Module 3 - Lesson 1 - Semantics and Pragmatics

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HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY

School of Education
Angeles City

Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English


Introduction to Linguistics
Module 3

Lesson 1: SEMANTICS
Specific Lessons:

 Word and Sentence Meaning


 Idiomatic Expressions
 Figurative Language
 Connotative vs. Denotative Meaning
 Pragmatics and Language Registers (Formal, Informal,
Conversational, Colloquial, Slang, etc.)

START HERE
Semantics studies meanings. It is intimately connected with
logic, the study of reasoning. To see whether we have the correct
meaning it is sometimes illuminating to check whether the
purported meaning carries the correct logical consequences.

So far we have been concerned only with the form of


language expressions, and not with their meaning. Ultimately,
however, language is designed to allow us to communicate to each
other how the world is like, to make each other do or believe
something, and so on.

The part of linguistics that deals mainly with the question


of what is meant by saying something is called semantics. Meaning
is not just some aspect of the form in which expressions are put
by the language. If I tell you that Paul has pestered at least
three squirrels this morning you can conclude that he has
pestered at least two squirrels this morning. That follows not by
virtue of the form the words /three/ and /two/ have, but in
virtue of what these words mean. Likewise, if I get told that
exactly half of my students do not like syntax, and I have 180
students, then I conclude that 90 students do not like syntax.
This reasoning works independently of the language in which the
sentences are phrased.

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Under the subject of semantics, we shall deal with the
following areas of interest:

1. the fact that a word can have more than one meaning, for
example ball can be both a dance and a round object for
bouncing
2. the fact that different words appear to have the same
meaning, for example ‘regal’ and ‘royal’ or ‘big’ and
‘large’
3. the fact that some words can be analyzed into components
such as adult, female, for example mare implies both adult
and female as well as horse
4. the fact that some words seem to have opposites, for example
‘long’ and ‘short’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’ but not ‘desk’ or
‘table’
5. the fact that the meanings of some words are included in the
meaning of others, for example the meaning of ‘vegetable’ is
included in that of ‘potato’ and the meaning of ‘tree’ is
included in that of ‘elm’
6. the fact that certain combinations of words have meanings
which are very different from the combination of their
separate meanings, for example the meanings of ‘pass’ plus
the meanings of ‘on’ do not add up to the meaning of ‘die’
although that is what ‘pass on’ can mean.

POLYSEMY

The same morphological word may have a range of different


meanings as a glance at any dictionary will reveal. Polysemy,
meaning ‘many meanings’, is the name given to the study of this
particular phenomenon.

In a dictionary entry for any given word the meanings are


listed in a particular order with the central meaning given
first, followed by the most closely related meanings and with
metaphorical extensions coming last. If we look up the word
‘star’, for example, in the Concise Oxford Dictionary, we find
the meanings:

(1) celestial body


(2) thing suggesting star by its shape, especially a figure or
object with radiating points
(3) (in card game) additional life bought by player whose lives
are lost

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(4) principal actor or actress in a company

In theory, the idea of words having several meanings is


straightforward; in practice there are problems, especially in
relation to drawing boundary lines between words. It is not
always easy to decide when a meaning has become so different from
its original meaning that it deserves to be treated like a new
word. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, for example, lists ‘pupil’
as having two meanings:

(1) one who is taught by another, scholar


(2) circular opening in center of iris of eye regulating passage
of light to the retina

Many speakers of English, however, regard these as two


different words. Stated simply, the essential problem is that it
is not always easy or even possible to be certain whether we are
dealing with polysemy, that is, one word with several meanings,
or homonymy, that is, several words with the same form.

Normally dictionaries decide between polysemy and homonymy


by referring to etymology (the origins and history of a word)
when this is known, but even this rule is not foolproof because,
on occasions, etymologically related words may have different
spellings as in the case of ‘flower’ and ‘flour’. The simplest
solution is to seek a core of meaning and any homonymous items
sharing the core of meaning should be classified as polysemous.

The phenomenon of polysemy is not restricted to full words


in English. Multiplicity of meaning is a very general
characteristic of language and is found in prefixes as well as
full words. Let us take ‘un’ for example.

When it prefixes a verb, it usually means ‘reverse the


action of the verb’: undo, unpack, untie, unzip.

