III.

Procedure
A. DISSECTION OF A DIARTHROTIC JOINT

1. Feel the joint from the outside and note adding around it. What kind of tissue forms
this padding?

Diarthrose (synovial) joint contains:

 Articular fat pads – adipose tissue pads that protect the articular cartilage, as seen in
the infrapatellar fat pad in the knee
 Accessory ligaments (extracapsular and intracapsular) - the fibers of some fibrous
membranes are arranged in parallel bundles of dense regular connective tissue that are
highly adapted for resisting strains to prevent extreme movements that may damage
the articulation
 Tendons- cords of dense regular connective tissue composed of parallel bundles of
collagen fibers

2. Feel the interior of joint section. How does it feel to you?

3. Tap the joint surfaces of the articulating bones with forceps.

a.) Do the same to the diaphysis of one of the bones.
b.) What difference in sound do you observe?

c.) What kind of tissue covers the articular surfaces of the bones?
 Articular fat pads – adipose tissue pads that protect the articular cartilage, as seen in
the infrapatellar fat pad in the knee.
 4. With a scalpel and tweezers, remove some of the membrane adherent to the
diaphysis of one of the bones. Pull on it. Try to push your finger through it.
a.) How is the membrane called?
Diaphysis, or shaft, of a long bone features a shell of compact bone
surrounded by the periosteum, a cartilaginous membrane which contains the
blood vessels which provide nutrients to the bone. The diaphysis is separated
from the epiphyses of the bone by the epiphyseal line.

b.) What kind of tissue?

The diaphysis is the main or mid section (shaft) of a long bone. It is made up of
cortical bone and usually contains bone marrow and adipose tissue.
The periosteum is the tough, vascular membrane which covers the surface of a
bone, except for the articular cartilage. The periosteum contains the blood vessels
which supply nutrients to the bones enabling them to regenerate. The bones of the skull
feature no such periosteum, and so cannot regenerate themselves. The periosteum also
facilitates the regeneration of bone by serving as a confining membrane for the
deposition of new bone cells, insuring that any regeneration of osseous material is
added to the pre-existing bone.

c.) Is it strong and firmly attached to the diaphysis of the bone?

No, the periosteum is not strongly attached to the diaphysis. As stated
above, the diaphysis is separated from the epiphyses of the bone by the
epiphyseal line. The epiphysis is the end of a developing bone. It is distinguished from
the non-developing segment of the bone by the epiphyseal line. Once the true bone has
developed, the center becomes hollowed out, which allows for the development.

5. Look for structures that hold the two bones together at the joint.
a.) Describe and name them.
Synovial joints consist of two bones and a fibrous capsule holding the
two bones together but the joint is far more complicated than just a hinge
made of fiber and bone. The two bones surfaces are covered with slippery
cartilage that must be able to glide across each other with minimal friction no
matter what the individual’s activity level is and they must continue to be able
to glide easily in this way repeatedly throughout the individual’s life.

Also synovial joints are composed of the following:

 Synovial cavity: all diarthroses have this characteristic space between the bones that is
filled with synovial fluid

 Articular capsule: the fibrous capsule, continuous with the periosteum of articulating
bones, surrounds the diarthrosis and unites the articulating bones; the articular capsule
consists of two layers - (1) the outer fibrous membrane that may contain ligaments and
(2) the inner synovial membrane hat secretes the lubricating, shock absorbing, and joint-
nourishing synovial fluid; the articular capsule is highly innervated, but avascular (lacking
 blood and lymph vessels), and receives nutrition from the surrounding blood supply via
either diffusion (a slow process) or by convection,a far more efficient process achieved
through exercise
 Articular cartilage: the bones of a synovial joint are covered by this layer of hyaline
cartilage that lines the epiphyses of joint end of bone with a smooth, slippery surface
that does not bind them together; articular cartilage functions to absorb shock and
reduce friction during movement
 Articular discs or menisci – the fibrocartilage pads between opposing surfaces in a joint
 Articular fat pads –adipose tissue pads that protect the articular cartilage, as seen in the
infrapatellar fat pad in the knee
 Accessory ligaments (extracapsular and intracapsular) - the fibers of some fibrous
membranes are arranged in parallel bundles of dense regular connective tissue that are
highly adapted for resisting strains to prevent extreme movements that may damage
the articulation
 Tendons - cords of dense regular connective tissue composed of parallel bundles of
collagen fibers
 Bursae- saclike structures that are situated strategically to alleviate friction in some
joints (shoulder and knee) that are filled with fluid that is similar to synovial fluid

b.) What kind of tissue composes them?

