Module 3 - Lesson 1 - Semantics and Pragmatics
Module 3 - Lesson 1 - Semantics and Pragmatics
Module 3 - Lesson 1 - Semantics and Pragmatics
School of Education
Angeles City
Lesson 1: SEMANTICS
Specific Lessons:
START HERE
Semantics studies meanings. It is intimately connected with
logic, the study of reasoning. To see whether we have the correct
meaning it is sometimes illuminating to check whether the
purported meaning carries the correct logical consequences.
1. the fact that a word can have more than one meaning, for
example ball can be both a dance and a round object for
bouncing
2. the fact that different words appear to have the same
meaning, for example ‘regal’ and ‘royal’ or ‘big’ and
‘large’
3. the fact that some words can be analyzed into components
such as adult, female, for example mare implies both adult
and female as well as horse
4. the fact that some words seem to have opposites, for example
‘long’ and ‘short’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’ but not ‘desk’ or
‘table’
5. the fact that the meanings of some words are included in the
meaning of others, for example the meaning of ‘vegetable’ is
included in that of ‘potato’ and the meaning of ‘tree’ is
included in that of ‘elm’
6. the fact that certain combinations of words have meanings
which are very different from the combination of their
separate meanings, for example the meanings of ‘pass’ plus
the meanings of ‘on’ do not add up to the meaning of ‘die’
although that is what ‘pass on’ can mean.
POLYSEMY
autumn fall
estate agent realtor
pavement sidewalk
but even here the choice of one term rather than another
indicates a regional preference. As well as regionally marked
synonyms, we find synonyms which differ stylistically, in that
one term may be more formal than another:
A В
conceal hide
politician statesman
stubborn resolute
bear clamor
brook din
endure disturbance
stand sound level
tolerate
ANTONYMY
implies:
John is married.
John is good.
food drink
land sea
transitive intransitive
warm blooded coldblooded
This is green.
and:
and also:
and:
HYPONYMY
This is a rose.
This is a flower.
plant
deciduous coniferous
Often these hierarchical diagrams are called ‘taxonomies’.
With each downward step we encounter terms of more specific
meaning.
IDIOMS
dead as a dodo
fit as a fiddle
good as gold
give in (yield)
put down (kill)
take to (like
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figurative language refers to the use of words in a way that
deviates from the conventional order and meaning in order to
convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or
evocative comparison. It uses an ordinary sentence to refer to
something without directly stating it.
1. Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike
things and uses the words “like” or “as” and they are commonly
used in everyday communication. A simile is used with the aim of
sparking an interesting connection in the reader’s mind.
An example of a simile is, “The cat sat in the chair like a
king overlooking his kingdom.” The cat’s sitting posture is
compared to that of a king who relaxes in a special chair that is
reserved for him and not any other person in the kingdom.
Other examples of similes include:
The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle.
The assistant was as busy as a bee when she was preparing
the podium for the presidential address.
The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.
The new neighbor is as curious as a cat; nothing escapes her
attention.
2. Metaphor
A metaphor is a statement that compares two things that are
not alike. Unlike similes, metaphors do not use the words “like”
or “as.” Such statements only make sense when the reader
understands the connection between the two things being compared.
An example of a popular metaphor is “Time is money.” The
statement compares time and money, and it does not literally mean
that the amount of time you have equals the money that you have.
Instead, it means that time is a valuable resource, and it should
be used effectively to earn money. Any time wasted means that a
person loses the chance to make more money.
Other examples of metaphors include:
The warrior has a heart of stone.
Love is a battlefield.
3. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an exaggeration that is created to emphasize a
point or bring out a sense of humor. It is often used in everyday
conversations without the speaker noticing it. The exaggeration
is so outrageous that no one would believe that it is true. It is
used to add depth and color to a statement.
An example of hyperbole is, “I would die for you.” The
sentence does not necessarily mean that one person is literally
willing to die for the other, but it used to exaggerate the
amount of love that one person has for another person. Death is
only used to show the extent of affection.
Other examples of hyperbole:
I have told you a million times to wash the dishes.
You are so slender that the wind can carry you away.
The afternoon is so bright that the sun would have to wear
sunglasses.
You snore like a freight train.
4. Personification
Personification is the attribution of human characteristics
to non-living objects. Using personification affects the way
readers imagine things, and it sparks an interest in the subject.
An example of personification is, “The sun greeted me when I
woke up in the morning.” The sun is a non-human object but has
been given human characteristics since greetings can only be
performed by living creatures.
Other examples of personification include:
April is the cruelest month of the year.
5. Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a type of figurative language that uses one
part to refer to the whole, or the whole to refer to the part.
For example, a set of wheels can be used to refer to a vehicle
and a suit to refer to a businessman. When referring to a car as
a set of wheels, the wheels are only a part of the car and not
the whole thing. Similarly, a typical businessman wears a suit
alongside other accessories such as a watch and a briefcase.
Other examples of synecdoche include:
Bread can be used to refer to food in general or money.
Head can refer to counting cattle or people.
Hired hands can be used to refer to workers.
6. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a language that names something or an action
by imitating the sound associated with it. They add some reality
to the writing. Examples of onomatopoeia include:
The fireplace heater hissed and cracked.
The truck engine roared as it climbed the hill.
The alarm clock buzzed at the time I was going to the
bathroom.
PRAGMATICS
Definition of Pragmatics
the study of the practical aspects of human action and
thought.
the study of the use of linguistic signs, words and
sentences, in actual situations.
Maxin of Quantity
Maxims of Conversation
Grice's maxims for conversation are conventions of speech such
as the maxim of quantity that states a speaker should be as
informative as is required and neither more nor less. The maxim
of relevance essentially states a speaker should stay on the
topic, and the maxim of manner states the speaker should be
brief and orderly, and avoid ambiguity. The fourth maxim, the
Performative Sentences
In these types of sentences, the speaker is the subject who, by
uttering the sentence, is accomplishing some additional action,
such as daring, resigning, or nominating. These sentences are
all affirmative, declarative and in the present tense. An
informal test to see whether a sentence is performative or not
is to insert the words I hereby before the verb. I hereby
challenge you to a match or I hereby fine you $500 are both
performative, but I hereby know that girl is not. Other
performative verbs are bet, promise, pronounce, bequeath, swear,
testify, and dismiss.
Presuppositions
These are implicit assumptions required to make a sentence
meaningful. Sentences that contain presuppositions are not
allowed in court because accepting the validity of the statement
mean accepting the presuppositions as well. Have you stopped
stealing cars? is not admissible in court because no matter how
the defendant answers, the presupposition that he steals cars
already will be acknowledged. Have you stopped smoking? implies
that you smoke already, and Would you like another piece?
implies that you've already had one piece.
Deixis
Deixis is reference to a person, object, or event which relies
on the situational context. First and second person pronouns
such as my, mine, you, your, yours, we, ours and us are always
deictic because their reference is entirely dependent on
context. Demonstrative articles like this, that, these and those
and expressions of time and place are always deictic as well. In
order to understand what specific times or places such
expressions refer to, we also need to know when or where the
utterance was said. If someone says "I'm over here!" you would
need to know who "I" referred to, as well as where "here" is.
Deixis marks one of the boundaries of semantics and pragmatics.
References:
Todd. L. (1995). An Introduction to Linguistics.
Framkin. V. (2000). Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic
Theory.
Kracht. M. (2005). Introduction to Linguistics
T. Shameem (2016. Word Formation. Retrieved from
https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2016/08/word-formation-
process.html
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/
other/figurative-language/
https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-of-
linguistics/pragmatics/what-is-pragmatics/