African Vision and Eye Health

ISSN: (Online) 2410-1516, (Print) 2413-3183

Page 1 of 10 Original Research

Environmental impact and end-of-life

options of disposed polymeric spectacle
and contact lenses

Authors: Background: Global population growth and ageing are factors that contribute towards an
Rayishnee Pillay1 anticipated increase in the usage of spectacles and contact lenses for vision correction. The
Rekha Hansraj1
Nishanee Rampersad1 subsequent disposal of polymeric vision corrective devices currently, has uncertain
Ajay Bissessur2 environmental impacts.

Affiliations: Aim: The purpose of this study was to explore potential environmental impacts and end-of-
1
Discipline of Optometry, life (EOL) pathways of a sample of polymeric spectacle lenses and through the use of analytical
School of Health Sciences, chemistry processes.
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa Setting: Laboratory analysis of ophthalmic lenses.

2
School of Chemistry and
Methods: Inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES), elemental
Physics, College of analysis and calorific value investigations were conducted on a sample of spectacle lenses and
Agriculture, Engineering contact lenses.
and Science, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, Results: Metal ion analysis by ICP–OES confirmed the presence of manganese in all the lenses
South Africa and chromium in two of the 13 contact lenses. All of the lenses had over 42% carbon while
calorific values of up to 32.40 MJ/kg and 23.31 MJ/kg were found in the spectacle lenses and
Corresponding author:
contact lenses, respectively.
Rayishnee Pillay,
9300354@stu.ukzn.ac.za Conclusion: Further investigation is required regarding the presence of chromium in two of
Dates:
the contact lenses. In general, lenses are likely to remain as solid waste in landfills depending
Received: 09 May 2022 on the disposal conditions. Considering their calorific values, lenses would be useful in
Accepted: 16 Jan. 2023 incineration with energy recovery processes however the suggested ideal EOL route would be
Published: 20 June 2023 the implementation of lens recycling, through non-toxic and green chemical processes, to
retain material value and promote a circular economy.
How to cite this article:
Pillay R, Hansraj R, Contribution: This study provides new information on the environmental consequences of
Rampersad N, Bissessur A.
current modes of lens disposal and suggests EOL alternatives thereof.
Environmental impact and
end-of-life options of Keywords: environmental biocompatibility; spectacle lenses; contact lenses; ICP–OES;
disposed polymeric spectacle
and contact lenses. Afr Vision
elemental analysis; calorific values; lens disposal.
Eye Health. 2023;82(1), a775.
https://doi.org/10.4102/
aveh.v82i1.775 Introduction
Copyright: It is estimated that 2.2 billion people worldwide have vision impairment that affects their quality
© 2023. The Author(s). of life, 42% of whom have unaddressed refractive error or presbyopia that may be corrected with
Licensee: AOSIS. This work spectacles, contact lenses (CLs) or refractive surgery.1 Approximately 64% of the global adult
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
population wore spectacles2 in 2010 and a reported 2% wore CLs.3 With a growing, ageing
Attribution License. population entering presbyopia and predictions of a 50% global prevalence of myopia4 by 2050, it
is anticipated that there will be an increase in the use of spectacles and CLs. Consequently, there
may be an increase in plastic waste from discarded spectacles and CLs as these are replaced over
a limited lifespan of lens wear.

Spectacle wearers tend to replace their eyewear on average every 2 years5 while CL wearers can opt
for other modalities, including daily, 2-weekly, monthly, or annual replacement. End-of-life (EOL)
options for spectacles are often restricted to landfill disposal.5 Spectacle frame materials include
metals, such as titanium, stainless steel or metal alloys, or plastics such as cellulose acetate,
Read online: propionate, polyamide and polycarbonate. Upon disposal, these materials typically exhibit poor
Scan this QR degradation capacity and may remain as solid waste for an indeterminate period under natural
code with your
smart phone or conditions.5 Some frame materials may contain heavy metals such as lead and chromium, which
mobile device could leach into and contaminate the surrounding environment.5 Although recent spectacle frame
to read online.
material developments include the introduction of bio-acetate and hexetate, which are biodegradable

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 Page 2 of 10 Original Research

