Smart Science

ISSN: (Print) 2308-0477 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsma20

A Review of the Electric Vehicle Charging

Techniques, Standards, Progression and Evolution
of EV Technologies in Germany

Aqueel Ahmad, Zeeshan Ahmad Khan, Mohammad Saad Alam & Siddique
Khateeb

To cite this article: Aqueel Ahmad, Zeeshan Ahmad Khan, Mohammad Saad Alam &
Siddique Khateeb (2018) A Review of the Electric Vehicle Charging Techniques, Standards,
Progression and Evolution of EV Technologies in Germany, Smart Science, 6:1, 36-53, DOI:
10.1080/23080477.2017.1420132

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23080477.2017.1420132

Published online: 28 Dec 2017.

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 Smart Science, 2018
VOL. 6, NO. 1, 36–53
https://doi.org/10.1080/23080477.2017.1420132

A Review of the Electric Vehicle Charging Techniques, Standards, Progression and

Evolution of EV Technologies in Germany
Aqueel Ahmada , Zeeshan Ahmad Khanb, Mohammad Saad Alama and Siddique Khateebc
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India; bDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical
University Munich, München, Germany; cAllCell Technologies, Chicago, IL, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Electric Vehicle development has been adopted as one of the national policies by the German Received 5 December 2017
Government as the country desires to reduce carbon emissions and address energy problem. Germany Accepted 19 December 2017
has invested a lot in the EV development. Since the launch of National Platform Electromobility in
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KEYWORDS
2010 there has been continuous development in EV industry of Germany. In this paper, first the EV
Electric vehicle; plug-in
charging technologies are discussed, which is then followed by the elaboration of the EV charging hybrid vehicle; battery
standards by the major standardization organizations. The study then mentions the status quo and electric vehicle; conductive
projected development of EV technology in Germany focusing on the development of charging charging; inductive
infrastructure and battery technology. This is followed by highlighting the efforts made by German charging; National Platform
auto manufactures in the field of Electromobility and comparison with their American and Chinese Electromobility Germany
counterparts. The paper then identifies the hurdles that are present in the path of achieving the goal
of 1 million EVs by 2020. Then, overview of the EV developing strategy in Germany to address the
challenges is presented which is followed by conclusions and references.

CONTACT Aqueel Ahmad aqueelahmad@zhcet.ac.in, aqueel.100@gmail.com

© 2017 The Author(s)
 SMART SCIENCE  37

1. Introduction and the projections of the EV sectors in Germany. Two

major areas Charging Infrastructure [15–19] and Battery
The automobile industry is experiencing a technological
Technology [20,21] have been focused here. The study
revolution with the rise of electric vehicles (EVs) [1,2],
then moves further stating the contributions made by the
which are challenging their internal combustion coun-
German automakers so far. The vehicles launched by these
terparts. Growing environmental awareness, innovations,
manufacturers and their details in terms of their type,
market acceptance, government support, investments by
battery capacity and price are presented in tabular form.
original equipment manufacturers, and financial viabil-
This will help the reader analyze the progress so far and
ity are together paving the road for electric vehicles. The
the reasons as to why the EV industry has not been very
development of EVs will not only help reduce carbon
effective in influencing the transportations sector. This is
emissions from transportation sector but will also be ben-
followed by highlighting the major challenges that need
eficial by providing support to existing power grids [3–6].
to be faced by Germany in order to achieve their goal of
The efforts by the governments, industries and other asso-
Electromobility. The paper then provides the overview of
ciated organizations have resulted in advancement of EV
the EV development strategy which is being implemented
technology and increment in EV sales, still progress is
in Germany [22–25]. This section highlights the domains
not that rapid as was anticipated [7–9]. With large-scale
which are being concentrated upon and the territories
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investments and highly coordinated R&D, the future of

