'AHMED .O.

ABD SOMOD (SMD)

 preface
This present book is devoted to understand optics and waves. The primary objective of this
book is to present a textbook to the ND Applied Science students of Lagos State polytechnic which may
also be found useful by students in the school of Technology, Engineering any tertiary institution.
The book includes the following topics : Waves, wave in pipes, wave in strings, Doppler effect,
Resonance ,Principle of superposition ,echolocation, Light, rectilinear propagation of light, magnification
,critical angle and total internal reflection etc.

Critical evaluations and suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated.
I am extremely grateful to all my colleagues in the department for the support given to me in this work.
I thank Oni jamiu, Ekaette Timothy, Tomori Dolapo, Iluobe Bright, Edengu Justus, Kareem Sulaimon, and
Faleye Ajoke Mary.
I give kudos to some sets of student that really contribute to the great task : SMDexecutives as a whole
DEDICATION
I dedicate this book to ALMIGHTY ALLAH and my lovely dad, Mr. ABDUL 'AHMED MUDASHIRU
who extremely helped me in every corners of my life.
CONTENTS
1. WAVES

2. DOPPLER EFFECT

3. LIGHT

4. HOW LIGHT BEHAVES AT BOUNDARY

5. REFLECTION OF LIGHT

6. REFREACTION OF LIGHT
 OPTICS
LIGHT: light is a form of energy that creates the sensation of vision. the speed of light in vacuum is 3.0 ×
108 m/s
SOURCES OF LIGHT
 LUMINOUS OBJECTS: These are objects that emit light on their own e.g. the sun, stars etc. Moon
does not emit it own light but reflect the light that has been absorbed from the sun.
 ILLUMINOUS OBJECTS: These are object that do not emit light on their own but reflect light that
has been absorbed e.g. The moon
 INCANDESCENT OBJECTS :These are object which when heated at a very high temperature emit
light and glow inside a light bulb e.g. filament of an electric lamp, burning wood, kerosene ,petrol
and gases.
 FLUORESCENT LIGHT :These are objects which fast moving electrons hit them. fluorescent tube
used in domestic activities.
INTERACTION OF LIGHT AND MATTER
When light falls on matter it is either
 Absorbed
 Reflected
 Transmitted
In practice however more than one of these occur at the same time e.g. we can have both
reflection and refraction at the same time. Thus we can classify materials according to whether
they absorb, reflect or transmit light
 TRANSPARENT MATERIAL: These are materials that allows light to pass through them such that
we can see through them i.e. transmit light e.g. plane glass, clean water
 TRANSLUSCENT MATERIAL: These are materials that allows light to pass through them partially
such that we cannot see through them e.g. Tinted glass
 OPAQUE: These are materials that do not allow light to pass through them and also we cannot
see through them. They do not transmit light therefore they are materials that absorb all light
that falls on them e.g. walls, wood, human being. But if the opaque object perfectly black, some
of light falling on it is reflected
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
Rectilinear propagation is the phenomenon of light to travel in a straight line. It can also be define as
the tendency of light to only travel in a straight line.
 RAY OF LIGHT: This is the direction along which light travels. It can also be defined as the
motion light. Although rays are represented in diagram by straight lines, in practice a ray has a
finite width
 BEAM OF LIGHT: A beam of light is the collection of rays. A search light emits a parallel beam.
The rays from a point on a very distant object like the sun are substantially parallel, A lamp
emits a divergent beam of light while a source of light behind a lens as in a projection lantern
provides a convergent beam
 HOW LIGHT BEHAVES AT A BOUNDARY
1. Light exhibits waves properties of reflection, when light falls on a polished surface it is reflected
in a direction depending on the angle at which it strikes the surface. There are two types of
reflection which are (1)Regular Reflection (2)Diffuse Reflection
 REGULAR REFLECTION: This takes place when light falls on a smooth or polished surface: if the
incident rays are parallel the reflected rays are also parallel

 DIFFUSE REFLECTION: This occurs when light falls on rough or uneven surface. In diffuse
reflection the rays are scattered after reflection i.e. if incident rays are parallel the reflected rays
will not be parallel .