and marketed as eco-friendly,6 these materials currently have Characteristics of contact lens materials
an underdeveloped market share representation.
Contact lenses may be broadly categorised into hard CLs
(water content < 10% by weight) or soft CLs (water content
Contact lenses may be discarded into the waste bin or flushed
> 10% by weight).15 Hard CLs are synthesised by polymerising
down the sink or toilet hence its EOL terminus may have
methyl methacrylate with a free radical initiator into
environmental impacts. A study in the United States found
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) buttons, which are then
that nearly 21% of CL wearers flushed their CLs, resulting in
lathe-cut and polished to the required refractive and fit
a dry mass volume of over 42 tonnes of CLs that entered
parameters.16 Gas permeable CLs, such as silicone acrylate
wastewater streams.7 Medical devices should comply
have silicone while fluorosilicone acrylate lenses have
with the International Organization for Standardization
fluorine and styrene incorporated onto the methyl acrylate
biocompatibility regulations and the disposal of certain
monomer to improve oxygen permeability and improve
medical devices, which are contaminated after use, should
wearer comfort, respectively.17
follow designated protocols.8 However, there are currently
no regulated protocols for CL disposal and the environmental
Hydrogel CLs are produced by polymerising 2-hydroxyethyl
impact of lens disposal is still uncertain.
methacrylate monomer with a cross-linker such as ethylene
glycol dimethacrylate, using either a thermal or UV initiator.16
Research on plastic waste disposal has been conducted in
The addition of silicone to the hydrogel monomers resulted
several industries such as food and packaging but there are
in the creation of silicone hydrogel (SiHy) lens materials.16
limited studies on the environmental consequences of the
Although silicone has an inherent oxygen permeability, it is
disposal of polymeric spectacles and CLs.5,7 Spectacle lenses
also hydrophobic thus causing wearer discomfort.16
and CLs have a unique chemistry, comprising polymers of a
Hydrophilic properties were consequently imparted by
hydrocarbon backbone incorporating various elements such as
either a gas plasma treatment on the lens surfaces, the use of
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, fluorine, silicone, chlorine and
internal wetting agents or semi-interpenetrating polymer
phosphorous.9 Polymerisation techniques and the use of
networks, or by incorporating long chain hydrophilic
additives imparts properties of optical transparency, durability,
macromers.16,18,19 Additives such as UV absorbers,
chemical resistance, ultraviolet (UV) wavelength absorption
photochromic dyes and pigments may also be integrated into
and thermal stability to the lenses.10 Lenses may also be
the monomer.20
classified as thermoset or thermoplastic, with the former having
a densely cross-linked polymer network that is irreversibly
Constituent components of spectacle and CL materials are
bound after the curing process.9 To explore the potential
closely guarded proprietary information. Patent literature of
environmental impact of lens disposal, it is essential to
the lenses indicates the use of organometallic catalysts
understand the constituent components of the lens materials.
comprising mercury or lead compounds to initiate the
polymerisation stage21 while heat stabilisers may contain
Characteristics of spectacle lens materials cadmium and lead.22 The tints and dyes used in the lenses are
Spectacle lenses are synthesised by the polymerisation and metal-based pigments, which may contain cadmium,
cross-linking of a unique resin formulation.11 Several types of chromium, lead or manganese pigments23 while photochromic
polymeric materials may be used to manufacture spectacle components may include mercury dithizonates.24
lenses, including acrylics, polythiourethanes, polycarbonates,
polystyrenes and polysulfones.12,13 The most widely used Each type of lens has a unique chemistry, depending on the
resin for lenses in the correction of low ametropia is a 1.49 presence of additives, coatings and tints, and therefore they
index lens made from diethylene glycol bis(allyl carbonate) may have a variable and indeterminate environmental effect
resin11 and marketed as CR-39®. Whereas, for the correction upon lens disposal. Hence, the purpose of this study was to
of moderate to high ametropia, high refractive index explore potential environmental impacts and EOL pathways
materials, of 1.6 and higher, may be synthesised using of a sample of spectacle lenses and CLs through the use of
polyurethane, to generate thinner lenses.12 inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy
(ICP–OES), elemental analysis and calorific value (CV)
determination.
Various additives such as mould release agents, UV
absorbers, tints, photochromic dyes, optical brighteners,
light and thermal stabilisers, plasticisers, and antioxidants Research methods and design
may be incorporated into the monomeric starter materials This exploratory study used an experimental design to
to attain the required material properties.11,12,13 Furthermore, investigate the potential environmental impacts of polymeric
inorganic surface coatings, such as scratch resistant (or hard spectacle lenses and CLs upon disposal.
coat) and antireflection coatings, may be added to the lens
substrate. The scratch resistant coatings are often silicone-
based resins, such as silicon dioxide (SiO2), cured in the Study population and sampling
presence of heat or UV, whereas antireflection coatings are Various monomers and additives are used in the
applied in multistack formation with alternating low and manufacture of spectacle lenses therefore a range of lens
high index materials, such as SiO2 and titanium dioxide.14 samples was analysed to investigate potential environmental