covered by them. This is followed by conclusions and ref-
EV industry looks promising, though it would be a very
erences. This paper will be of utility to the industry and
long journey to become an alternate and eventually replace
academia who intent to look for information regarding
the existing gasoline vehicles which have dominated the
charging technologies, progress and predictions for the
transportation sector for more than a century [5].
EV industry in Germany.
The paper first elaborates the charging techniques appli-
cable to the EVs. First, the conductive charging method is
explained followed by inductive charging [6,10] and lastly 2. EV Charging Techniques and Standards
the battery swapping technology is also presented. This is
followed by stating EV charging standards issued by major Major challenge for the adoption of electric vehicle is its
standardization organizations. In this section, the major charging. Charging involves the electrical power from the
charging standards have been discussed at length while grid at an appropriate power level is injected to the battery.
a tabular presentation of the existing charging standards Charging times depends on battery and power level of
by the major organization is also presented [11,12]. The charger. The major challenge is charging time and limited
paper then shifts the focus to the EV progress in Germany. life of battery. Some of the technologies of charging of
Germany has set the goal of achieving leadership in mar- electric vehicle are discussed in the following sections.
ket and in provision of electric mobility by 2020 which is Figure 1 shows different EV charging techniques.
a part of its long-term zero emission mobility vision. One
million electric vehicles on the road by 2020 – is the objec-
2.1. EV Charging Methods
tive of Germany’s ‘National Electromobility Development
Plan’ [13,14]. This paradigm shift in the transportation Charging of the Electric Vehicle battery is accomplished
sector needs synchronized operation from government, majorly by three methods: Conductive charging method
industry, academia, R&D, suppliers and other linked [6,26–29], Inductive charging method [10,29–32] and
industries. The paper first analyses the current situation Battery swapping technique [33–35].

Figure 1. Different EV charging techniques.

 38  A. AHMAD ET AL.

2.1.1. Conductive Charging [39–44]. This is used to drive the transmitting (primary)
Conductive Charging allow direct connection of charger coil by means of a compensating network. This high-fre-
and vehicle, physical contact is there between power sup- quency current in the transmitter side coil generates an
ply and battery. It consists of rectifier and converter with alternating magnetic field which induces AC voltages in
some power factor correction and classified as on-board the receiver (secondary) coil [45–49]. By resonating with
and off-board charger. On-board charger contains rec- the compensation network on receiver side, the trans-
tifier and battery regulation inside the vehicle, whereas ferred power and efficiency are significantly improved.
off-board charger has outside. It is classified on the basis of Finally, the AC power obtained is rectified to charge the
various current voltage combinations as follows as shown battery, and in order to improve the efficiency of the sys-
in Figure 2. The physical connection between charger and tem magnetic resonant coupling and DC-DC converter
vehicle limits contact at higher potential difference. Fast must be employed on receiving side [37,50–55]. The
charger may get damaged or sparked to produce risk at frequency for this system varies in the range from 20 to
high power level of charging. Daily habit of charging using 100 kHz. Over this range, the converters in the system
slow charger gets problematic while disremembering the can operate with as high as 90% efficiency. There exist two
charging at night. methods for inductive charging: Static Inductive Charging
and Dynamic Inductive Charging. On the other hand,
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2.1.2. Inductive Charging there are some technical challenges of inductive charger
Inductive power transfer allows battery charging using is the efficiency of transmission and safety. Efficiency if
the varying magnetic field [36] to transfer power through power transfer depends on alignment between transmitter
the air-gap between the primary coil in the ground (trans- and receiver [36,56–63], power pad design [47–49,64–67],
mitter) and the secondary coil in vehicle (receiver) with- frequency of operation [43,68–73], compensation topol-
out any galvanic connection [5,37,38]. This simplifies the ogy [60,61,74–77], and distance between the transmitter
charging process and reduces the risk of any potential and receiver.
harm to use when handling the electrical equipment
[13]. Additionally, the absence of any mechanical parts 2.1.3. Static Inductive Charging
for power transfer enables the concept of ‘opportunity As the name suggests, the vehicle remains stationary or
charging’ [5] implying that the charging process can be static during charging. The owner could simply park the
integrated with the normal vehicle operation. This will car at a spot and leave it for charging with a certain range
cause frequent charging/discharging resulting in decre- for acceptable misalignment. This is convenient as it elim-
ment of battery depth of discharge which increases the inates the necessity for a physical connection between the
battery life and also reduces the size of on-board energy vehicle’s battery and the utility supply [13].This kind of
storage system [6]. Figure 3 represents the layout of a wire- an arrangement is suited at places like shopping malls,
less power transfer system. office garage, etc. where the vehicle is being parked for
Working: The process of wireless power transfer is a particular time interval [78]. The long-term goal is to
divided into three different steps, Conversion of power extend this concept to allow power transfer between vehi-
supply, resonance between the coils to transfer power cle and utility while the vehicle is in motion, which is
and finally again conversion to charge the battery [9]. known as dynamic charging [79]. Figure 4 shows the con-
First, input AC supply is converted to high-frequency AC cept of Static Wireless charging. Static Inductive charging