When ‘un’ precedes a noun to form a verb, it can mean


‘deprive of this noun’: ‘unhorse’, ‘unman’ (that is, deprive
of manly qualities). This usage is rare in English now but
previously words like ‘unbishop’, ‘unduke’, ‘unking’,
*unlord’ occurred.
When ‘un’ precedes an adjective, it can mean ‘the opposite
of’: ‘unfair’, ‘ungracious’, ‘unkind*, ‘untrue’.

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SYNONYMY

Most people think of ‘synonymy’ as implying ‘having the


same meaning’ but it is easy to show that synonymy is always
partial, never complete. ‘Tall’ and ‘high’ are usually given as
synonyms but whilst we can have both:

a tall building and a high building

we cannot have both:

a tall boy and a high boy

We can best define synonymy by saying that it is the


relationship in which two or more words are in free variation in
all or most contexts. The closest we come to absolute synonymy is
when the synonyms belong to different dialects as with:

British usage US usage

autumn fall
estate agent realtor
pavement sidewalk

but even here the choice of one term rather than another
indicates a regional preference. As well as regionally marked
synonyms, we find synonyms which differ stylistically, in that
one term may be more formal than another:

die pass on/over kick the bucket decease


steal relieve one of pinch/half inch purloin
smell odor stink/pong effluvium

And, as the above items also illustrate, items which are


cognitively synonymous may arouse very different emotional
responses, the A list below implying less approval than the В
list:

A В

conceal hide
politician statesman
stubborn resolute

4|Page Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


Total synonymy, that is, the coincidence of cognitive,
emotive, and stylistic identity, is more of an ideal than a
reality. In addition, the choice of one word rather than its
synonym can have an effect on the words and phrases than can co-
occur with it. Let us illustrate this briefly by listing
dictionary synonyms for ‘put up with* and ‘noise’:

put up with noise

bear clamor
brook din
endure disturbance
stand sound level
tolerate

All the verbs can collocate with ‘such noise’ although


‘brook’ is more likely to occur with words like ‘impertinence’,
‘offhandedness’ or ‘rudeness’. As soon as we try to substitute
‘clamor’ for ‘noise’ we meet our first problem. We can say:

I can’t put up with such noise.

but for most native speakers:

I can’t put up with such clamor.

is unacceptable. In addition, if we substitute ‘din’ we need to


include an indefinite article ‘such a din’, and the same applies
to ‘racket’. What is being stressed here is the fact that items
collocate and interact. We must take levels of formality into
account in selecting synonyms.

ANTONYMY

This is the general term applied to the sense relation


involving oppositeness of meaning. For our purposes, it will be
convenient to distinguish three types of ‘oppositeness’, namely
(1) implicitly graded antonyms, (2) complementarity and (3)
converseness.

(1) Implicitly graded antonyms refer to pairs of items such as


‘big’ and ‘small’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘young’ and ‘old’. In other
5|Page Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics
words, ‘big’, ‘good’ and ‘young’ can only be interpreted in terms
of being ‘bigger’, ‘better’ or ‘younger’ than something which is
established as the norm for the comparison. Thus, when we say
that one fly is bigger than another, we imply that ‘big’ is to be
understood in the context of flies. This accounts for the
apparent paradox of a ‘big fly’ being smaller than a ‘small dog’
because ‘small’ in the latter context means ‘small when compared
with other dogs’.

In English, the larger item of the pair is the unmarked or


neutral member. Thus, we can ask:

How big is it?


How old is he?
How wide is the river?

without implying that the subject is either ‘big’, ‘old5 or


‘wide’. Such questions are unbiased or open with regard to the
expectations of the enquirer. On the other hand, to ask:

How small is it?

does prejudge the matter, claiming that it is indeed small. There


is nothing universal about the larger member of the pair being
the neutral member although in many societies this seems to be
Ihe case. In Japanese, for example, one would ask the equivalent
of:

How thin is it?

when an English speaker would have to ask:

How thick is it?

(2) Complementarity refers to the existence of such pairs as


"male4 and ‘female’. It is characteristic of such pairs that the
denial of one implies the assertion of the other. Thus if one is
not male, then one is certainly female. Notice the difference
between graded antonyms of the ‘good/bad’ type and complementary
pairs. To say:

John is not single.

implies:

John is married.

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but to say:

John is not bad.

does not imply:

John is good.

