Page 1 of 20

Engineering Physics
Notes
(Theory & Problems)

Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising

every time we fall – Confucius

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 2 of 20

UNIT 3 - ELECTRICAL & DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS

Postulates of Classical Free Electron Theory (CFET) or Drude-Lorentz theory

Electrical conductivity in Metals:

Drude-Lorentz theory

Large number of atoms combines to form a metal;

the boundaries of the neighbouring atoms slightly
overlap on each other. Due to such an
overlapping, though the core electron remain unaffected, the valence electron
find continuity from atom to atom and thus can move easily throughout the body of the metal.
The free movement of electrons means that none of them belongs to any atom in particular, but each
of them belongs to the metal to which they are confined to. Thus, each such electron is named a free
electron.
The electrons in the closed shells are called core electrons and those in the outer incomplete shell are
called valence electrons.
The core electrons are strongly attracted by comparatively immobile nucleus (+vely charged metallic
ions). The valence electrons in the constituent atoms are free electrons.
In 1900, Drude assumed that the electrons in a metal are free to move and form ‘electron gas’.Lorentz
predicted that the kinetic theory of gases could be applied to the free electron gas. When the atoms are
brought closer to form metal, the valence electrons get detached and move freely through the metal.
Hence, they are called free or conduction electrons. The concentration of the free electrons is ~
1028/m3.

Assumptions of classical free electron theory:

1. A metal is imagined as a structure of 3-dimensional array of ions in between which, there are freely
moving valence electrons confined to the body of the material. Such freely moving electrons cause
electrical conduction under an applied field and hence referred to as conduction electrons.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and thus they are assumed to obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of the field, the energy associated with each electron at
a temp.T is given by (3/2) kT, where k is Boltzmann constant. It is related to the KE through the
relation (3/2)kT = (1/2)m(vth)2, where vth = thermal velocity.
3. The electric potential due to the ionic cores is taken to be essentially constant throughout the body of
the metal and the effect of repulsion between the electrons is considered insignificant.
4. The electric current in a metal due to an applied field is a consequence of the drift velocity in a
direction opposite to the direction of the field.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 3 of 20

What do you understand by Drift velocity?

Drift velocity:
The disconnection of a valence electron from the parent atom results in a virtual loss of one negative
charge for that atom. Consequently, the electrical neutrality of the atom is lost and it becomes an ion. The
structure formulation due to the array of such fixed ions in 3-dimensions is called lattice.

“The nucleus of an atom together with the electrons in the inner shells is called the ionic core”

A free e- while moving across the metal, knocks against the lattice corners. Its direction of motion will be
continuously changing.

The random motion of the free e- will be retained in the metal even after the
application of an electric field. As the e-s have –ve charge, the net motion or
drift of the e-s will be in a direction opposite to that of the applied electric field.
The velocity of this overall motion of the e-s is called drift velocity. In the
absence of an electric field, the free electrons in a metal will be moving at random in all directions and
will be at thermal equilibrium. Then by the kinetic theory of gases
½ mv2 = 3/2kT
The force acting on an electron under the application of field E will Ee. The resulting acceleration will be
Ee/m. The drift velocity is small compared to the random velocity v. Further, the drift velocity is not
retained after a collision with an atom because of the relatively large mass of the atom. Hence, just after a
collision, the drift velocity is zero. If the mean free path is λ then the time that elapses before the next
collision takes place is λ/v. Hence the drift velocity acquired just before the next collision takes place is

Drift velocity = (acceleration)x(time constant) = (Ee/m)x(λ/v)

Define the term and Mean free path, Mean collision time and Relaxation time.

The average distance traversed by the free electron between two successive collisions with the
lattice corners is called Mean free path (λ).

The average time interval between two successive collisions of an electron with the lattice corners
is called Mean collision time (τ).