Figure 2. Different categories of conductive chargers.

 SMART SCIENCE  39

Receiver

DC– DC Motor
Converter Drive

Transmitter
Battery
Rectifier

Power Supply (Grounded) Electric Vehicle

Figure 3. Outline of a wireless charging system.

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Figure 4. The concept of static inductive charging.

technology requires large battery pack to increase the advantageous because it enables the system to energize
range as in case of conductive charging. To overcome only the segment above which the vehicle’s receiver sys-
the problem dynamic wireless charging is the potential tem is present thereby, reducing the energy loss [56].
solution. Some of the challenges of DIC system: very high instal-
lation cost, installation possible only on the highways,
2.1.4. Dynamic Inductive Charging (DIC) universities, except public places; complex management
This inductive charging enables the power transfer while for scheduling, payment, and management [82] of DIC
the vehicle is in motion [3,80]. This method is evolution- system.
ary and is gaining significant attention from the research
fraternity due to its numerous advantages. Using this 2.1.5. Battery Swapping
method, it is possible to charge public transport (buses One of the most time efficient and hassle-free charging
and taxis) at the stops when people board and off board. method is the battery swapping technique. This method
This notion can be extended to highways or roadways involves the replacement of the depleted battery with
where certain lanes can be powered continuously to pro- a fresh one to support the electric drive. The battery
vide charging to vehicles in events of slow movements due swapping station is chiefly composed of a distribution
charge depletion or high traffic [37]. This would enable transformer, AC–DC converters, battery chargers, vehi-
the manufacturers to reduce the size of on-board storage cle batteries, robotic arms, charging racks, maintenance
unit thereby, reducing weight, complexity, initial costs and system, control system, and other equipment involved
will proved the user freedom from range anxiety [23,81]. in the swapping and charging of the batteries [34,83,84].
Figure 5 demonstrates the concept of dynamic inductive One significant merit is the Battery Swapping Stations
charging. have the ability to perform bulk bi-directional power flow
Dynamic charging implementation can incorporate with the grid. During peak demand the stored batteries
two kinds of magnetic couplers. First, is the one in which inject power into the grid and during the off peak hours
a single coupler is laid on the track longitudinally while the charging is performed, thus improving the load curve
the second is the one in which the coupler is segmented and resulting in increased efficiency of the local power
into different coils. This type of approach is significantly systems [85–88].
 40  A. AHMAD ET AL.

Charger Controller
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Figure 5. The concept of dynamic inductive charging.

Additionally, providing added financial benefits to the This is very big challenge for battery swapping to design
station owners and reducing their dependence on utilities the batteries in such a way that can easily be exchanged
for supplying power to them if they have enough charged and be compatible.
batteries to support their functioning. They will also opti-
• Infrastructure
mize the scheduling of public transport. Figure 6 shows
Infrastructure would be very complex and very expan-
the structure of the swapping station. Following are the
sive as compared to other charging strategies. Each charg-
challenges of battery swapping systems [84,89,90].
ing station will demand a huge power from the grid. Each
• Interchangeability car would be using two batteries at a time, one would be
Different manufacturer are having their own compat- at the charging station and other inside the car.
ibility, the probability of getting battery with same con-
• Battery ownership
dition is difficult to find. Driving behavior will effect if
Vehicle owner have to purchase two batteries which
swapped battery is having less state of health [90].
is to be exchanged alternately or doesn’t own the battery
• Feasibility means all burden on the charging station.