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impacts of lenses. A selection of 11 spectacle lenses and resultant photon emissions with characteristic energies or
13 CLs were sourced from lens distributors and optometrists wavelengths were used to identify the presence of metal ions
based in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. This in the samples.37
included lenses with thermoset and thermoplastic
properties ranging from uncoated, coated and tinted, Laboratory quality assurance processes were maintained
as well as ancillary lenses such as ready-made reading throughout the investigations. Microwave digestion of the
spectacles, dummy lenses from spectacle frames and 3D lenses was processed to account for the matrix effect and
polarising lenses, which are used to view 3D movies ensure preconcentration of the analyte ions. In order to
(Table 1). The CLs were selected from hard, gas permeable, simulate typical disposal conditions, the soft CLs were rinsed
hydrogel and SiHy materials (Table 2). The soft CLs are in a multipurpose lens care solution and dehydrated for
labelled according to the non-proprietary name allocated 14 days prior to digestion and subsequent analysis. The hard
by the United States Adopted Names Council. CLs in button form were crushed while the soft CLs were
proportioned into area dimensions of approximately 16 mm2
The chemical composition of lenses is proprietary (4 
mm  × 
4 mm) using sterilised stainless steel scissors or
information; therefore, all material constituents and mass blades. Approximately 10 mg of sample, digested in
fractions thereof are not publicly available. The tests were concentrated nitric acid, was subjected to microwave
chosen to investigate the presence of metal ions that may be digestion in a CEM MARS 6 microwave system using the
an environmental contaminant upon lens disposal, to following conditions:
establish the elemental characteristics of the lenses as well as • Temperature ramp to 180 °C in 15 min
to consider potential EOL options for the lenses. • Holding time at 180 °C for 15 min
• Cooling down for 20 min.
Data collection and analysis
Digested samples were filtered using a 0.45 µm filter and
Metal ion quantification of lenses by inductively coupled
plasma–optical emission spectroscopy diluted to 100 mL in grade A volumetric flasks. Intensity
emissions of samples were scanned by ICP–OES using a
Various spectroscopic methods can be used to determine the
PerkinElmer Optima 5300 DV Spectrometer against
presence of metal ions, including atomic absorption, graphite
multielement standards (within working range from 0.1 ppm
furnace atomic absorption, ICP–OES, and ICP–mass
to 10 ppm) of chromium, manganese, cadmium, mercury
spectrometry (MS).34,35 The detection limits of ICP–OES is
and lead.
comparable to most optical spectral techniques,34 and
furthermore, it is useful in both qualitative and quantitative
TABLE 2: Characteristics and monomer composition of hard, gas permeable and
analyses and in determining the environmental safety of soft contact lenses used in the study.
water, soil and other solid wastes.36 Therefore, ICP–OES was Lens description Major monomer constituents
used to investigate the presence and levels of metal ions PMMA Methyl methacrylate
contained in the sample of lenses. During this method, the Silicone acrylate (gas permeable) Methyl methacrylate,
methacryloxyloxypropyl tris(trimethylsilyl)
prepared lenses were exposed to radio frequency-induced siloxane, methacrylic acid31
argon plasma and energised to high temperatures.37 The Fluorosilicone acrylate Methyl methacrylate, perfluoroalkane
(gas permeable) methacrylate32
Polymacon HEMA16
Group I
TABLE 1: Characteristics and monomer composition of spectacle and ancillary Omafilcon B HEMA, phosphorylcholine16
lenses used in the study. Group II
Lens description Major monomer constituents Etafilcon A HEMA, MAA16
1.49 index uncoated Diethylene glycol bis (allyl carbonate)11 Group IV
1.49 index G15 tint Diethylene glycol bis (allyl carbonate)11 Phemfilcon A (colours) HEMA, MAA16
Group IV
1.56 index photochromic HC Thiourethane and isocyanate, or
dithiourethane and isothiocyanate12 Comfilcon A NVP, N-vinyl-N-methylacetamide,
Internal wetting agent isobornyl methacrylate16
1.56 index photochromic HMC Thiourethane and isocyanate, or
dithiourethane and isothiocyanate12 Delefilcon A DMA, TRISAm, siloxane macromer33
Water gradient surface
1.6 index ARC Thiourethane and isocyanate, or
dithiourethane and isothiocyanate12 Senofilcon A mPDMS, DMA, HEMA, siloxane macromer,
Internal wetting agent TEGDMA, PVP16
Polycarbonate 1.59 index HC Dimethacrylates of polyalkylene glycols,
polyethoxy bisphenol-A, urethane, Senofilcon A (photochromic) mPDMS, DMA, HEMA, siloxane macromer,
thiourethane or polysulfides13 Internal wetting agent TEGDMA, PVP16
Polycarbonate 1.59 index ARC Dimethacrylates of polyalkylene glycols, Lotrafilcon B DMA, TRIS, siloxane monomer16
polyethoxy bisphenol-A, urethane, Surface plasma polymerisation
thiourethane or polysulfides13 Lotrafilcon B (colours) DMA, TRIS, siloxane monomer16
Trivex®1.53 index photochromic HC Polyurethane, diisocyanates25 Surface plasma polymerisation
Ready-made reading lenses Acrylic or carbonate materials26 Source: Please see the full reference list of the article Efron N, editor. Contact lens practice.
3rd ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2018, for more information
Dummy lenses Methacrylic resins27 or vinyl resins28
PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate); GROUP I, low water content (< 50% water), non-ionic
3D polarisers Cellulose acetate film29 or polyvinyl acetate (≤  1% monomers have ionic charge at pH 7.2); GROUP II, medium to high water content
sheet30 (> 50% water), non-ionic (≤ 1% monomers have ionic charge at pH 7.2); GROUP IV, medium
to high water content (> 50% water), ionic (> 1% monomers have ionic charge at pH 7.2);
Source: Please see the full reference list of the article Dyball CJ, inventor, Arkema Inc., HEMA, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate; MAA, methacrylic acid; PVP, polyvinyl pyrrolidone;
assignee. Diethylene glycol bis(allyl carbonate) compositions containing crosslinkable DMA, N,M-dimethylacrylamide; mPDMS, monofunctional polydimethylsiloxane; NVP,
copolymers. United States patent 4217433A. 1980 Aug 12, for more information N-vinyl pyrrolidone; TRIS, 3-(tris(trimethylsiloxy)silyl)propyl methacrylate; TRISAm,
HC, hard coat; HMC, hard multicoat; ARC, antireflection coat. (N-(trismethylsiloxy)-silylpropyl)acrylamide); TEGDMA, tetraethyleneglycol dimethacrylate.