Relaxation time:
In the absence of an external electric field, the free electrons in a metal will be moving at random
in all directions. Hence, the average velocity vav in any particular direction will be zero. When an
external electric field is applied, the electrons will have a net average velocity vnav in a direction
opposite to the direction of the applied field. If the external field is turned off, the average velocity
reduces exponentially from the value vnav to zero.
Vav = 0 (in the absence of the field)
Vav = Vnav (in the presence of the field due to drift velocity)

If the field is turned off suddenly, the average velocity Vav reduces
exponentially to zero from Vnav

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 4 of 20

vav = vnav e − (t  r ) ; where  r = Re laxation time, t = time counted when the field is turned off

at t =  r

vav =
1
(vnav )
e

When the external electric field is removed then the time required for the average velocity of the
conduction electrons in a metal to be reduced to (1/e) times its initial value at the time of removal
of the field is called Relaxation time.

Expression for electrical conductivity in metals:

Under the influence of electric field E on a conductor, the electrons having charge e will get a force

F = eE ----------- (1)

If m is the mass of the electron, then from Newton’s II law of motion

F = ma = m(dv/dt) ------------ (2)

Comparing eqns. (1) & (2)

eE = m(dv/dt) → dv = (Ee/m)dt

By taking integration on both sides we get

v = (Ee/m)t ------------ (3)

Let t = τ = collision time (average)

Since by definition, the collision time applies to an average value, the corresponding velocity in eqn.(3)
also becomes the average velocity vav.

Therefore, vav = (Ee/m) τ --------------(4)

We know that

Current density (J) α Applied field (E)

I I
A
J=σE ; where σ = electrical conductivity

Therefore, σ = J/E -----------(5) L

But J = I/A current per unit cross sectional area

σ AE = I ------------- (6)

Conductor cross section

Let a current carrying conductor of length L

& area of cross section A is having ‘n’ number of e-s .

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 5 of 20

Then we can write total charge

q = (nAL) e ; t = L/vav ; I = q/t

Now the average velocity of electrons is given by

vav = distance/time

vav = distance for a unit time

Therefore, volume = vav x area

& current (I) = [(nAL)e]/[L/vav] = nA vav e ------------(7)

Substituting the values of ‘I’ and ‘vav’ from eqns. (4) & (6) we get

σ AE = nA[(Ee/m) τ]e

σ = [ne2/m] τ ------------- (8)

Explain the failures of classical free electron theory

Molar specific heat at constant volume (CV)

Specific heat capacity is the measure of heat energy required to increase the temperature of a substance by
one degree Kelvin (when the unit quantity is mole then the term molar specific heat capacity is used).
Molar specific heat of a gas is CV = (3/2)R but
Specific heat of a metal by its conduction e- is
CV = 10-4 RT
This deviation in the results of Cv is not explained by the classical theory.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 6 of 20

Temperature dependence of σ
We know that
1 3
mv 2th = kT
2 2
3kT
v th =
m
v th  T
However, mean collision time τ is inversely proportional to vth. Therefore,
1 1
  
v th T
ne 2
But  =
m
   
1
 
T
1
But experimentally it is observed that  
T

Dependence of electrical conductivity on concentration of electrons

We have σ = [ne2/m] τ ⟹ σ α n

According to this dependence σ will be high for the metals having large electron concentration. But some
of the metals having less electron concentration is found to have higher σ and vice versa. These
experimental observations were not explained by classical free electron theory.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 7 of 20

Write a short note on Fermi-Dirac statistics

Fermi-Dirac statistics:
Particles of half integral spin (1/2, 3/2……..) which obey Pauli’s exclusion principle such as electrons or
nucleons are known as fermions and their distribution function is the Fermi-Dirac distribution. Fermi-
Dirac distribution function is given by
1
f FD (E) =
e (E -E F ) / kT + 1
General observation is that all of the distribution functions fall to
zero at large values of E
When E >>kT, the occupation probability is very small
fFD never becomes larger than one just as we expect for particles
that obey the Pauli’s exclusion principle.
At T = 0, all energy levels up to EF are occupied (fFD = 1.0 ) and all energy levels above EF are empty
(fFD = 0).
As T increases, some levels above EF are partially
occupied (fFD > 0), while some levels below EF are
partially empty (fFD < 1). At higher temperature, the
“Spread out” of fFD becomes more.