D IS T R IB U T IO N
TRANSFORM ER

S w a p p in g S t a t io n B u s

AC / DC AC / DC AC / DC AC / DC
C o n v e rte r C o n v e rte r C o n v e rte r C o n v e rte r

C h a rg e r C h a rg e r C h a rg e r C h a rg e r

B a tte ry B a tte ry B a tte ry B a tte ry

Pack Pack Pack Pack

E V B a t t e r y S t o r a g e P la c e

S w a p p in g S w a p p in g S w a p p in g S w a p p in g
E q u ip m e n t E q u ip m e n t E q u ip m e n t E q u ip m e n t

V e h ic le V e h ic le V e h ic le V e h ic le

Figure 6. Structure of a battery swapping station.

 SMART SCIENCE  41

2.2. EV Charging Standards other on-board electrical systems in an operational state

when connected to the gird and for wireless power trans-
In this section, the different charging standards devel-
fer equipment supplied from on-site storage systems (e.g.
oped by different standardization organizations across
buffer batteries, Ultra Capacitors etc.).
the globe have been mentioned while highlighting those
The SAE J1772 [96] standard also cover conductive
which are widely implemented. Table 1 shows the xEV
charging requirement to facilitate the charging of EV/
charging standards issued by the major Standardization
PHEV in North-America while the SAE J1773 [97] issued
Organizations.
by the Hybrid EV committee establishes the minimum
The IEC 61851-1 Ed. 2.0 (2010) [91] was designed to
interface compatibility requirements for electric vehicle
provide all the information significant to the construc-
(EV) inductively coupled charging in the same geograph-
tion of a charging infrastructure. These are developed
ical regions. This type of inductively coupled charging is
by the TC 69 with the intent of being a complete guide
anticipated to transfer power at frequencies higher than
to any professional designing a charging infrastructure.
the power line frequencies. The SAE J1772 was developed
The standard defines ratings of the AC supply voltage,
in 2009 for conductive charging and applied to EVs and
EV charging modes, specific requirements for the vehicle
PHEVs including the Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, Ford
inlet, connector, plug, and socket outlet. The IEC 61851-23
Focus Electric and Toyota Prius PHEV among others.
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Ed. 1.0 [92] which together with IEC 61851-1 (Ed. 2.0),
The Underwriters Laboratory has circulated the UL2202
gives the requirements for D.C. EV charging stations
[98], UL2251 [99], UL2594 [100], UL2734 [101], UL2871
(conductive charging) and the general requirements for
[102] and UL9741 [103] standards to address the charg-
the control communication between a D.C. EV charging
ing issues with Electric Vehicles. The UL2202 establishes
station and an EV. The standard was published in 2014
the requirements for the Conductive Charging System
with the rationale to standardize the DC charging and
equipment required for recharging the storage batteries
its aspects after it was established that the DC charging
in EV. The UL2202 safety standard is being implemented
system was more efficient than the AC charging system.
by a number of industries like Delphi (120 V/15A, Level
IEC 62196-1 Ed. 2.0 [93] published in 2014 superseding
1 Charger) among others in their charging equipment’s.
IEC 62196-1 refers to the plugs being employed for the
industrial and multiphase applications like in chemical
3. Status Quo and Projected Development of EV
industries, heavy industries, water treatment plants, con-
Technology in Germany
struction sites, and shipyards. Few of these plug types were
also being employed for the automotive charging process Looking at the prominence of mitigating the carbon
and they are covered by the IEC 62196-2 Ed. 1.0. footprint from the transportation sector and ensuring
The IEC 62196-2 Ed. 1.0 [94] applied to plugs and reduced reliance on the oil supply, countries over the globe
connectors having a nominal rated operating voltage not have been making expedite efforts. Germany has been
exceeding 500 V A.C., 50–60 Hz, and rated current not one of the countries which are the forefront of address-
exceeding 63A three-phase or 70A single phase, for use in ing this issue. The German Government established the
conductive charging of electric vehicles. The types of plugs National Platform Electromobility (NPE) in 2010 [104]
include single phase coupler (J1772 connector), single and launched the ambitious ‘National Electromobility
phase and three phase coupler (Mennekes connector), sin- Development Plan’ under which it targets 1 million elec-
gle phase and three phase coupler with shutter (SCAME tric vehicles on road by 2020 and increasing manifolds
connector) and DC coupler (CHAdeMO connector). For this figure to 5 million by 2030 [105–107]. To accomplish
the wireless charging, IEC 61980-1 Ed. 1.0 [95] applies to this vision, the German Federal Government has so far
the equipment for the Inductive Charging from the grid invested in the region of 1.5 billion Euros in electric mobil-
to EV for purposes of supplying to energy storage and/or ity development [108]. The thrust areas of research under

Table 1. xEV charging standards issued by the major standardization organizations.