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Percentage composition of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen 9.20% (Table 5 and Table 6) with the soft CLs having the
and sulphur in the lenses by elemental analysis highest percentage of hydrogen overall. There were varying
Elemental analysis was conducted to determine the levels of nitrogen in the lenses, ranging from none in the
percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur in 1.49 index lenses to low in the polycarbonate lenses (0.04%
the lenses. The principle of elemental analysis encompasses – 0.05%) (Table 5). The 1.6 index and Trivex® lens had the
the combustion of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur highest nitrogen content of 6.75% and 8.22%, respectively
to carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (Table 5). Of the CLs, the SiHy lenses had the highest
(NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and water, which is then nitrogen percentage ranging between 4.28% and 5.68%
quantified.38 (Table 6). All of the spectacle lenses except the Trivex® lens
contained sulphur ranging from 0.005% in the uncoated
Knowledge of mass fraction of combustible elements may 1.49 index lens to 19.05% in the 1.6 index lens (Table 5).
help to predict CV of the samples,39 as well as provide an With respect to CLs, the PMMA lens had sulphur of 0.009%
indication of the elements that may be released upon lens while the soft CLs had none (Table 6).
decomposition. Elemental analysis was conducted using an
Elementar vario EL cube Elemental Analyzer. The samples
were dried at 105°C for 10 h and approximately 4 mg of Calorific values of spectacle and contact lenses
sample was subjected to combustion during elemental Of the thermoset spectacle lenses, the uncoated 1.49 index
analysis. lens had a CV of 20.74 MJ/kg, while the lenses that contained
coatings and tints had higher CVs, ranging from 21.07 MJ/kg
Calorific value determination of spectacle and contact to 26.94 MJ/kg (Table 5). The thermoplastic lenses had the
lenses
highest CV, ranging from 30.29 MJ/kg to 32.40 MJ/kg.
The CV, or heats of combustion, of a sample refers to the heat
or energy released when a mass of the sample is ignited in TABLE 3: Quantification of metal ion concentrations in spectacle and ancillary
oxygen in an enclosed unit of constant volume.40 A DryCal lenses by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy.
modular calorimeter was used and instrument calibration Lens description Chromium Manganese Cadmium Mercury Lead
(mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g)
was conducted using benzoic acid. The average weight of the 1.49 index ND 0.28 ND ND ND
spectacle lenses and CLs used in the investigation were uncoated
200 mg and 20 mg, respectively. 1.49 index G15 tint ND 0.43 ND ND ND
1.56 index ND 0.39 ND ND ND
photochromic HC
Ethical considerations 1.56 index
photochromic HMC
ND 0.30 ND ND ND

Ethical approval was received from the Humanities and 1.6 index ARC ND 0.39 ND ND ND
Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at the University Polycarbonate 1.59 ND 0.30 ND ND ND
index HC
of KwaZulu-Natal (Reference: HSS/1649/018D). The study Polycarbonate 1.59 ND 0.38 ND ND ND
involved laboratory analysis of a sample of lenses at the index ARC
School of Chemistry at the University of KwaZulu-Natal and Trivex® 1.53 index ND 0.40 ND ND ND
photochromic HC
no further permissions were required. Ready-made ND 0.38 ND ND ND
reading lenses

Results Dummy lenses

3D polarisers
ND
ND
0.24
0.30
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Metal ion analysis ND, not detected; HC, hard coat; HMC, hard multicoat; ARC, antireflection coat.

Lens samples were subjected to strong acid digestion (> 6M)

TABLE 4: Quantification of metal ion concentrations in hard, gas permeable and
and subsequent quantification by ICP–OES. The results soft contact lenses by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy.
thereof (Table 3 and Table 4) indicated the general absence of Lens description Chromium Manganese Cadmium Mercury Lead
(mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g)
the investigated metal ions with two notable exceptions.
PMMA 6.75 0.27 ND ND ND
Chromium was detected in the PMMA and Delefilcon A CLs
Silicone acrylate ND 0.33 ND ND ND
(Table 4) while manganese was detected in all the lenses
Fluorosilicone acrylate ND 0.29 ND ND ND
(Table 3 and Table 4). Cadmium, mercury and lead were
Polymacon ND 0.23 ND ND ND
absent in the lenses. Omafilcon B ND 0.36 ND ND ND
Etafilcon A ND 0.23 ND ND ND

Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur Phemfilcon A (colours) ND 0.20 ND ND ND

Polymacon ND 0.23 ND ND ND
elemental analysis of lenses Comfilcon A ND 0.23 ND ND ND
The elemental analysis results (Table 5 and Table 6) revealed Delefilcon A 4.88 0.25 ND ND ND
Senofilcon A ND 0.28 ND ND ND
that all of the lenses under investigation had over 42% of
Senofilcon A ND 0.26 ND ND ND
carbon, with the thermoplastic polycarbonate and Trivex® (photochromic)
spectacle lenses having the highest percentage ranging Lotrafilcon B ND 0.21 ND ND ND
from 63.48% to 70.52% (Table 5). There were nominal Lotrafilcon B (colours) ND 0.16 ND ND ND
amounts of hydrogen in the lenses, ranging from 4.88% to ND, not detected; PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate).

