed grains are formed
near the wall of the mold and columnar grain growth takes
place upto the centre of the ingot.
 In typical solid-solution alloy, the columnar grains do not extend
upto the center of casting but are interrupted by an inner zone
of equiaxed graines.
 My adding typical nucleating agents like sodium, magnesium or
bismuth the inner zone of equiaxed grained can be extended in
whole casting.
Cooling and Solidification

Pure metal

Alloy
 Solidification: Pure Metals
 Ref cooling curve:
- Pure metal solidifies at a
constant temperature equal to
its freezing point (same as
melting point).
- Local freezing time= Time
from freezing begins and
completed
- Total freezing time= Time
from pouring to freezing
completed
- After freezing is completed,
the solid continues to cool at
a rate indicated by downward
slope of curve
Eng/yaser abas
 Solidification: Pure Metals
-

- Because of the chilling action of the

mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal
is initially formed at interface
immediately after pouring.
- The skin formed initially has equi-
axed, fine grained and randomly
oriented structure. This is because
of rapid cooling.
- As freezing proceeds, the grains
grow inwardly, away from heat flow
direction, as needles or spine of
solid metal.
EMU - Manufacturing Technology
 Solidification: Pure Metals
- On further growth of spine,
lateral branches are formed,
and as these branches grow
further branches are formed at
right angle to the first
branches. This type of growth
is called dendritic growth.
- The dendritic grains are
coarse, columnar and aligned
towards the center of
casting.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

 Solidification: Most Alloys
- Most alloys freeze at range of temperature rather than at a single
temperature.
- Freezing begins from liquidus temperature and completes at
solidus temperature.
- The cooling begins in the same manner as that in pure metals; a
thin skin is formed at the interface of mold and makes shell as
freezing proceeds.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

 Solidification: Most Alloys
- The dendrites begin to form -
with freezing. However, due to Pure
large temperature spread metal
between solidus and liquidus,
the earlier portion of dendritic
grains extract higher % of
elements from liquid solution Fe
than the portion of grain
formed later.
- As a result, the molten metal in Fe-Ni
Alloy
the center of mold cavity
depletes from the elements
and hence forms a different
structure (see Fig). EMU - Manufacturing Technology
 Solidification: Eutectic Alloys
• Eutectic alloys solidify similar to pure metals.
• Eutectic point on phase diagram is a point at which the liquid,
on cooling, completely converts into solid at one temp. No
intermediate phase (L+S) exists.
• Al-Si (11.6% Si) and Cast Iron (4.3% C) are relevant casting
eutectic alloys.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

Solidification Time & Chorinov’s Rule
Chorinov’s Rule

Eng/yaser abas
 Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps:

a. while cooling of metal in
liquid form (liquid
contraction); b. during phase
transformation from liquid to
solid (solidification
shrinkage); c. while solidified Eng/yaser
abas
metal is cooled down to Eng/yaser
room temperature (solid abas
 Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caus ed by

solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and
diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid metal
(dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Why cavity forms at top , why not at bottom?

Eng/yaser abas
Solidification Shrinkage (Liquid –Solid
transformation)
 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in
volume per unit mass of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts
volumetric decrease associated with phase
change
Why solidification shrinkage is negligible in Cast
Irons??
Eng/yaser abas
Solidification of a binary alloy
Composition Change during solidification
Pb-Sn phase diagram
Solidification

Dendrite growth in metals- lower surface energy

crystallographic planes are favored, producing
tree like structures if not disturbed.
Cast structures

Schematic illustration of three cast

structures solidified in a square
mold:
(a) pure metals; (b) solid solution
alloys; and c) structure obtained by
using nucleating agents. Source: G.
W. Form, J. F. Wallace, and A. Cibula
 Properties of castings

e.g. Compare elongation of carbon steels (4-36%)Table 5.3,

with cast irons (0-18%) Table 12.3 (Kalpakjian & Schmid 7th)
 Heat Transfer – Sand Casting

2
⎛V⎞
ts
 ⎜⎝
A
⎟⎠

Ref: Mert Flemings “Solidification Processing”

Thermal Conductivity “k” (W/m·K)

dT
q  k dx
Copper 394
Aluminum 222
Iron 29
Sand 0.6
1
PMMA 0.2
0
PVC 0.1
6
Transient Heat Transfer

Alu

Sand 3X10-3
 Sand Casting (see
Flemings)

We seek the transient

temperature profile in
the sand.
 Sand Casting (see
Flemings)

At t=0, T=To everywhere

This will allow us to At x=0, T=Tm always

calculate the heat
lost by the metal at
the boundary with
the sand tooling
 Solidification Time
 Once the material cools down to freezing
temperature, the solidification process for the pure
metals does not require a decrease in temperature
and a plateau is obtained in the cooling curves,
called thermal arrest
 The solidification time is total time required for the
liquid metal to solidify.
 Solidification time has been found to be
directly proportional to volume and inversely
proportional to surface area.
Solidification Time

Enthapy/wt

Use Flemings
result here
 Solidification Time (cont.)

The constant “C” (in this case not heat

capacity) is determined by
experiment.
Several references suggest that values range:
C ~ 2 to 4 min/cm2 (with most data for iron and steel)
 Shrinkage Allowance
 Patternmakers account for solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction by making
mold cavity oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative
to final casting size is called pattern
shrinkage allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly

Eng/yaser abas
 Directional Solidification- Design Optimization
 In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable that the regions far from the riser (metal supply)
should solidify earlier than those near the riser in order to
ensure metal flow to distant regions to compensate
shrinkage. This is achieved by using Chvorinov’s rule.
 So, casting and mold design should be optimal: riser should
be kept far from the regions of casting having low V/A ratio.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

 Directional Solidification- Use of Chills
 The chills increase the heat extraction.
 Internal and external chills can also be used for
directional cooling.
 For thick sections, small metal parts, with same
material as that of casting, are put inside the cavity.
The metal solidifies around these pieces as it is
poured into cavity.
 For thin long sections, external chills are used. Vent
holes are made in the cavity walls or metal pieces are
put in cavity wall.
 If Chorinov’s rule can not be employed, use chills

Eng/yaser abas
The metal shrinkage depends upon:

• The cast metal or alloy.

• Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.

• Casted dimensions(size).

• Casting design aspects.

• Molding conditions(i.e., mould

materials and molding methods employed)
The contraction of metals/alloys is always volumetric, but the contraction
allowances are always expressed in linear measures.
 Machining Allowance

• Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat treatment; scales
etc., thus formed need to be removed.

• It is the intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections

from thecastings.

• It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.

• Surface finish is required on thecasting.

How much extra metal or how much machining allowance
should be provided, depends on the
factors listed below:

• Nature of metals.

• Size and shape ofcasting.

• The type of machining operations tobe

employed for
cleaning thecasting.

• Casting conditions.

• Molding process employed

Machining Allowances of Various
Metals
 Draft or Taper Allowance
• It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.

• Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be easily removed from
the molding material tightly packedaround it with out damaging the
mould cavity.

• The amount of taper dependsupon:

• Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact with
the mouldcavity.
• Moulding methods.
• Mould materials.
• Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as external surfaces;
of course it is more on internal surfaces.
The taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the
pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the
sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the molder. Figure
3 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance being removed from the
pattern. In this case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will
remain in contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to breakit.
 Figure is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft allowance. Here,
the moment the pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well
away from the sand surface. Thus the pattern can be removed without
damaging the moldcavity.
Fig: Taper in design
 Distortion or cambered allowance

• It is of irregular shape,

• All parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some parts

shrinks while others are restricted from during so, It is u
or v-shape,
• The arms possess unequal thickness,

• It has long, rangy arms as those of propeller shaft for the

ship,

• It is a long flat casting, One portion of the casting cools at

a faster rate as compared to the other
 Shake
allowance
• A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a
wooden piece from side to side. This is done so that the
pattern a little is loosened in the mold cavity and can be
easily removed.
• In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity which
results in a bigger sizedcasting.
• Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e., the
pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order to compensate
the enlargement of mould cavity due to rapping.
• The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by
increasing the tapper.
 Pattern Layout
Design
Steps involved:

• Get the working drawing of the part for which the

pattern is to be made
• Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet, using a shrink
rule. A shrink rule is modified form of an ordinary scale which
has already taken care of shrinkage allowance for a particular
metal to be cast
• Add machining allowances as per the requirements

• Depending upon the method of molding, provide the draft

allowances
 Pattern Construction

• Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,

• Location of parting surface.
• No. of parts in which the pattern willbe made.
• Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
• Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of different
portions of the pattern and its dimensional accuracy.
• Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp corners.
• Give a shell a ccoatings (3 coats) to pattern.
• impart suitable colors to the pattern for identification
purposes and for otherinformations.
 Pattern
Colors
Patterns are imparted certain colors and shades in order to:

• Identify quickly the main body of pattern and different parts of

thepattern.

• Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.

• Identify core prints, loose pieces,etc.,

• Visualize thesurfaces to be machined, etc.

 The patterns are normally painted with contrasting
colors such that the mould maker would be able
to understand the functions clearly. The color code
used is,

• Red or orange on surface not to be finished and left as cast

• Yellow on surfaces to be machined

• Black on core prints for unmachined openings

• Yellow stripeson black on core prints for machinsed

openings

• Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core prints

• Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak

patterns or to shorten a casting.
 Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part used to
produce hollow parts
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in
the mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets
• Castings are often required to have holes, recesses,
etc. of various sizes and shapes. These
impressions can be obtained by using cores.
 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
 Cavity provides the external features of the
cast part
 Core provides internal features of the
part.
It is placed inside the mold cavity with
 some support.
In sand casting, cores are generally
made of sand
Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

/yaser abas
Figure- Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets
(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity
 CORE PROPERTIES
• It must be strong to retain the shape while handling,
• It must resist erosion by molten metal,
• It must be permeable to gases,
• It must have high refractoriness, and
• It must have good surface finish to replicate it on to
the casting.
 STEPS IN CORE MAKING
• Core sand preparation.

• Core making.(Jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower)

• Core baking.(to remove moisture)

• Core finishing (coating of refractory or

protective materials)

• Setting the core

Figure-- Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
 Types of cores
• According to the Shape and Position of the Core
1) Horizontal core
2) Vertical core
3) Hanging core
4) Balanced core
5) Kiss core
6) Ram up core
7) Drop core
 Horizontal core

• Positioned horizontally in the mould

• Can have any shape according to cavity
and casting required
 Vertical core
• Fitted in mould with its axis vertical.
• Taper is provided at top end for smooth fitting of core
in cope portion.
• Major portion remains in the drag portion.
 Hanging or Cover Core
• It is supported from above and hangs vertically in the
mould cavity
• No support from bottom
 Balanced Core

• Supported and balanced from its one end only

• Required long core seat.
 Ram Up Core
• It is placed in the sand along with pattern before
ramming the mould
• Used to make external or internal details of a
casting
 Kiss core
• It doesn't required core seats for support
• It is held in position between drag and core due to pressure
exerted by cope on the drag
• To obtain a number of holes in a casting, a number of kiss
cores can be placed.
 Drop or Stop off Core

• Used to make a cavity which cannot be made with

other type of cores.
• Used when a hole, recess or cavity required in a
casting is not in line with parting surfaces