IEC SAE UL ESO NTCAS JARI JIS ARAI
• IEC 61851-XX-1X • J 1772 (RIP) • UL2202 • EN 61851-X-XX • GB/T 18487.X-2001 • C601: 2000 • TS D 0007: 2012 • AIS-138/D1
Ed. X • J 1773 • UL2251 • CLC/TS 50457- • GB/T 20234.X-2011 • G105-1993 • JIS D 1304: 2004
• IEC 62982 Ed. 1.0 • J 2954 (WIP) • UL2734 X:2008 • QC/T 895-2011 • G106:2000 • JIS D 61851-
• IEC 62196-X Ed. X • UL2871 • QC/T 841-2010 • G107:2000 23/24:2014
• IEC 61980-X Ed. X • UL9741 • G108:2001 • JIS D 62196-3:
• IEC 62840-X Ed. X • G109:2001 2014
• IEC 62983 Ed. 1.0

Note: X in the table symbolizes that exists multiple standards in that particular series and are denoted by series number.
 42  A. AHMAD ET AL.

this platform include the battery and the development of Many more of these points exist within this act, but the
charging infrastructure [19,109], safety and reliability sys- essence of manuscript does not allow to delve further in
tems, electric drive, smart grid integration [110–112] and this issue. To conclude, it can be effectively said that these
other associated technologies. Through these concerted steps if implemented successfully over the defined time
efforts, the government aims to address holistically the scale will definitely aid the government in achieving their
issue of Electromobility: from the vehicle battery, elec- goal.
tric drive technology through charging network, stand-
ards, and regulations to the power supply and smart grid
3.1. Present Status and Future Projections
integration. Throughout Germany, flagship R&D projects
have been launched in the areas of batteries, electric drive In Germany, Plug-In electric vehicles have managed
technologies, vehicle to grid integration, vehicle design, cumulative sales of 66,764 from January 2010 through
and communication technologies to ensure that the tech- September 2016 [115]. This makes Germany fifth larg-
nology is developed at a steady pace and that no associ- est in Europe and eighth largest in the world in terms of
ated aspect is left uncovered [108]. In order to prioritize number of registered Plug-In electrics. Figure 7 gives the
the purchase of EVs by consumers, German Government statistical representation of the registered plug-in cars by
launched several tax incentive measures and road traf- Germany from 2010 to 2015.
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fic management schemes under the Electromobility act From statistics it can be deduced that around 80% of
which came into effect from 2015 and will last all the way the plug-in cars were registered from January 2014 to
to 2030 [113]. Some of the vital points of this act are pro- September 2016, which establishes the fact that the con-
vided as: sumer interests in electric cars is steadily escalating. To
achieve a successful market demand in Germany, it is nec-
essary that the supporting charging infrastructure must
(1) The government will provide a subsidy of 4000€
also be developed. From the outlook of the consumer,
for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and 3000€
it’s not significant if the car is charged by a.c. or d.c. sup-
for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
ply, points in consideration are how long the car takes
[114].
to charge completely and what’s the range of the car. To
(2) To further the benefits, the government has
address these issues, there needs to be steady progress in
exempted the BEVs from motor vehicle tax.
charging infrastructure and battery technology.
(3) For corporate consumers, the government pro-
vided freedom from income tax disadvantages
upon the purchase of electric and hybrid vehi- 3.2. Charging Infrastructure
cles due to the high initial costs of these vehicles.
By end of 2016, a total of 6517 publicly accessible charg-
(4) When on the road these vehicles are entitled to
ing points (2859 charging stations) [116] utilizing mostly
special parking places that will be allocated by
Type 2 a.c. units (compatible with single phase and three
local authorities as enacted by the government.
phase a.c. and d.c. charging) were available throughout
(5) There also exists a proposal to allow access of
Germany. This is a considerable increase beyond a total of
public transport lanes for these vehicles to pro-
5836 which was the number of charging points by the end
vide them an escape from the routine traffic,
of 2015. This shows that there has been an increment of
which makes a very lucrative reason to drive
more than 600 charging points since the end of 2015. The
these vehicles on the road.
German Government has launched R&D projects across
different states and cities to guarantee the development of
technology throughout. Figure 8 shows the total number
of publicly accessible charging points for electric vehicles
Plug-in Hybrids All Electric Vehicle per state.
30000
The Statistic representing the number of publicly acces-
25000
sible charging points in top 10 German cities is given
20000
below:
15000 From Figure 8 it is evident that the state Nordrhein-
10000 Westfalen (NRW) has 1335 charging points (as on 30/6/16,
5000 Source: BDEW) which is greatest among the other German
0 states followed by Baden-Württemberg (1182) and Bavaria
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
(937). These charging station statistics comprise standard
Figure 7. Registered plug-in electric cars in Germany (2010–2015). charging as well as fast charging stations. From Figure 9, it
 SMART SCIENCE  43
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Figure 8. Number of publicly accessible charging points for electric vehicles per state in Germany (as on 30/6/16). Source: BDEW.