 Adipose tissue or body fat or fat depot or just fat is loose connective tissue composed
of adipocytes. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat; fat in its solitary state
exists in the liver and muscles.

 Dense regular connective tissue provides connection between different tissues. The
collagen fibers in dense regular connective tissue are bundled in a parallel fashion.

6. Look for cartilage pads in the joint. Feel them. What seems to be their most
prominent characteristics?
7. Note the shape of the articulating ends of the two adjoining bones in the joint
specimen and on the human skeleton.
The shape of the articulating ends of the two bones in the joint are like
hallow ball-shaped that surrounds each end of the bones and it somehow follows
the structure of the bone. It surrounds the bone so that it will allow articulation and
easy movement of both ends.

8. Feel the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule.

a.) What relation is there between the shape of the articulating end of the bone and
that of its adjoining bone?
The articulating end of the bone protects the opposing two bones to prevent
greater impact of friction and also for absorbing shock.

b.) Describe the way synovial membrane lining felt to you.

9. Examine the skull sutures.

a.) What kind of joints are these?
Fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue, consisting
mainly of collagen. These joints are also called "fixed" or "immoveable" joints,
because they do not move. These joints have no joint cavity and are connected
via fibrous connective tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints.

b.) Describe structural characteristics.

Their structural characteristics are:
 Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures
are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid
(synarthrodial).
 Syndesmoses are found between long bones of the body, such as the
radius and ulana in forearm and the fibula and tibia in leg. Unlike other
fibrous joints, syndesmoses are moveable (amphiarthrodial) albeit not
to such degree as synovial joints.
 Gomphosis is a joint between the root of a tooth and the sockets in the
maxilla or mandible
B. DIARTHROTIC JOINT MOVEMENTS
1. Cup your left hand over right shoulder joint. Perform the following movements and
identify name of movements.
ANSWERS:
a.) Flexion
b.) Extension
c.) Extension
d.) Abduction and adduction
e.) Supination (palm up) and Pronation (palm down)
2. Perform the following, identify movement and the joint where movement occurs.
ANSWERS:
a.) FLEXION: Elbow joint
b.) EXTENSION: Elbow joint
c.) PROTRACTION: Neck joint
d.) RETRACTION: Neck joint
e.) EXTENSION: Hip joint
f.) FLEXION: Hip joint
g.) ABDUCTION: Hip joint
h.) ADDUCTION: Hip joint
i.) EXTENSION: Knee joint
j.) FLEXION: Spinal column/ Vertebral joint
k.) EXTENSION: Spinal column/ Vertebral joint
3. On the skeleton, observe the shape of the head of the humerus, and of the glenoid
cavity in the scapula. Describe briefly. How do they relate to each other?
ANSWER: The humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the
shoulder to the elbow. Anatomically, it connects the scapula and the lower arm
(consisting of the radius and ulna), and consists of three sections. The upper extremity
consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles,
sometimes called tuberosities.) Its body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more
prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea &
capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). As well as
its true anatomical neck, the constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the
humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to commonly get
fractured, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons.
On the lateral angle of the scapula is a shallow pyriform, articular surface, the glenoid
cavity (or glenoid fossa of scapula from Greek: gléne, "socket"), which is directed lateralward
and forward and articulates with the head of the humerus; it is broader below than above and
its vertical diameter is the longest. The head of the humerus together with the glenoid cavity
forms the shoulder joint.
IV. OBSERVATIONS:
1. Answer all questions under procedures.
2. Illustrate and label:
a.) Diagram of diarthrotic joint – frontal section
b.) Diagram of longitudinal section of long bone
c.) Diagram of 3 other types of joints
NOTE: Insert the diagrams here… 
V. QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH:
1. Cite specific characteristics that adapt:
a.) Diarthrotic joint to its function
b.) Skull suture to its function
ANSWER:
a.) Specific characteristics of diarthrotic joint:
A diarthroses has a synovial component. The bones are connected to a joint capsule
that surrounds the bones and creates a joint cavity. Ligaments also attach bone-to-
bone stabilizing the joint and making the diarthrotic joint stable, yet mobile. Again,
the knee joint is a good example of a diarthroses; two bones (tibia and femur) that
are attached by ligaments called the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments. An
extensive joint capsule also surrounds the knee joint. In synarthroses there are also
disks or menisci that aid in maintaining congruency between bones, i.e., the medial
and lateral menisci of the knee joint. Making the diarthroses even more unique from
the synarthroses is the addition of synovial fluid. The synovial fluid provides
lubrication within the joint. In summary, the diarthroses is complex, with ligaments
and capsule providing stability, disks or menisci aiding in congruency, and synovial
fluid providing lubrication.
Link: http://www.enotes.com/nursing-encyclopedia/joint-integrity-function[ NOTE:
Copy and paste only the middle part… “DIARTHROSES”]

b.) Specific characteristics of skull suture:

A suture is a type of fibrous joint which only occurs in the skull (or "cranium"). They
are bound together by Sharpey's fibres. A tiny amount of movement is permitted at
sutures, which contributes to the compliance and elasticity of the skull.
These joints are synarthroses.
It is normal for many of the bones of the skull to remain unfused at birth. If they are
fused at birth, we speak of a craniosynostosis. The term "fontanelle" is used to
describe the resulting "soft spots". The relative positions of the bones continue to
change during the life of the adult (though less rapidly), which can provide useful
information in forensics and archaeology. In old age, cranial sutures may ossify (turn
to bone) completely.
Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suture_%28joint%29

2. What is the effect of inflammation and swelling of the synovial membrane on the joints
function?
ANSWER:
EFEECTS OF SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE INFLAMMATION OR SWELLING:
1.)Swelling of joints, causing pain and tenderness, affecting symmetrical joints such as
the knees, ankles, wrists, feet, hip, etc.
 2.)Joint stiffness due to inactivity for a long period of time, usually occurring after a long
nap or sitting for an extended period of time.

3.)Formation of bumps or nodules that range from the size of a pea to mothballs. These
develop in nearly one-third of people who have rheumatoid arthritis. The nodules
usually form over pressure points such as the knuckles, elbows, spine, etc.

4.)Occasional Fever, Fatigue, and an overall sense of not feeling well.

5.) Decrease or loss of joint movement

Links: http://www.medicinenet.com/rheumatoid_arthritis/article.htm
http://www.vaxa.com/arthritis-osteoarthritis-symptoms.cfm[NOTE: Copy the
bottom part(osteoarthritis symptoms), not the top one ]

3. Does joint structure determine the movement possible at a joint? Explain. Give
examples.
ANSWER: Yes, joint structures determine the movement of a particular joint and this is because
in human anatomy and physiology, “form follows functions”. For example, a ball and socket
joint such as the hip and shoulder joints can perform various ranges of movement like flexion,
extension, internal and external rotation, abduction and adduction and circumduction. This is because
these joints are formed by a rounded bone that fits into a hollow circular socket which allows movement
to be highly possible. On the other hand, a hinge joint such as the neck joint only allows limited rotation.
This is because a hinge joint (ginglymus) is a bone joint in which the articular surfaces are molded to
each other in such a manner as to permit motion only in one plane—backward and forward—the extent
of motion at the same time being considerable.

Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinge_joint

4. Fill the following tables:

a.)
JOINT Structure Types Extent of Examples in the Body
of Tissue and Movement
Arrangement
FIBROUS  Dense  immovable  sutures of the
connective skull
tissue  Gomphoses,
consisting the joints
mainly of between the
collagen roots of the
teeth and
their sockets
 (or alveoli) in
maxilla and
mandible.
CARTILAGINOUS  cartilage  slightly  cartilage
movable between
vertebrae
 cartilage in
the symphysis
 cartilage in
the joint
between the
sacrum and
hip bone
 joint between
the
manubrium
and sternum

SYNOVIAL Synovial joints  OVERALL:  Knee joint

contain the highly  Condyloid
Functional following movable joint or wrist
classification structures: joint
 Synovial  Shoulder joint
cavity
Functionally, they
 Articular
can be classified as:
capsule
 Articular
a.)synarthro cartilage  permit no
sis  Articular movement.
b.)amphiart discs or  permit little
h-rosis menisci movement.
 Articular fat  permit a
c.)diarthrosi pads variety of
s  Accessory movements
ligaments
(e.g. flexion,
 Tendons
adduction,
 Bursae
pronation).
Only
synovial
joints are
diarthrosis.
Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrous_joint
http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/Sci_Ed/grade10/manphys/joints.htm
http://www.wikihealth.com/Joint
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synovial_joint

b.)
Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction Conduction Rotation
Neck joint 
Shoulder     
joint
Elbow joint   
Wrist joint     
Finger joint
Hip joint     
Knee joint  
Ankle joint  
Vertebral   
joint

Links: http://www.livestrong.com/article/190566-the-four-types-of-joints-their-
functions/
http://www.anatomy.tv/StudyGuides/StudyGuide.aspx?
guideid=19&nextID=5&maxID=0&customer=primal
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_different_types_of_muscle_movement
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/musrom.htm
http://www.ehow.com/about_5463516_types-synovial-joints.html