When E = EF and T ~ 0K fFD = 0.5. Thus an alternative

definition of EF is “ the point at which the occupation
probability is exactly 0.5 or 50%.
EF is almost constant for most materials. For semi-conductors, the density of conduction electrons
can change significantly with temperature and thus EF in these materials is temperature dependent.
f(E) is the Fermi factor which gives the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a
material in thermal equilibrium.
Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0
1 1 1
f FD (E) = -
= = =1
e +1  1  0 +1
  + 1
e 
f FD (E) = 1 for E  E F
Energy levels are certainly occupied and E  E F applies to all the energy levels below E F
Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0
1 1 1
f FD ( E ) = 
= = =0
e +1  +1 
f FD ( E ) = 0 for E  E F
Energy levels are not occupied at E  E F
When E = EF and T ~ 0K fFD = 0.5. Thus an alternative definition of EF is “ the point at which the
occupation probability is exactly 0.5 or 50%.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 8 of 20

Define Fermi energy (EF) and Fermi velocity (VF)

Fermi Energy (EF): The energy of the electron in the highest occupied state is known as Fermi energy of
the metal.

Fermi velocity (VF):

The energy of the electrons which are at the Fermi level is EF. The velocity of the electrons which occupy
Fermi level is known as Fermi velocity

EF = ½ mvF2 or vF = (2EF/m)1/2

Failures of classical free electron theory

Molar specific heat at constant volume (CV)

Specific heat capacity is the measure of heat energy required to increase the temperature of a substance by
one degree Kelvin (when the unit quantity is mole then the term molar specific heat capacity is used).
Molar specific heat of a gas is CV = (3/2)R but
Specific heat of a metal by its conduction e- is
CV = 10-4 RT
This deviation in the results of Cv is not explained by the classical theory.

Temperature dependence of σ
We know that
1 3
mv 2th = kT
2 2
3kT
v th =
m
v th  T

However, mean collision time τ is inversely proportional to vth

Therefore,
1 1
  
v th T
ne 2
But  =
m
   
1
 
T
1
But experimentally it is observed that  
T

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 9 of 20

Dependence of electrical conductivity on concentration of electrons

We have σ = [ne2/m] τ ⟹ σ α n

According to this dependence σ will be high for the metals having large electron concentration. But some
of the metals having less electron concentration is found to have higher σ and vice versa. These
experimental observations were not explained by classical free electron theory.

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory (QFET):

Concept of free electron:
The total energy of the electron is contributed by
1. Potential energy of the electron which depends on its distance from the proton and
2. Kinetic energy due to its motion round the proton.
When an electron absorbs some energy given o it, it moves to a larger distance from proton and finds
itself in a larger orbit, due to which there will be an increase in the total energy.
All the energy levels except the ground level are known as excited energy levels or excited states. For
instance, the electron can never be found in an orbit in which its energy is of any value between -1.51eV
& -3.40eV. This kind of restriction on energy values is called the quantization of energy. However, it
must be noted that the quantization of energy occurs because of the reason that the electron is under the
influence of field due to proton. A free electron can of course, have continuous energy values.

Assumptions of Quantum theory of free electron:

Two assumptions of the classical free electron theory are retained in the quantum theory. They are
1. The electrons travel under a constant potential. However, their movement is confined to the
boundaries of the metal.
2. The attraction between the e-s and the ions at the lattice corners as well as the repulsion between e-s
are ignored.
There are two more assumptions which are peculiar to the quantum theory. They are
3. The energy levels of the conduction electrons are quantized
4. The distribution of electrons among the various permitted energy levels is subject to Pauli’s
exclusion principle

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 10 of 20

Merits of QFET

• Only the electrons whose energies differ from EF by kT can absorb heat and that there are 2kT/ EF
such electrons. These electrons are the one which are very close to the Fermi level. But free
electron theory assumes that all the valence electrons in a metal can absorb thermal energy. For
one kmol of a metal, there will be NA free electrons. The total energy of the electron is given by

U = 3/2 NAkT

When heat is supplied to the material, the free electrons also absorb part of that heat

∴ CV = dU/dT = 3/2 NAk = 3/2 R = 3/2 x 6.023x1026x1.38x10-23 = 12.5 kJ/mol/K

This calculated value of molar specific heat at constant volume is found to be hundred times
greater than experimentally predicted value.