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TABLE 5: Percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and calorific values contaminant.41,42 The results from ICP–OES analysis showed
of spectacle and ancillary lenses.
the presence of chromium in the PMMA and Delefilcon A
Lens description Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Calorific
(%) (%) (%) (%) values CLs (Table 4) and manganese in all the lenses (Table 3 and
(MJ/kg)
Table 4). Chromium compounds may be found in the Earth’s
1.49 index uncoated 51.43 6.84 ND 0.005 20.74
crust, drinking water or from several industries including
1.49 index G15 tint 51.68 6.93 ND 0.053 21.07
1.56 index 59.70 8.68 1.53 0.035 26.94
metal alloys, electroplating, stainless steel, cement and
photochromic HC welding processes, and in the manufacture of pigments.43,44,45
1.56 index 51.77 6.95 0.01 0.015 21.12 It is commonly found in a trivalent (III) or hexavalent (VI)
photochromic HMC
1.6 index ARC 47.21 5.98 6.75 19.05 27.04
state. Trivalent chromium is an essential element and
Polycarbonate 1.59 70.52 5.20 0.05 0.179 30.29 considered non-toxic while hexavalent chromium, because
index HC of its solubility, is able to diffuse through cell membranes
Polycarbonate 1.59 66.32 4.88 0.04 0.028 30.34 and cause toxic effects.43 Chromium (VI) is a known
index ARC
Trivex® 1.53 index 63.48 8.53 8.22 ND 32.40 carcinogen and prolonged exposure thereto can result in
photochromic HC renal, liver or neurological dysfunction.44 Occupational
Ready-made reading 55.64 7.44 ND 0.014 26.09 Safety and Health Administration permissible exposure
lenses
Dummy lenses 56.49 7.58 0.01 0.025 21.45 limit (OSHA PEL) expressed as a time-weighted average for
3D polarisers 55.71 6.28 0.02 0.008 21.72 an 8-h day is 5 µg/m3 for airborne chromium (VI) and is
ND, not detected; HC, hard coat; HMC, hard multicoat; ARC, antireflection coat. 500 µg/m³ for chromium (III) contamination46 while the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has maximum
TABLE 6: Percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and calorific values contaminant levels (MCL) of 0.10 mg/L for drinking water.47
of hard, gas permeable and soft contact lenses.
Lens description Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Calorific
(%) (%) (%) (%) values The presence of chromium in the lens samples could have
(MJ/kg) occurred through sample preparation whereby, use of
PMMA 42.19 5.99 0.01 0.009 NR apparatus, such as chromium-containing stainless-steel
Silicone acrylate 53.00 8.76 0.03 ND 23.31
scissors, could have transferred into the samples during
Fluorosilicone NR NR NR NR 19.04
acrylate processing.48 The PMMA sample (Table 4) was obtained as a
Polymacon 51.94 8.25 0.01 ND NR blue-coloured button form and required crushing during
Omafilcon B 49.85 8.13 0.60 ND 10.84 sample preparation. Crushing exposes the inorganic
Etafilcon A 47.97 7.24 0.11 ND 12.37 pigments that would ordinarily be bound to the lens matrix.
Phemfilcon A 56.41 8.37 0.15 ND 13.47 The Delefilcon A CL, also found to contain chromium
(colours)
Comfilcon A 47.25 8.69 4.28 ND 19.05
(Table 4), is a SiHy CL. Literature indicates that the reusable
Delefilcon A 43.25 9.20 5.44 ND 20.06 moulds in the manufacture of SiHy CLs may comprise
Senofilcon A 48.63 9.20 4.42 ND 19.46 structures that have a layer of chromium, therefore the lenses
Senofilcon A 48.53 9.18 4.33 ND 18.06 may have had contact with chromium compounds during
(photochromic)
the processing stages,49 which could be a reason for the
Lotrafilcon B 45.21 8.72 5.68 ND 19.12
presence of chromium. Furthermore, CLs are synthesised
Lotrafilcon B 44.92 8.67 5.47 ND 18.82
(colours) from monomers comprising carboxylic groups or derivatives
ND, not detected; NR, no result; PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate). of acrylates, all of which are able to absorb metal ions,
therefore the potential for chromium adsorption during lens
Findings were unobtainable for the PMMA and Polymacon synthesis may be impacted by the constituents of the lens
CLs. Overall, the CL samples had slightly lower CVs, ranging material.50 Quantities of chromium used in lens processing
from 10.84 MJ/kg to 23.31 MJ/kg, as compared with the stages are not reported in the patent literature. Typically,
spectacle lenses. elements are bound within the lens matrix51 however upon
disposal, and based on ambient conditions, it is possible for
Discussion lenses to fragment thereby creating the potential for
environmental toxicity.
The findings of this study with respect to lens disposal
practices is discussed, firstly with disposal in landfills or soil Manganese was found in all of the lens samples. This element
and wastewater streams, secondly by EOL options for lenses is present in the Earth’s crust45 and is considered an essential
in the form of incineration and recycling. nutrient for the natural system although excessive amounts
can be toxic.52 Manganese is used extensively in the iron and
Metal ions in the lenses steel industry, in the manufacture of dry alkaline batteries
and glass.45 Manganese is present in drinking water, and is
Metal ions are common components of feedstock material in used in water purification and treatment, in the form of
lens manufacture and may be used as catalysts to initiate potassium permanganate,45 and this may contribute to
polymerisation processes.39 It is therefore possible that manganese presence during the processing of lenses.
residual unreacted monomers or cross-linking agents may Manganism, or manganese toxicity, is uncommon and
be present in the finished lens substrate which may leach, presents with symptoms of neurotoxicity, similar to that of
thus posing a threat as a possible environmental Parkinson’s disease.53 The OSHA PEL for manganese is