Figure 9. Number of publicly accessible charging points in top 10 German cities. Source: BDEW.

can be deduced that Berlin (529) tops the list in terms of of available fast charging points to 7100 each with a capac-
cities with maximum number of charging points. ity of 150 kW as predicted by NPE [14]. The government
Extensive research is being carries out to develop fast plans to increase this capacity to 350 kW by 2025 to match
charging infrastructure due to big money investments and the increase in the battery capacity of the cars. This will
it is expected that by the end of 2017, Germany will have be complemented by increments in the grid capacity
around 1400 fast charging points. This number is expected and increasing the share of renewable energy supply to
to increase by 5 times up to 2020, taking the total number charge these vehicles. Recently, the European automakers,
 44  A. AHMAD ET AL.

utilities and other associated companies, have announced overcharging which can be handled by means of a battery
the project ‘Ultra-E’ which will enable the deployment of management system.
25 new charging stations each with a capacity of 350 kW The battery costs for BEVs were around €250 per kWh
for electric vehicles along the Trans-European transport for industry leaders in 2015 [119]. Therefore, for a 50 kWh
network (connecting the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany battery pack, the costs will go around €12,500. These costs
and Austria) [117]. These measures will likely guarantee are expected to go down with the advancements in the
that the charging infrastructure is available when the high battery design and production technology. Further tech-
performance vehicles come up in the market and that the nological advancements could see the cost going to as low
consumers have to no longer worry regarding the charging as €130–€180 per kWh as anticipated for the 2020–2025
times of their vehicles [118]. timeframe.
Battery Technology: Reliable, efficient, robust, and
cheap batteries are the crux of EV development concept.
4. Progress on EVs by German Automakers
A battery constitutes around half the cost of an electric car,
so it becomes principal to reduce the cost of the batter- The German automakers are playing a pivotal role in
ies for consumer viability and market success. At present helping the country achieve its goal of 1 million EVs by
Li-ion is the most prevalent chemistry among the batter- 2020. The major automobile manufacturers like BMW,
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ies for BEVs and PHEVs and is likely to be leading the Volkswagen (Audi and Porsche included), Daimler and
research among battery technologies in the foreseeable Mercedes-Benz among others have launched many hybrid
future. This is because these batteries possess compara- vehicles and are in the process of manufacturing many
tively higher power and energy for a specific weight or more. The vehicles launched comprise hatchbacks, sedans,
size, and can aptly reduce costs compared with other bat- SUVs, sports cars among others. A comprehensive list of
tery concepts. Additionally, they have longer life cycles all the EVs, PHEVs, HEVs which have been launched and/
and lower self-discharging. One drawback is the risk of or are under development is provided in the Figure 10.

Figure 10. EVs, PHEVs, HEVs launched by German manufacturers. Source: Mark Lines-Automotive Industry Portal.
 SMART SCIENCE  45

From the below table, it is evident that the automakers raw material at low costs. The fact that Chinese compa-
have launched electric drive vehicles in almost all cate- nies have been making inroads over the past year into
gories of vehicles. the lithium-ion supply chain, buying up mining assets
But battery capacity, drive anxiety and cost still remain from cobalt to lithium has allowed them to increase the
a detrimental factor, making it difficult to compete with production thereby decreasing the battery costs. Stringent
conventional ICE based vehicles. The following section governmental policies on provision of subsidies for EVs
gives an idea about the position of German Automakers from foreign manufacturers have also been a driving force
relative to American and Chinese EV manufacturers. towards encouraging the masses to buying the EVs from
indigenous manufacturers. Figure 12 shows the status of
EV industry in China.
5. Status of EV Market in Other Major Countries
5.1. China
5.2. United States of America (USA)
Similar to Germany, China has set up an ambitious tar-
get of having 5 million Electric Vehicles on road by 2020 USA has been at the forefront of promoting electrification
[120]. At the moment, the number of Electric and Plug-In and green energy in transportations sector. Presently there
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vehicles in China have crossed the mark of 1 million and are 35 EV manufacturers in USA, prominent among those
will continue to increase due to technological advance- include Tesla Motors, Chrysler LLC, Chevrolet, Ford Motors,
ments and lucrative policies from the government. Nissan motors etc. These manufacturers have launched wide
Chinese venture capital investors have poured more than range of EVs in all possible segments. As of December 2016,
$1.4 billion into electric vehicle and battery start-ups in the number of Plug-in electric vehicles in USA was more
the past three years, according to Pitch Book, compared than 570,000, making it the third largest market for EVs after
to $2.1 billion in total global venture capital funding for China and Europe. The top-selling EV in USA was Tesla
the sector. The growth of EV industry in China can be Model S, which retained its spot for second time in row.
attributed to these big money investments in R&D’s as The EV market in USA has seen significant expansion
well as in established industries, start-ups in the area of over the last few years after the introduction of EVs like
EVs and battery development. The Chinese EV market Tesla Model S, Model X among others which involved a
is at boom because of availability of large number of EV very high energy density battery pack capable of address-
brands, not only foreign manufacturers like Tesla, Nissan ing the daily commute and highway commute require-
but also because of the presence of numerous indigenous ments with a single charge. The government incentives
vehicle manufacturers, BYD, BAIC (Beijing Auto), BMW and policies allowing incentives and tax exemptions on
Brilliance, Changan, SAIC (Shanghai Auto) among many purchase of EVs has also been a driving force towards the
others. Figure 11 shows the annual EV sales in China. growing EV market. The U.S. Government also promised
These wide ranges of available manufacturers have US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the develop-
capitalized on the demand and are offering electrically ment of next-generation electric cars and batteries, and
propelled vehicles in all segments ranging from two-seat- US$115 million for the installation of electric vehicle
ers, light weight trucks all the way to buses and heavy charging infrastructure in 16 different metropolitan areas
duty vehicles. Another contributing factor to the growth around the country, making the technology cheaper and
of EV and battery market in China is the availability of at par with the conventional IC engine vehicles.

Figure 11. Annual EV sales in China from 2010 to 2017 [119].

 46  A. AHMAD ET AL.

Figure 12. Status of EV industry in China [121].

From Figure 13, it can be observed that the EV sales in 7. Existing Challenges
U.S.A. will almost double from 2015 to 2017. This boom
Electromobility symbolizes a mammoth task of evolving
in sales is largely because the new age EVs can address
the obsolete electric drive train technology in the IEC
to a large extent the problem of range anxiety and with
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dominated automotive industry. Germany has established