• In a high quality metal, when the atoms vibrate, the lattice is no longer ideal and presents an
effective cross sectional area of πr2 for scattering, where r is the amplitude of vibration. The
electron mean free path λ is inversely proportional to the scattering cross section

λ = 1/ πr2

But the energy of the vibrating atom E~ r2 ~kT

∴ λ ~ 1/T but σ α λ

⟹ λ α 1/T or σ α 1/T

• If we compare the cases of Cu & Al, the value of ‘n’ for Al is 2.13 times higher than that of Cu.
But the value of the ratio (λ /vF) for Cu is 3.73 times higher than that of Al. Hence not only σ α λ
but also σ α (λ /vF).

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 11 of 20

Dielectric Materials:

A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied
electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the
material as they do in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing
dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field
and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the
overall field within the dielectric itself

Parallel Plate with Dielectric:

The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of a dielectric material.
The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between the plates, and the presence of the
dielectric reduces the effective electric field. The dielectric is characterized by a dielectric constant k, and
the capacitance is multiplied by that factor.

When a dielectric is placed between charged plates, the polarization of the

medium produces an electric field opposing the field of the charges on the
plate. The dielectric constant k is defined to reflect the amount of reduction
of effective electric field as shown below. The permittivity is a
characteristic of space, and the relative permittivity or "dielectric constant"
is a way to characterize the reduction in effective field because of the
polarization of the dielectric. The capacitance of the parallel plate
arrangement is increased by factor k.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 12 of 20

Polar Dielectrics: Polar dielectrics are those in

which the possibility of center coinciding of the
positive as well as negative charge is almost zero i.e.
they don’t coincide with each other. The reason
behind this is their shape. They all are of asymmetric
shape. Some of the examples of the polar dielectrics
is NH3, HCL, water etc.

Non Polar dielectrics: In case of non polar

dielectrics the centres of both positive as well as
negative charges coincide. Dipole moment of each
molecule in non polar system is zero. All those
molecules which belong to this category are
symmetric in nature. Examples of non polar
dielectrics are: methane , benzene etc.

Expression for dielectric constant:

The electric field between the plates due to the charges +q, -q on the
capacitor plates is

Eo = σ/εo = q/Aεo ----------(1)

in a direction left to right as shown in the figure

From the definition of dielectric constant we can write the resultant field in terms of dielectric constant as

E = Eo/k = q/ Aεok ----------(2)

The potential difference between the plates is given by

V = Ed = qd/ Aεok ----------(3)

Capacitance of the capacitor is given by

C = q/V =q/[ qd/ Aεok] = Aεok/d = Co k

k = C/Co

Electric dipole, dipole moment and polarization

A pair of equal and opposite charges whose distance of separation is small – electric dipole

Product of the magnitude of one of the charges and the distance of separation between them – dipole
moment
 = ql
Where  - dipole moment (unit – coulomb-meter)

q- magnitude of the charge, l- distance of separation of charges

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 13 of 20

Polarization (P):

It can be defined as vibration confined to single direction or alignment confined

to one direction also it is the dipole moment per unit volume

Definition:

The displacement of charges in the atom or molecules of a dielectric under the

action of an applied field leading to the development of dipole moment is called
polarization or electric polarization

The charges appearing separated are called polarized charges.