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5 mg/m3 and there is no enforceable MCL for manganese in therefore the thermal stability of the lens materials affects its
drinking water.54,55 The levels of manganese within the lenses degradation and decomposition properties. Materials with
used in this study ranged from 0.16 mg/g to 0.43 mg/g higher thermal stability have poor degradation under natural
(Table 5 and Table 6) and is considered to be within acceptable conditions and are therefore likely to remain as solid waste.61
limits of OSHA PEL. Thermal analysis techniques such as thermogravimetric
analysis and differential scanning calorimetry would be
The presence of manganese may be attributed to the use of useful in determining thermal stability and establishing EOL
water in the manufacturing and processing stages of both potential for ophthalmic lenses discarded in landfills.
spectacle lenses and CLs.41 Furthermore, it is possible for the Materials such as polycarbonate and Trivex® have an inherent
CL packing solution to contain manganese sulphide, for impact resistance and consequently are difficult to physically
antibacterial purposes, which may adsorb onto the CL fracture with routine wear. Upon disposal these materials
surface.56 Another possible reason for the presence of these may be resistant to breakage. Polycarbonate created from
two metal ions in the CLs is described in the patent literature bisphenol A (BPA) is non-biodegradable and can persist in
in which manganese and chromium salts may be included in nature for a long period.61 Uncontrolled disposal of
a redox system to initiate polymerisation on the substrate polycarbonate products is of concern as strong alkaline or
surface to create hydrophilic, non-fouling CL materials.57 acidic conditions and high temperatures can promote the
Further investigation of these two CLs regarding chromium release of BPA from the polycarbonate material through
content is warranted. leaching or hydrolysis.42,62

Upon prolonged dehydration and exposure to shear forces

Disposal of lenses into landfills CLs may fragment into microplastic-sized segments and
It is possible for additives within disposed plastic items to when discarded into landfill or soil, the lenses may be
migrate to its surface or leach depending on ambient assimilated into the soil matrix through various processes
conditions.10,42 Lenses with fixed or photochromic tints may such as bioturbation.63 Polymer presence and persistence in
have metal-based pigments incorporated into their soil has an impact on the soil structure, carbon storage,
substrates.23 Generally, organic pigments and soluble microbial functioning, and soil water holding capacity, thus
colourants have a low tendency to migrate from the substrate affecting the inherent biophysical properties of the soil.63 The
while inorganic pigments, including those containing presence of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur in the
cadmium, chromium and manganese have no migration disposed lenses may pose as both a benefit and threat to
tendency, unless the substrate is fragmented through ambient soils. Essential elements for plant growth include
weathering or shear forces.58 The environmental condition of the macronutrients, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, which are
the landfill usually determines the migration of additives provided by air and water.64 Elemental analysis of the
from the lenses. Acidic conditions promote the release of investigated lenses revealed carbon levels over 42% and
inorganic additives while high temperatures allow for the hydrogen of up to 9.2%, which would not pose an
release of both organic and inorganic additives.59 environmental threat in the surrounding soil.

Lenses have unique properties that could make them a vector Soil-derived nutrients include nitrogen, sulphur and
for contamination. These properties include material surface manganese, among others.64 Of the spectacle lenses, the
charge, pore size, the presence of additives, cross-links and Trivex® lenses had the highest nitrogen percentage of 8.22%
hydrophobic or hydrophilic groups in the surface coating while the SiHy CL had the highest percentage of nitrogen of
and within the lens matrix as well as lens size and thickness, all the CLs under investigation. Plants require nitrogen for
all of which could result in adsorption of contaminants from growth and there is uptake of nitrogen from soils as
the surrounding environments.50 Landfills may contain ammonium or nitrates.64 High concentration of nitrates
various toxins from discarded items, for example, improper (> 10 mg/L) are linked to groundwater contamination and
disposal of batteries and fluorescent light bulbs, which could consequent adverse health effects.65 The 1.6 index lens
result in leaching of cadmium, nickel and mercury into the contained the highest percent of sulphur (19.05%) and a
soil and ground or surface water.43,60 Lenses disposed in nominal amount was found in the PMMA lens (0.009%)
such contaminated environments may potentially adsorb while no sulphur was detected in the soft CLs (Table 5).
these pollutants, depending on their material properties Although sulphur is a soil macronutrient, excessive amounts
and prevailing soil conditions.7 This would be problematic could be toxic.64 Plant uptake of sulphur is in the form of
if these contaminated lenses entered groundwater or sulphates and high concentrations of soluble sulphates
wastewater streams. results in soil toxicity.64

Lenses that are discarded into bins are typically relegated to It is noteworthy that lenses that are embedded in soils are
solid waste in landfills. Solid waste may be either compacted unlikely to reach decomposition temperatures through
and allowed to degrade naturally or incinerated to reduce natural processes and therefore the essential elements within
solid waste volumes. The mobility of polymer networks is the lens will be unavailable to nourish the surrounding soils
linked to its melting point. Spectacle lens polymers are either unless the lenses are fragmented. Hydrogels are being
amorphous or may have a high melting temperature, researched for remediation of degraded soils, as their ability

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to absorb and retain water has been shown to promote plant Often plastics that are difficult or uneconomical to recycle
growth in semi-arid areas.66 Further investigation using CL are incinerated with or without energy recovery.10 The CVs
materials are needed to determine if used CLs could play a of the investigated lenses were significant when compared
role as an EOL remediation option in the agricultural sector, with coal, which is widely used in energy generation. Coal
as well as the potential for leaching of elements from has elemental mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
ophthalmic lenses upon disposal conditions. and sulphur of 72.50%, 5.60%, 1.30% and 0.94%, respectively,
and a CV of 27.6 MJ/kg.74 The findings in this study indicate
that the spectacle lenses, in particular those with coatings
Disposal of contact lenses into aquatic systems
and tints, as well as the thermoplastic materials
A study in the United States reported that approximately (polycarbonate and Trivex®) have higher combustion
21% of CL wearers tend to flush their CLs into the wastewater capacities that would be useful in energy recovery processes
system and that hydrogel CLs are persistent in wastewater during incineration. The thermoset lenses are resistant to
treatment processes, potentially fragmenting into natural and solvent degradation9 and are a challenge to
microplastic-sized particles.7 Buoyant hydrogel fragments recycle therefore incineration of these lenses may be a
pose an ingestion risk for marine life, they may cause fatal preferred option instead of landfilling. The relatively high
false satiation, and there is potential for uptake into the food
CV findings in this study, in comparison to that of coal,
chain via fish to humans.67 Plastics suspended in the marine
suggests that the lenses could be used successfully in this
environment are a vector for contaminants as they may also
type of energy recovery, however the economics and costs
adsorb trace metals.68 The disposed CLs may either sink to
of incinerator facilities requires consistently large volumes
sediment level or float into either a water treatment and
of lenses to be profitable. This would entail a dedicated
processing system or the ocean, thus increasing the potential
collective effort by optometrists and other eye care
range of contamination.
personnel of unwanted lenses that would then need to be
redirected to such an incinerator facility.
An additional consideration regarding the environmental
impact of disposed lenses is biofilm formation on the lens
A major drawback of incineration is the consequent release of
substrate. This refers to a microorganism aggregation on
gaseous emissions, persistent organic pollutants and
both biological and non-biological surfaces that are immersed
particulate matter.75 Elemental analysis of the investigated
in or surrounded by an aqueous medium.69 These
microorganisms may include bacteria, algae, fungi, among lenses (Table 5 and Table 6) revealed the presence of carbon,
others, that adhere to each other and the solid substrate. nitrogen and sulphur, thus indicating the potential release of
Disposed lenses are vulnerable to biofilm formation by virtue CO2, NO2, NO and SO2 upon lens combustion. Typically,
of the surface coatings, typically hydrophobic for spectacle during thermal degradation, polymers that contain nitrogen
lenses and hydrophilic for CLs.70 Biofilm formation can can emit hydrogen cyanide and nitrogen oxides76 while those
impact the buoyancy of disposed CLs and lead to sinking containing sulphur can emit SO2 or trioxides or may remain
and sedimentation.71 It may also alter the lens surface in the ash as a by-product of combustion.74 These emissions
structure and ionic charge, thus affecting chemical functional and ash by-products have an adverse impact on the
groups in the lens material and impacting on its ability environment and human health therefore there are strict
to adsorb pollutants from the aqueous environment.71 guidelines controlling waste incineration.10 However,
Conversely, some biofilm microbial species can be useful as modern incinerators have added features to ensure
they may be a source of bacteria that can degrade microplastic- environmental safety compliance, including scrubbers to
sized polymers.71 Hydrogels have been in the spotlight for neutralise acidic gases, activated carbon to adsorb heavy
possible use in remediation of heavy metals, dyes and toxic metals and organic pollutants, reduction systems to remove
elements from polluted waters.72 A study investigating the nitrous oxides, and filter bags for particulate matter.77 An
diffusion of copper and manganese within hydrogel CLs additional consideration is that incineration involves material
found that the water content and ionic surface charge were destruction and does not contribute to the circular economy
most predictive of ion diffusion,50 thus indicating that the principle of recycling to maximum material value.10
diffusion properties of the different types of lenses may vary Furthermore, if ignited in open landfill fires, the CVs of the
if they are to be used for such remediation purposes. lenses (Table 5 and Table 6) suggest that they are potential
sources of global warming, especially the thermoplastic
polycarbonate and Trivex® lenses containing nitrogen and
Incineration of lenses
sulphur, which have CVs ranging up to 32.40 MJ/kg.
Lenses that are discarded in landfills are vulnerable to
ambient conditions of the landfill site. Some municipal
landfill sites may conduct open burning of waste in an Recycling of lenses
attempt to reduce waste volumes, therefore lenses disposed Some non-profit and aid organisations collected unwanted
under these conditions would be subject to combustion.73 spectacles for redistribution to individuals who were unable
Furthermore, landfill waste, reported to generate CVs to afford them. Although these were referred to as ‘recycling
between 10 MJ/kg and 21 MJ/kg, may be used for energy programmes’, this was a misnomer as it was not a traditional
recovery processes.73 It is therefore necessary to establish the materials recycling measure. Some of these recycling
implications and potential energy value of combusted lenses. programmes had a low proportion of useable spectacles and

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a lack of uptake because of poor quality, varying styles and lenses83 and dummy lenses27 as well as the use of soy protein
inadequate refractive correction, resulting in most donated from the soybean plant for hydrogels.84 Such products
spectacles eventually being disposed as waste.78 This type of would be customised to biodegrade upon specific conditions.
programme has been halted for various reasons, including There is a renewable supply of corn, sugarcane and soybean
low cost-effectiveness, poor quality of donated spectacles and use of these materials would reduce the demand on
and environmental issues because of unusable frames being fossil fuels. Although there are currently some challenges in
discarded.78 A traditional recycling programme has been the manufacture of CLs from these materials regarding
initiated by an organisation in the United States that collects material hydrophobicity and poor mechanical properties,
spectacle lenses, which is repurposed to make safety once this is overcome, the lower costs, ease of processing,
spectacles and helmet shields.79 With respect to CL recycling, biocompatibility and biodegradability of this material
one organisation, to date, namely Terracycle, is known to appears promising.84
collect and recycle all CL waste and has programmes in the
United States, United Kingdom and Sweden.80 In regions that Limitations of the study
do not have these recycling options, the disposal routes of CL There are many ophthalmic lens manufacturers that produce
waste are likely to be in landfill or wastewater streams. lenses of varying polymeric materials, additives, coatings
and tints. This study was limited to a sample of 24 ophthalmic
Recycling options include mechanical recycling, in which lenses that are commercially available in South Africa, and
materials are crushed, extruded and reused for a similar or the reported study findings may vary for other types of
new application.81 The lenses with thermoset properties are a ophthalmic lenses not utilised in this study.
challenge for mechanical recycling. Mechanical recycling
may result in a lower quality of recyclate compared with the
original material,81 depending on the level of contamination
Conclusion
of the recycled material and on whether it is post-industrial This study explored the potential for environmental toxicity
or post-consumer waste. Chemical recycling is an alternative upon lens disposal and evaluated EOL options of a sample
that includes pyrolysis or gasification, whereby plastics are of spectacle lenses and CLs. The levels of chromium
depolymerised into monomeric products that can be used for detected in the PMMA and Delefilcon A lenses were
combustion or creation of new polymers.81 Mechanical above that recommended by the Occupational Safety and
recycling is also not preferred for BPA polycarbonate Health Administration (OSHA), and this warrants further
materials as re-extrusion may perpetuate BPA, whereas investigation, potentially using ICP–mass spectrometry or
chemical recycling thereof, using methanolysis, hydrolysis or atomic absorption spectroscopy. Although manganese was
aminolysis with supercritical solvents, creates depolymerised found in all of the investigated lenses, this would not pose
feedstock material that can be further processed into new an environmental threat upon lens disposal. In general, the
polymers.82 lenses under investigation, aside from the PMMA and
Delefilcon A lenses, are likely to remain as solid waste
under natural landfill conditions without potential adverse
Prospects for end-of-life of lens materials environmental effects. Comparison of the various lenses in
A circular economy favours recycling to retain material value the study sample indicated higher CVs for those with tints
and reduce the need for virgin fossil fuels, as well as to and coatings. Furthermore, the high CVs, comparative to
promote natural systems, such as composting to preserve coal, indicates that the unwanted lenses would be useful in
soils.10 With respect to spectacle lenses and CLs, this would energy recovery facilities. However, elemental analysis
entail the redesign of lens materials and associated products indicated the presence of nitrogen and sulphur in some
and packaging to allow for increased volumes of recycling or lenses, therefore if the lenses are incinerated in facilities
material recovery. Thermoset lenses are technically with non-adherence to environmental safety protocols or if
recyclable. The lack of homogeneity in lens materials is a burned in open landfill fires then there is a risk of release of
challenge to recycling as the diverse lens substrates, with noxious gaseous elements and threat of air pollution. A
various inorganic coatings and tints, may be immiscible. It is further consideration is that incineration is not a preferred
option in the circular economy model as materials are
not possible to sort and separate lenses according to its
removed from circulation. Therefore, chemical recycling
material constituents by sight, neither are there identifiable
may be an ideal EOL option for spectacle lenses and CLs,
markings on the fitted lenses to indicate if they are CR-39®,
however this is more expensive and would need to be
polyurethane or polycarbonate materials. It may be suggested
balanced against economies of cost.
that, similar to the engravings on progressive addition lenses,
manufacturers should engrave a code indicating the lens
material on the lens periphery to help with the identification Acknowledgements
and sorting at EOL for recycling. R.P. is grateful to the College of Health Sciences at the
University of KwaZulu-Natal for a research scholarship. The
The introduction of bioacetate materials for use in spectacle authors acknowledge the kind assistance of Unathi Bongoza
frames is welcomed and the widespread use thereof will and Adela Madaree, from the School of Chemistry and
promote sustainability.6 Research has focused on the use of Physics at UKZN, with the elemental analysis and ICP–OES
biodegradable materials to synthesise thermoset spectacle testing, respectively.

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