LAWS OF REFLECTION
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident all lie on the same
plane
 The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection
IMAGES ON A PLANE MIRROR
When object is placed in front of a mirror rays of light incident on the mirror the rays are then
reflected to appear to as if they were coming from somewhere behind the mirror. The image of a mirror
is formed at the point where the reflected rays meet or appear to meet the object

 REAL MAGE: This is the image that be formed or received on a screen

 VIRTUAL IMAGE: This is the image that cannot be formed or received on the screen hence it is
formed behind the mirror
NOTE:- A real object (divergent beam) forms a virtual image
A virtual object (convergent beam) forms a real image
CHARACTERISTIC OF IMAGE FORMED ON A PLANE MIRROR
 Image has the same size as the object.
 Image is laterally inverted.
 Image is virtual (cannot be focused on a screen)
 Image distance behind the mirror is equal to the object distance in front of the mirror
NOTE:- If the direction of incidence ray is kept constant and the mirror is rotated through angle 𝜽 the
reflected ray will be rotated through angle 𝟐𝜽
 when two mirrors are inclined at angled 𝜽 to each other, the number of images formed depend
on the angle of inclination. mathematically it can be represented by
𝟑𝟔𝟎−𝜽
N= 𝟑𝟔𝟎⁄𝜽 − 𝟏 or N= 𝜽
USES OF A PLANE MIRROR
i) It is used as looking mirror
ii) It is used in periscopes
iii) It is used in kaleidoscopes
iv) It is used in overhead projector
v) It is used in SLR cameras
REFLECTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED MIRROR
There are two types of curved mirror which are generally called spherical mirror because they are part
of sphere
 CONCAVE MIRROR: concave mirror is a spherical mirror which has its reflecting surface bent
inward. It is also called converging mirror because all rays that are parallel and closer to
principal axis converge after reflection.
  CONVEX MIRROR: convex mirror is a spherical mirror which has its reflecting surface bent
outward. It is also referred to as diverging mirror because all rays that are parallel and closer to
principal axis diverge after reflection.

 PRINCIPAL AXIS: This is a straight horizontal imaginary line passing through the pole(P) and the
centre of curvature of the mirror.
 POLE: Pole of a mirror is the centre of the reflecting surface of the mirror.
 CENTRE OF CURVATURE: This is the centre of the sphere of a mirror of which the mirror forms
apart
 RADIUS OF CURVATURE: This is the distance from the mirror surface or pole to the centre of
curvature.
 PRINCIPAL FOCUS: This is the point at which the rays that are parallel and closer to principal
axis that either diverges or converges after reflection.
 FOCAL LENGTH: This is the distance from the pole of a mirror to the principal focus.
LOCATION OF IMAGES FOR DIFFERENT LOCTION OF OBJECTS IN CONCAVE MIRROR
In concave mirror, the nature and position of the image formed depends on the object in front of the
mirror.
I. OBJECT AT THE DISTANCE GREATER THAN PRINCIPAL FOCUS (F)

 Inverted .
  magnified.
 formed beyond centre of curvature.
 real.
II. OBJECT BEYOND CENTRE OF CURVATURE.

 Diminished.
 inverted.
 real
III. OBJECT AT CENTRE OF CRVATURE.

 real
 inverted
 same size as the object
 formed at centre of curvature
IV. OBJECT AT PRINCIPAL FOCUS.

 image is at infinity.
 V. OBJECT BEFORE PRINCIPAL FOCUS.

 virtual.
 erect.
 magnified.
IMAGE FORMED IN CONVEX MIRROR

The characteristics of the image formed by a convex mirror irrespective of the position of the object are;
I. virtual
II. erect
III. diminished

CALCULATION IN MIRROR
NOTE; For real image it is positive[+v].
For virtual image it is negative[-v].
For concave mirror focal length it is positive[+f].
For convex mirror focal length is negative[-f].
For real object it is positive.
For virtual object it is negative.
1 1 1
MIRROR FORMULA; 𝐹 = 𝑣 + 𝑢
worked example 1:
A convex mirror focal length 15cm is used as the outside rear view mirror of an automobile. Use a
formula method to determine the characteristics of the image of a second automobile coming behind
the first car at a distance of 9m from the mirror.
solution
parameters;
f=-15cm
u=9m=900cm
v=?
1 1 1
𝐹
=𝑣+𝑢
1 1 1
−15
= 𝑣 + 900
1 1 1
= −
𝑣 −15 900
1 −60−1
𝑣
= 900
1 −61
=
𝑣 900
cross multiply
900
v=−61
v=−14.78
v≅ −14.8 characteristics
the image formed is;
 Virtual
 erect
 diminished
worked example 2;
An object is placed 12cm from a concave mirror of radius 32cm.What is the image formed?.
solution
parameters
r=32cm
𝑟 32
f=2 = 2
= 16𝑐𝑚
u=12cm
1 1 1
𝐹
=𝑣+𝑢
1 1 1
16
= 𝑣 + 12
1 1 1
= +
𝑣 16 12
1 3−4
𝑣
= 48
1 −1
𝑣
= 48
−48
v= 1
v=−48. image formed is: virtual and 48cm behind the mirror.