P = εo(εr -1)E unit of P-coulomb/meter2

Polarizability ():

When an atom or molecule is subject to electric field the atom or molecule acquire dipole moment. i.e.
E

Or Dipole moment of the atom or molecule is  = E

Where  is the proportionality constant called Polarizability of the atom or molecule

Polarizability is the property of the individual atom or molecule

Types of Polarization

There are different mechanisms through which electrical polarization can occur in dielectric materials
they are

1. Electronic polarization

2. Ionic polarization

3. Orientational polarization

4. Space charge polarization

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 14 of 20

Electronic polarization

The displacement of nucleus and electrons in the atom under the influence of external electric field. As
electrons are very light they have a rapid response to the field changes; they may even follow the field at
optical frequencies. It occurs in monoatomic gases and is independent of temperature.

Ionic polarization

Ionic polarization occurs only in those dielectrics which contains ionic bonds. Example: NaCl

In ionic lattice, the positive ions are displaced in the direction of an applied field while the negative ions
are displaced in the opposite direction, giving a resultant dipole moment to the whole body and is
independent of temperature.

Orientation polarization

Occurs in those dielectrics which possess permanent dipole moment (Polar dielectrics). It is dependent on
temperature.

Space charge polarization

Occurs in multiphase dielectric materials or heterogeneous dielectric materials. Space charge polarization
is also called as interfacial polarization or Migrational polarization. The Migrational polarization takes
longer time and is therefore occurs at low frequency

The total polarizability ,, is given by

 =e + i +o

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 15 of 20

Expression for polarization P :

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with plates between which an electric field Eo exist, if ‘  ’is the
charge per unit area on the plates, then from Gauss law we have

Eo= --------------(1)
o
After the introduction of slab in between the plates the field developed inside is Ei. The field due to
polarization will be in a direction opposite to that of Eo.
∴The resultant field ‘E’ in the material can be written as
E = Eo – Ei-----------------(2)
If σp is the charge/unit area on the slab surfaces then by following equation (1) we write
P
Ei = ---------------(3)
o
From equation (1) (2) and (3)
 P
Ei = -
o o
Or  o E =  −  P ----------------(4)
Since magnitude of polarization P =charge/unit area
P = σp
Also by Gauss law, we know that
D=σ
Where D → electric flux density
Equation (4) can be written as  o E = D − P
Or D =  o E + P ----------------(5)
But we know that
D =  o r E
∴ equation (5) →  o r E =  o E + P
or P =  o ( r − 1) E
or P =  o xE
where χ = ( r − 1) is the dielectric susceptibility of the material.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 16 of 20

Derivation of electronic polarizability (αe)

The polarization ‘P’ of a non-polar gas is given by P = N αe E
Where αe is called the electronic polarizability
Consider a monochromatic dielectric material as shown. Let the charge on the nucleus is ‘Ze’ and
let this be surrounded by an electronic cloud of ‘– Ze’ in a shere of radius ‘R’ as shown.

Nucleus Original position

Displaced position

Sphere of electronic charge E

The charge density ‘ρ’ is given by

ch arg e − Ze
= =
volume 4 3
R
3
− 3Ze
= ----(1)
4R 3
Let an external electric field ‘E be applied to the atom.
The nucleus and the electron experience Lorentz force = ZeE in opposite directions. Thus the nucleus and
electron cloud are pulled apert. But because of Coulomb force the displacement will be very small. Let it
be ‘x’.

Lorentz force = - ZeE

Ze  ch arg e enclosed in the sphereof radius x
Coulomb force =
4 0 R 3
4 
Ze   x 3  
= 3 
4 0 x 2

4  − 3Ze  
Ze   x 3  3 

 3  4R  
Therefore, Coulomb force =
4 0 x 2

 − Zex 3 
Ze   
 R 3 
=
4 0 x 2
− Z 2e2 x
Therefore, Coulomb force =
4 0 R 3

At equilibrium Lorentz force = Coulomb force

− Z 2e2 x
- ZeE =
4 0 R 3
4 0 R 3
Therefore x = E
Ze
Because of the displacement, dipole moments are produced.
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 17 of 20

Therefore the dipole moment μ = Z e x

4 0 R 3
Therefore μ = Z e E = 4 0 R E ----(2)
3

Ze
By definition μ = αe E ----(3)
Comparing equations (1), (2) and (3)
 e = 4 0 R 3
This gives the expression for electronic polarizability.