In certain contexts, the following can be complementary pairs:

food drink
land sea
transitive intransitive
warm blooded coldblooded

Related to complementary sets are sets of terms like colors or


numbers where the assertion of one member implies the negation of
all the others. Thus, if we have a set such as: green, yellow,
brown, red, blue, to say:

This is green.

implies that it is not yellow, brown, red or blue. In a two-term


set such as (male, female), the assertion of male implies the
denial of the only other term in the set. Such terms, as well as
being described as ‘complementary’, are often referred to as
‘incompatible’.

(3) Converseness is the relationship that holds between such


related pairs of sentences as:

John sold it to me.

and:

I bought it from John.

where SELL and BUY are in a converse relationship. English has a


number of conversely related verbs and so sentence converseness
is a common phenomenon:

John lent the money to Peter.


Peter borrowed the money from John.

Other frequently occurring converse verbs include:

7|Page Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


buy and sell
push and pull
command and serve
give and take
hire out and hire
lease and rent
teach and learn

Occasionally, the same verb can be used in the conversely related


pair of sentences as in:

John rented the house to Peter.


Peter rented the house from John.

and also:

John married Mary.

and:

Mary married John.

HYPONYMY

Hyponymy is related to complementarity and incompatibility.


Whereas the relationship of implicit denial is called
incompatibility, the relationship of implicit inclusion is called
hyponymy. This relationship is easy to demonstrate. The color
‘red’, for example, includes or comprehends the colors ‘scarlet’
and ‘vermilion’ just as the term ‘flower’ includes ‘daisy’,
‘forget-me-not’ and ‘rose’. The including term in our latter
example ‘flower’ is known as the ‘superordinate term’ and the
included items are known as ‘co-hyponyms’. The assertion of a
hyponym:

This is a rose.

implies the assertion of the superordinate:

This is a flower.

but the assertion of the superordinate does not automatically


imply one specific hyponym. We can thus say that the
implicational nature of hyponymy is unilateral or works one way
only.

8|Page Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


One of the most useful features of the principle of
hyponymy is that it allows us to be as general or as specific as
a particular linguistic occasion warrants, as can be seen from
the following hierarchies:

plant

flower bush tree

deciduous coniferous
Often these hierarchical diagrams are called ‘taxonomies’.
With each downward step we encounter terms of more specific
meaning.

Hyponymy is a recently invented method of indicating the


relationships that can exist between words. Occasionally, items
have to be put into a context to see whether their relationships
can best be illustrated by means of one classification rather
than another. ‘Black’ and ‘white5 are co-hyponyms when considered
as colors but they can be complementary in discussions about
race, draughts and piano keys.

IDIOMS

An idiom is a group of words whose meaning cannot be


explained in terms of the habitual meanings of the words that
make up the piece of language. Thus ‘fly off the handle’ which
means ‘lose one’s temper’ cannot be understood in terms of the
meanings of ‘fly’, ‘off’ or ‘handle’. Idioms involve the non-
literal use of language and they can be categorized as follows:

(1) alliterative comparisons:

dead as a dodo
fit as a fiddle
good as gold

(2) noun phrases:

a blind alley (route that leads nowhere, a false trail)


a close shave (a narrow escape)
9|Page Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics
a red letter day (a day that will never be forgotten)
(3) preposition phrases:

at sixes and sevens (unable/unwilling to agree)


by hook or by crook (by whatever methods prove necessary)
in for a penny, in for a pound (‘I’m involved irrespective
of cost’)

(4) verb + noun phrase:

kick the bucket (die)


pop your clogs (die)
spill the beans (reveal a secret)

(5) verb + preposition phrase:

be in clover (be exceptionally comfortable)


be in the doghouse (be in disgrace)
be between a rock and a hard place (have no room for
manoeuvre)

(6) verb + adverb:

give in (yield)
put down (kill)
take to (like

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figurative language refers to the use of words in a way that
deviates from the conventional order and meaning in order to
convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or
evocative comparison. It uses an ordinary sentence to refer to
something without directly stating it.

Fiction writers use figurative language to engage their


audience using a more creative tone that provokes thinking and
sometimes humor. It makes fiction writing more interesting and
dramatic than the literal language that uses words to refer to
statements of fact.

Types of Figurative Language


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There are several types of figurative languages that are used in
modern writing. They include:

1. Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike
things and uses the words “like” or “as” and they are commonly
used in everyday communication. A simile is used with the aim of
sparking an interesting connection in the reader’s mind.
An example of a simile is, “The cat sat in the chair like a
king overlooking his kingdom.” The cat’s sitting posture is
compared to that of a king who relaxes in a special chair that is
reserved for him and not any other person in the kingdom.
Other examples of similes include:
 The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle.
 The assistant was as busy as a bee when she was preparing
the podium for the presidential address.
 The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.
 The new neighbor is as curious as a cat; nothing escapes her
attention.

2. Metaphor
A metaphor is a statement that compares two things that are
not alike. Unlike similes, metaphors do not use the words “like”
or “as.” Such statements only make sense when the reader
understands the connection between the two things being compared.
An example of a popular metaphor is “Time is money.” The
statement compares time and money, and it does not literally mean
that the amount of time you have equals the money that you have.
Instead, it means that time is a valuable resource, and it should
be used effectively to earn money. Any time wasted means that a
person loses the chance to make more money.
Other examples of metaphors include:
 The warrior has a heart of stone.
 Love is a battlefield.

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 Baby, you are my sunshine.
 Chaos is a friend of the legislator.
 I am drowning in a sea of grief.
 My roommate is going through a rollercoaster of emotions.

3. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an exaggeration that is created to emphasize a
point or bring out a sense of humor. It is often used in everyday
conversations without the speaker noticing it. The exaggeration
is so outrageous that no one would believe that it is true. It is
used to add depth and color to a statement.
An example of hyperbole is, “I would die for you.” The
sentence does not necessarily mean that one person is literally
willing to die for the other, but it used to exaggerate the
amount of love that one person has for another person. Death is
only used to show the extent of affection.
Other examples of hyperbole:
 I have told you a million times to wash the dishes.
 You are so slender that the wind can carry you away.
 The afternoon is so bright that the sun would have to wear
sunglasses.
 You snore like a freight train.

4. Personification
Personification is the attribution of human characteristics
to non-living objects. Using personification affects the way
readers imagine things, and it sparks an interest in the subject.
An example of personification is, “The sun greeted me when I
woke up in the morning.” The sun is a non-human object but has
been given human characteristics since greetings can only be
performed by living creatures.
Other examples of personification include:
 April is the cruelest month of the year.

12 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


 The radio stared at me.
 The car brakes screamed all through the journey.
 The car stopped with a groaning complaint.

5. Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a type of figurative language that uses one
part to refer to the whole, or the whole to refer to the part.
For example, a set of wheels can be used to refer to a vehicle
and a suit to refer to a businessman. When referring to a car as
a set of wheels, the wheels are only a part of the car and not
the whole thing. Similarly, a typical businessman wears a suit
alongside other accessories such as a watch and a briefcase.
Other examples of synecdoche include:
 Bread can be used to refer to food in general or money.
 Head can refer to counting cattle or people.
 Hired hands can be used to refer to workers.

6. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a language that names something or an action
by imitating the sound associated with it. They add some reality
to the writing. Examples of onomatopoeia include:
 The fireplace heater hissed and cracked.
 The truck engine roared as it climbed the hill.
 The alarm clock buzzed at the time I was going to the
bathroom.

CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

A connotation is the feeling a word invokes. But take note!


A denotation is what the word literally says. If these words were
13 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics
on a trip, connotation would be the baggage, and denotation would
be the traveler.

A connotation is the baggage a word or idea drags around.


The word "baggage" often has a negative connotation. If you say
someone has baggage, unless they're at the airport, you mean the
person is lugging around some drama. Some words, like "awesome
birthday cake," have a positive connotation. Here are some other
examples:

"Long before the Christian era, people celebrated the winter


equinox. Let's remove religious connotations and call it the
winter equinox break." (Washington Post)

"I kind of hate that word 'collector' because it has such a


financial investment connotation." ( Los Angeles Times)

"Bryan has instead always opted for baseball caps, a fashion


item that carries few connotations other than a sense of
casualness and youth." (The Guardian)

Denotation is literally the word for a word! It's the


literal meaning of a word, a gesture, or any mark, without
emotion. No strings attached. The root of denotation means, "make
a note of." Let's make a note of these examples:

"In fact, the 'Parks and Recreation' alum said he didn't


know the word's medical denotation." (Los Angeles Times)

"Mr. McDougall gave a strange charge to a gesture that, in


Baroque dance, probably has a simple denotation." ( New
York Times)

14 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


People love to read between the lines, so connotation is
more popular, but it's often held up against its more rigid
friend denotation.

PRAGMATICS
Definition of Pragmatics
 the study of the practical aspects of human action and
thought.
 the study of the use of linguistic signs, words and
sentences, in actual situations.

Pragmatics outlines the study of meaning in the interactional


context

It looks beyond the literal meaning of an utterance and


considers how meaning is constructed as well as focusing on
implied meanings. It considers language as an instrument of
interaction, what people mean when they use language and how we
communicate and understand each other.

Jenny Thomas says that pragmatics considers:

 the negotiation of meaning between speaker and listener.


 the context of the utterance.
 the meaning potential of an utterance

What would happen to language if Pragmatics did not exist?


Pragmatics acts as the basis for all language interactions
and contact. It is a key feature to the understanding of language
and the responses that follow this. Therefore, without the
function of Pragmatics, there would be very little understanding
of intention and meaning.

15 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


We would like to demonstrate this by showing you how life
would be WITHOUT Pragmatics:

‘Can you pass the salt?’

Literal Meaning: Are you physically able to do this task?


Literal Response: ‘Yes’

Pragmatic Meaning: Will you pass me the salt?


Pragmatic Response: pass the salt to the speaker.

‘What time do you call this?’

Literal Meaning: What time is it?


Literal Response: A time (e.g. ‘twenty to one.’)

Pragmatics is the study of how context affects meaning,


such as how sentences are interpreted in certain situations
(or the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context).
Linguistic context is discourse that precedes a sentence to be
interpreted and situational context is knowledge about the
world. In the following sentences, the kids have eaten already
and surprisingly, they are hungry, the linguistic context helps
to interpret the second sentence depending on what the first
sentence says. The situational context helps to interpret the
second sentence because it is common knowledge that humans are
not usually hungry after eating.

Maxin of Quantity

- kung ano lang yung dapat sabihin di sobra hindi kulang

Maxims of Conversation
Grice's maxims for conversation are conventions of speech such
as the maxim of quantity that states a speaker should be as
informative as is required and neither more nor less. The maxim
of relevance essentially states a speaker should stay on the
topic, and the maxim of manner states the speaker should be
brief and orderly, and avoid ambiguity. The fourth maxim, the

16 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


maxim of quality, states that a speaker should not lie or make
any unsupported claims.

Performative Sentences
In these types of sentences, the speaker is the subject who, by
uttering the sentence, is accomplishing some additional action,
such as daring, resigning, or nominating. These sentences are
all affirmative, declarative and in the present tense. An
informal test to see whether a sentence is performative or not
is to insert the words I hereby before the verb. I hereby
challenge you to a match or I hereby fine you $500 are both
performative, but I hereby know that girl is not. Other
performative verbs are bet, promise, pronounce, bequeath, swear,
testify, and dismiss.

Presuppositions
These are implicit assumptions required to make a sentence
meaningful. Sentences that contain presuppositions are not
allowed in court because accepting the validity of the statement
mean accepting the presuppositions as well. Have you stopped
stealing cars? is not admissible in court because no matter how
the defendant answers, the presupposition that he steals cars
already will be acknowledged. Have you stopped smoking? implies
that you smoke already, and Would you like another piece?
implies that you've already had one piece.

Deixis
Deixis is reference to a person, object, or event which relies
on the situational context. First and second person pronouns
such as my, mine, you, your, yours, we, ours and us are always
deictic because their reference is entirely dependent on
context. Demonstrative articles like this, that, these and those
and expressions of time and place are always deictic as well. In
order to understand what specific times or places such
expressions refer to, we also need to know when or where the
utterance was said. If someone says "I'm over here!" you would
need to know who "I" referred to, as well as where "here" is.
Deixis marks one of the boundaries of semantics and pragmatics.

17 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics


Figure 1: The relationship of morphology, semantics, and
pragmatics in grammar

References:
 Todd. L. (1995). An Introduction to Linguistics.
 Framkin. V. (2000). Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic
Theory.
 Kracht. M. (2005). Introduction to Linguistics
 T. Shameem (2016. Word Formation. Retrieved from
https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2016/08/word-formation-
process.html
 https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/
other/figurative-language/
 https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-of-
linguistics/pragmatics/what-is-pragmatics/

18 | P a g e Introduction to Linguistics Module 3 – Lesson 1: Semantics

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