MAGNIFICATION
Magnification is the ratio of the size to the object.
𝑣 𝐻
Mathematically, m= 𝑢 = 𝐻 𝑖
0
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚=𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
worked example3:
An object is placed 20cm from a curved mirror of focal length 10cm.The linear magnification
of the image is…….
𝑉
M= 𝑈
since: f=10cm, u=20cm, v=?
1 1 1
=𝑣+𝑢
𝑓
1 1 1
= 𝑣 + 20
10
1 1 1
= 10 − 20
𝑣
1 2−1
=
𝑣 20
1 1
= 20
𝑣
20
𝑣= 1
v=20cm
since image distance is 20cm then:
𝑉
magnification=𝑈
20
𝑚 = 20
m=1
worked example 4: calculate the number of images that will be formed when two mirrors are
inclined at (1)900 (2)600 (3)450 (4)120
SOLUTION
360−𝜃
(1). 𝑛 = 𝜃
since 𝜃 = 900

360−90
𝑛= 90
n=3
Three images will be formed if mirrors they are inclined at angle 900
360−𝜃
(2). 𝑛 = 𝜃
360−60
n= 60
n=5images
360−𝜃
(3). 𝑛 = 𝜃
360−45
𝑛= 45
𝑛=7
360−𝜃
(4). 𝑛 = 𝜃
360 − 120
𝑛=
120
n=2 images
APPLICATION OF CURVED MIRROR
CONCAVE MORROR:
 This is used as shaving or dentist's mirror where it produced erect, virtual and magnified
image.
 This is used in searchlight and car headlamps.
 This is used in reflecting (Astronomical) telescope
CONVEX MIRROR:
 This is used as driving mirror; because it produces images that are
i. virtual
ii. diminished
iii. erect, and also gives a wider field of view than in plane mirror
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
As light passes from medium 1 in which it has velocity v1 into medium 2 which has velocity v2,
the direction of light changes that is the light is refracted
LAWS OF REFRACTIONS
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incident all lie in the
same plane
 the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence 𝜃1, to the sine of the angle of refraction
𝜃2 , is constant for a given pair of media. this is also known as snell's law.

The refractive index of medium 2 to 1 is written as 𝑛12

sin 𝜃 𝑉
𝑛 = sin 𝜃1 =𝑉1
2 2
The absolute refractive index of (n) of a medium is
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑛 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

REFRACTION BY PLANE SURFACE

 A ray of light which enters a slab (optically dense medium) from air (less dens medium)
is deviated towards the normal in the glass, i.e. the ray is refracted towards the normal.
 The ray is refracted away from the normal when light goes from a denser medium to a
less dens medium
REAL DEPTHS ANAD APPARENT DEPTHS
A stone at the bottom of a bucket filled with water appears nearer to the surface than its
normal position in the bucket, due to refraction of the ray as it passes from water into air. If the
stone is positioned at C at the bottom of the bucket, the image is seen at position A. the ration
of RC to RA is equal to the refractive index of water relative to air i.e.
 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Mathematically: 𝑛12 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
CRITICAL ANGLE
Critical angle is the incident angle obtained when the angle in the less dense medium is 90 0

sin 𝜃1
𝑛12 =
sin 𝜃𝐶
sin 90
𝑛12 =
sin 𝜃𝐶
1
𝑛12 =
sin 𝜃𝐶
1
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 Total internal reflection occur when light ray passes from an optically dense medium
to less dense medium to which the angle of incident exceeds the critical angle e.g.
water to air or glass to air.
NOTE; If the incident angle is less than the critical angle, then the ray will split. some of
the ray will reflect off the boundary, and some will refract as it passes through.
Automatically this is not total internal refraction.
If the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, then the entire ray reflects
from the boundary so non passes through or refracts. then this totally internally
reflected.
 APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibres, which are used in
endoscopes and telecommunications.
 Prisms in binoculars use total internal reflection, rather than reflecting coatings, to fold
optical paths and show erect image.
MIRAGE : Mirage can be explained using the phenomenon of total internal reflection. On a hot day the
air layer close to the ground is warm, and the warm air is optically less dense than cool air(farther from
the ground). A ray of light from the sky is totally internally reflected once the critical angle is exceeded,
and an image of the sky which resembles a pool of water when vied from a distance, is produced
REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES
A lens is a transparent material with curved surfaces. There are two types of lenses
 concave lens(diverging)
 convex lens (converging)
CONCAVE LENS: This is a type of lens that has its middle thicker and its edge thinner. It's also called
diverging lens because rays that are initially parallel to principal axis converge at the principal focus
after refraction through the lens.
CONVEX LENS: This is a type of lens that has its middle thinner and its edge thicker. It's also called
converging lens because rays that are parallel to principal axis diverges at the principal focus after
refraction through the lens.