By definition P = N μ = N αe E
But, P =  o ( r − 1) E
N αe E =  o ( r − 1) E
 o ( r − 1)
αe =
N
The electronic polarizability can also be given by the above expression. Here N is the number of atoms /
unit volume. The Unit of αe is F-m2.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 18 of 20

Internal fields in liquids and solids

The internal field is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of a solid or liquid dielectric
subject to an external electric field and is the resultant of the applied field and the field due to all the
surrounding dipoles”

Expression for the internal field in the case of liquid or solid

Consider a dielectric which is kept in a external uniform electric field strength E

In the dielectric, an array of atomic dipoles aligns parallel to the direction of the applied electric field.

d- is the inter atomic distance

µ - is the atomic dipole moment

The electric field component at a point P due to an electric dipole is

expressed in polar form as

The electric field at X due to the dipole A1 is given by

 0
E XA1 = − E  = 0 (=180 & r=-d)
20 d 3

The electric field at X due to the dipole A2 is given by

 E = 0
E XA 2 =
20 d 3

The field E1 at X due to both the dipoles A1 and A2 is given by

E1 = E XA1 + E XA 2
  
E1 = + =
20 d 3
20 d 3
0 d 3

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 19 of 20

Similarly, the field E2 at X due to both B1 and B2 dipole which are located at a distance of 2d from X is
given by
  
E2 = + =
20 (2d) 20 (2d)
3 3
0 (2d) 3

Similarly, the field at X due to both C1 and C2 is given by

  
E3 = + =
20 (3d ) 20 (3d )
3 3
0 (3d ) 3

The total field at X due to all the dipoles in the linear array is

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + .......

  
ET = + + + .......
0 d 3
0 (2d ) 0 (3d ) 3
3

  1 1 
ET = 1 + 23 + 33 + ....
0d 3  

  1
ET = 
0d 3 n =1 n 3 where n=1,2,3..

But, 1
n
n =1
3
= 1 .2

1.2
Therefore, E T =
0 d 3
Therefore the total internal field at X is given by E i = E + E T
1.2
i.e Ei = E +
0 d 3
If e is the electronic Polarizability for the dipole, then  = e Ei

Or 1 .2  e E i
Ei = E +
0 d 3

E
Ei =
Or 1.2 e is the expression for the internal field
1−
0d 3

But in three dimension al array, the general equation for internal field is expressed as

Where P is the polarization and  is a proportionality constant called internal constant

For cubic lattice ϒ =1/3

is called Lorentz equation

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 20 of 20

Clausius- Mossotti Equation

Consider a elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant r

Let N is the number of atoms/unit volume of the material

-is the atomic dipole moment

Dipole moment/unit volume = N

Let Ei be the internal field, e is the electronic Polarizability of the atom

= e Ei

Therefore, Dipole moment/unit volue = NeEi

P= NeEi

Therefore, P
Ei =
N e

But where E is the applied field

Rearranging we get

  
Expression for the internal field is given byE i = E +  P
 0 

  
+  P or 1 = 1  1 +  
P P
=
Substitute for Ei and E we get, N e  0 ( r − 1)   0   
N e  0  ( r − 1) 

Consider the internal field in the material to be Lorentz field

i.e =1/3
1 1  1 1 1  3 +  r − 1 0  ( + 2) 
=  + = or = r 
  N e  3( r − 1) 
N e  0  ( r − 1) 3   0  3( r − 1) 

( r − 1) N e
Rearranging we get = This equation is known as Claussius-Mossotti equation
( r + 2) 3 0

The quantity (ɛr – 1)/ (ɛr +2) is known as Specific Polarization of a dielectric. This is a dimensionless magnitude because ɛ r is
dimensionless. It is also true that the quantity Nα/3ɛo is also unitless.

N = m-3, α = F.m2, ɛo = F/m.

C-M relation is remarkable for the fact that it shows the connection between macroscopic parameter ɛ r of a dielectric and its
microscopic parameter α.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka