LOCOMOTION

⮚ Locomotion is the movement of the whole organism from one place to another. This is
one of the major characteristic differences between animals and plants.
⮚ Locomotion differs from movement in that movement refers to the displacement of a
part of an organism. Movement is therefore a characteristic of all living things.

NECESSITY OF LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS

Locomotion is necessary in animals because animals must;
i) Obtain food
ii) Escape from predators
iii) Find mates
iv) Avoid dangers e.g. fire
v) Avoid competition with other animals of the same or different species
vi) Search for shelter

For locomotion to take place, the following are necessary;

⮚ The locomotory media/medium e.g. air, water or land

⮚ Locomotory muscles

⮚ Rigid skeleton
NB. The locomotory muscles are usually in pairs and are antagonistic (opposite) in function i.e.
when one relaxes, another one contracts.

THE SKELETON
The skeleton is the frame work of the body that provides support and movement in animals.
A skeleton provides a system of rigid levers to which muscles are attached to enable effective
locomotion.

Types of skeleton
They include;
i) Hydro-static skeleton
ii) Exo-skeleton
iii) Endo-skeleton

THE HYDRO-STATIC SKELETON

⮚ This is found in invertebrates like earth worms, leeches, etc.
 ⮚ It is provided by a fluid filled cavity under pressure. This pressure enables the body to
maintain the shape of the organism.
⮚ This type of skeleton is also found in unicellular organisms.
THE EXO-SKELETON
⮚ This is found in arthropods like insects.

⮚ It consists of a hard cuticle of chitin which lies outside the muscles which make part of it.

THE ENDO-SKELETON
⮚ This is found in vertebrates where the skeletal elements are bones and cartilage which
are internal i.e. covered by muscles which move parts of it e.g. in man.

Functions of the Skeleton

i) Locomotion
A skeleton provides a lever system which provides muscle attachment.
When these muscles relax and contract antagonistically, they produce the act of locomotion
ii) Protection
It encloses the delicate organs like the heart and lungs (by the ribcage), the spinal cord (by the
vertebra), the brain (by the skull), etc.
iii) Support
This is done by mainly the vertebral column, pectoral and pelvic girdles, limb bones, etc.
iv) Respiration
The ribcage helps in breathing by constant re-adjusting of the volume of the thoracic cavity.
v) Transmission of sound in the ear by the ossicles
vi) Storage of calcium and phosphorus

LOCOMOTION IN MAMMALS
The Mammalian Skeleton
⮚ In adults, the skeleton consists of bones and cartilage (which is found in movable joints).
The skeleton of the embryo consists of almost entirely the cartilage.
⮚ Both bone and cartilage contain a high proportion of dead material of the ground
substance which has been secreted by the living cells of the tissue.
⮚ The ground substance of the bone is hard and contains calcium salts and fibers of a
protein called chondrin while the ground substance of the cartilage is composed of
fibers called collagen.
Parts of the Skeleton
The mammalian skeleton is classified into two parts;
i) Appendicular skeleton
ii) Axial skeleton

Axial skeleton (refer to practicals manuals)

The skeleton that makes up the backbone and the skull.

The Appendicular Skeleton

⮚ This is the skeleton of the limbs.

⮚ It consists of the girdles and bones.

The girdles include;
a) The pectoral girdles (shoulder girdles).
⮚ These are made up of the scapular (shoulder blade) and the clavicles (collar bones) and
the fore limbs.
⮚ The bones of the limbs are summarized in the diagram below;
Structural plan of bones of limbs

b) The pelvic girdle (hip girdle)

⮚ This is made up of the fused of fused innominate (pubic) bone which consists of three
fused bones i.e. ilium, ischium and the pubis.
⮚ It is usually the largest and the strongest of the two girdles

Functions of the appendicular skeleton

i) To provide rigid connection between the axil and the appendicular skeleton
ii) Provides suitable surfaces for the attachment of the muscles that move the limbs
iii) To provide stability by separating the limbs
iv) The long bones manufacture long bones
Note:
The pentadactyl limbs end in five digits. It is characteristic of all land animals. However, due to
evolution and adaptation to different environments, these bones have been modified to suit
various purposes e.g. grasping in the monkeys, flying in birds, digging in moles, walking in man
and running in horses.
⮚ In order to provide movement, the skeleton is made of bits and not one solid mass.
 ⮚ Each bit has the right shape and size and different bits are joined together so as to be
able to move in the desired way and not any other.
⮚ Points where two or more bones meet are called joints.

The joints are classified according to the degree of movement they allow. These are;
i) Immovable joints
This is where no movement is possible e.g. between the skull bones
ii) Partly movable joints
These allow little movement (sight) e.g. the vertebra.
iii) Movable joints
These allow considerable movement between bones; the actual amount of movement being
dependent upon the precise nature of the movements.

Name of joint Type of joint Example

Suture Immovable Skull bones and pubic bones

Gliding Partly movable Between adjacent vertebra and bones of the wrist and
ankle

Pivot Synovial In the elbow, knee and fingers

Ball and socket Synovial At the shoulder and the hip

Structure of the knee joint (synovial)

⮚ At the movable joints, bones are not connected directly as they would grit and crack
during movement. They instead leave a space between them called the synovial cavity
which contains a lubricating fluid called synovial fluid.
⮚ The surface of the bones are covered with a layer of cartilage which itself is a lubricant
and acts as a shock absorber.
⮚ The joint is strengthened by ligaments which connect the bones together and
attachment of muscles to bones is by tendons.
Structure of the elbow joint

Movement at the elbow

 ⮚ The two muscles work antagonistically; when the bicep muscles contract, it pulls on the
radius thus bending the arm. Since this muscle results in the bending at the elbow, it is
also referred to as the flexor muscle.
⮚ When the triceps muscles contract, it pulls on the ulna thus straightening the arm. Since
this muscle results in extending the arm at the elbow, it is referred to as the extensor
muscle.

Questions
1.
a) State the common distinguishing characteristics of mammals
b) Explain the functions of the skeleton in a mammal
2.
a) Draw a labeled diagram of a typical mammalian vertebra
b) Discuss how this this generalized structure is modified in different regions of the
vertebral column
3. Describe the mechanism which brings about the bending and straightening movements
of the arm in man (use diagrams to illustrate)
4.
a) Define a joint
b) Name the various joints in the mammalian body
c) Use a diagram to make a description of
i) a ball and socket joint
ii) Hinge joint

LOCOMOTION IN BIRDS
⮚ The medium for locomotion in birds is air, and mostly move by flying (flight)

⮚ For flight, birds majorly use structures called wings

The Bird’s Wing

Bird’s wings have got two functions, and these are;
i) To provide support of the bird in air
ii) To propel the bird forward
Structure of the bird’s wing
Action of muscles during flight
Flight in birds is brought about by powerful flight muscles the pectoralis major and minor.
These muscles are attached to the keel and the sternum

Diagram showing attachment or the flight muscles

During the down stroke, the pectoralis major muscles contract & pull the wing downwards and
backwards and the bird gains both the lift and the forward movement;
During the upstroke, the pectoralis minor muscles contact & it raise the wing.

Types of flight in birds

Flight in birds can be grouped into flapping and gliding (soring)
Flapping flight
Here, the bird is actively flying by raising and lowering its wings rapidly.
It is also called active flight because it involves greater use of the respiratory energy during
muscle contractions.

Gliding flight
During gliding, the wings are just outspread;
The bird uses the pressure of the rising air to maintain its position in air or lose height by
skating (gliding) through the air at an angle to the ground.

Feathers
They are of 4 types; quill, covert, down and filoplume feathers

General functions of feathers

i) For flight
ii) Temperature regulation by insulating the body against heat loss
iii) Protection from mechanical injury and to camouflage
 iv) Courtship. Birds use feathers to recognize members of their species and males from
females prior to reproduction.

Adaptations of birds to flight

i) The fore limbs are modified to form wings which provide a large surface area for
engulfing air currents
ii) They have large pectoral muscles i.e. pectoralis major and minor which move the
wing.
iii) The light skeleton made of hollow and small bones which are light and can easily be
moved in air
iv) A rigid skeleton made up of fused bones with a deep keel-like extension of the
sternum which provides a large surface area for the attachment of muscles
v) An efficient breathing system with air sacs attached to the lungs necessary to
provide the required oxygen for respiration and to remove the resulting carbon
dioxide.
vi) The high red blood cell count for efficient oxygen transport
vii) A keen eye sight to enable them judge distances correctly especially on quick
landing.
viii) A streamlined shape to reduce air resistance and provide smooth movement in the
air
ix) Ability to fold their legs away during flight so as not to cause unnecessary friction
with the air

LOCOMOTION IN INSECTS
Locomotion in insects of two types;
i) Movement by the legs
ii) Flight by wings

WALKING IN NSECTS
⮚ Insect legs are jointed. Their joints are called peg and socket. They work in the same way
like the hinge joint because it provides movement in one plane.
⮚ Inside the leg at the joints are a set of muscles i.e. the flexor (depressor) muscles and
the extensor (elevator) muscles.
⮚ These muscles work antagonistically to cause movement and are coordinated by the
nervous system.
⮚ When the flexor muscles contract, the leg bends while the extensor muscles are relaxed;
and when the extensor muscles contract, the leg straightens pushing the insect forward
Diagram showing muscle attachment in an insect’s limb

⮚ If an insect is observed moving, it can be seen that it moves three legs at a time i.e. the
fore and hind legs on one side and the middle leg on the other side of the body while
the other three remain in the ground for support.
Adaptations of insects’ legs to walking
⮚ They possess hollow jointed legs with a pair of antagonistic muscles which bend and
straighten the leg.
⮚ Their legs possess claws at the end which help them to drag themselves along rough
surfaces
⮚ They have granular pads (arolia) also at the end of the legs which helps them to move
on wet and smooth surfaces and sometimes upside down on ceilings of houses.
⮚ Some insects like locusts have longer hind legs which help them to leap over great
disasters

Movement by wings
⮚ This is brought about by the action of flight muscles attached to the exoskeleton and
wings.
They are classified according to their attachment as;
a) Direct flight muscles if attached on the wing base
b) Indirect flight muscles if attached to the exo-skeleton
Direct flight muscles
Diagram showing attachment of direct flight muscles

⮚ When the depressor muscles contract and the elevator muscles relax, it pulls on the
wing base causing the wings to move downwards, hence the down stroke.
⮚ When the elevator muscles contract ad depressor muscles relax, the wings move
upwards, hence, the upstroke.
NB. Direct flight muscles are found in large insects like butterflies, dragon flies and
grasshoppers.

Indirect flight muscles

⮚ These are found in small insects like bees, wasps and houseflies with compact bodies
and small wing area and are attached directly on the exo-skeleton.
Diagrams showing the attachment of indirect flight muscles
Upstroke

Down stroke
 ⮚ Both the depressor and elevator muscles pull on the wings rapidly due to the
adjustment of the walls of the thorax by change of its shape.
⮚ The contraction of the elevator muscles pulls on the walls of the thorax downwards
causing the wings to move upwards (upstroke).
⮚ When the depressor muscles contract, they pull in the horizontal direction, compressing
the thorax thus lowering the wings (down stroke).

LOCOMOTION IN BONNY FISH

Locomotion in fish takes place in water as a locomotory medium, and they move by swimming.
External Structure of a bonny fish

Adaptations of bonny fish to swimming

⮚ They have a streamlined body shape which provides less resistance to their movement

⮚ They have fins which provide movement (propulsion) and stability in water

⮚ Some fish have a swim bladder which helps them to stay floating in water or sink i.e. for
buoyancy
⮚ They have a lateral line which is a system of sense organs for detecting stimuli like
sound in water
 ⮚ They have a flexible vertebral column with antagonistic muscles arranged on both sides
which provide movement.

Action of muscles
⮚ Muscles in fish are called myotomes.

⮚ They are antagonistic (meaning one of the pairs contract and the other relaxes), and
each pair is supplied by a nerve.
⮚ In bony fish, forward motion is brought about by side to side movement of the tail. This
movement is produced by the contraction of the muscles arranged on both sides of the
vertebral column.
⮚ These act antagonistically such that when those on one side contracts, the tail bends
that way and vice versa.

Action of fins
⮚ The paired fins (the pectoral and the pelvic fins) are used for balancing, backward and
forward movements and also act as brakes.
⮚ They are not used during very fast movements, however, and are used to control
instabilities in movement i.e. pitching movement.
⮚ The unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral and anal fins) are used in preventing rolling and
yawing instabilities during locomotion.

Instabilities during locomotion

During movement, fish encounters three types of instabilities and these are yawing, pitching
and rolling.
⮚ Yawing is the lateral deflection of the anterior part of the body of resulting from
propulsive action of the tail. This instability is controlled by the unpaired fins.
⮚ Pitching is the tendency of the nostrils to plunge (fall) vertically downwards when as a
fish moves. This instability is controlled by the paired fins.
⮚ Rolling is the rotation of the body of fish about its longitudinal axis. It is controlled by
the unpaired fins.