availability of charging stations (normal and supercharg-
the goal of becoming the leader in electric vehicle man-
ing stations) the time required to charge has considerably
ufacturing and largest consumer market for them, which
reduced.
indeed adds more magnitudes to the already massive task.
Successful completion of this task would require an all-in-
6. Comparative Analysis of EV Progress by clusive approach towards development of Electromobility.
Chinese, German and American Automakers This would call for cumulative effort from government,
automotive manufacturers, investors, standardization
This section presents an overview of the global position
authorities, utilities, suppliers, and other associated indus-
of the EV automakers from China, Germany, and U.S.A.
tries. The major associated challenges are be listed as:
From Figures 14 and 15, it is evident that China and
USA are at the forefront of EV development and sales
throughout. (1) Firstly, this task would require two very distinct
The closest German automaker is the VW group industries to operate in tandem: Automotive
which stands third in the global EV market share while industry and Power utilities. The ability to
the BMWi3 occupies the fifth position in terms of most harness potential synergies in this novel
sold EVs. It is comprehensible that Germany is at dis- arrangement will be highly reliant on how the
advantage as compared to China and USA as still there interface is defined between electric vehicles
is reluctance among the leading German automakers in and the power grid. Companies, universities
increasing the production scales of EVs among their vehi- and research institutions carrying out research
cles. For Germany to attain its goal of global leadership in both domains will have to make major con-
it is necessary that Germany undertakes expedite efforts tributions to bridge the gap.
in the area of EV manufacturing and in provision of the (2) Secondly, this task would entail huge amount
supporting infrastructures. of investment from all the role players, which

Figure 13. Annual EV sales in USA from 2010 to 2017 [122].

 SMART SCIENCE  47
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Figure 14. Global EV market share by makers [122].

could present an issue as consumers are still runaway, which exactly is a positive feedback
apprehensive regarding the purchase of EVs. loop during which the chemical reactions ini-
(3) The coordinated operation of multiple institu- tiated in the cell leading to increase in the cell
tions would need a proper framework of regu- temperature, potentially resulting in fire or
lations, standardization, legislations to ensure explosion.
stress free working in the long run. (7) Consistent availability of raw materials is
(4) The development in the battery technologies is required to carry on the research with existing
not very rapid which could mean impediment of battery technologies and experiment with new
the plans as it requires time to test a new battery combinations, any interruption in supply can
chemistry and develop a system which would curb the growth.
satisfy the large scale production processes. (8) The utilities could face problems increasing
(5) Additionally, it is huge task to make the pro- the grid capacity to integrate the electric vehi-
duction process cost effective while satisfying cles while maintaining the grid frequency,
the optimal performance requirements. voltage, power factor of the load, current etc.
(6) Safety of the drivers is another concern with Also the share of renewable energy supply
the batteries of the electric cars as it is nec- needs to increase to support the burden of
essary to avoid the occurrence of thermal charging on the grid.
 48  A. AHMAD ET AL.
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Figure 15. Most sold EVs worldwide [42].

(9) Appropriate business models need to be imple- 8. Overview of EV Developing Strategy in

mented to warranty profitable operation for Germany
mobility providers at all levels.
In light of above-mentioned challenges, German
(10) Another challenge is ensuring mass produc-
Government has commenced all-encompassing EV
tion of EVs by manufacturers and presenting
R&D layout plans which are demonstrated in Figure 16.
the consumer with the diversity of choice.
Figure demonstrates the scope of NPE and identifies its
(11) It is imperative to ensure of proper recycling
spectrum of its application. The NPE is mainly devoted
procedures for batteries after their life cycle
to the BEVs and PHEVs including the Range Extended
and safeguarding the profitable return rates for
Electric Vehicle (REEV). Charging Infrastructure and
the involved companies. Proper recycling pro-
Communication technology deals with the development
cedure need to be developed because with the
of charging infrastructures [15,123], power grid integra-
mass production of these vehicles, the number
tion [124], renewable energy integration and expansion
of used batteries will increase and absence of
and developing the communication interface between the
proper procedures to safely dispose them can
grid infrastructures and vehicles. Vehicle Integration cor-
pose environmental threats.
responds to the different types of vehicles [125] and their
(12) To become a global leader, Germany would
integration into the main grid. Drive train technology
need to develop EV technologies fast and
addresses the developments in drive train components
efficiently to outrun their competitors in
like electric motor, power electronic devices, drive system,
Americas, Asia and Europe.
and manufacturing technology [126–128].
These are some of the imminent challenges in the path Battery technology covers the raw material and cell
of Electromobility and coordinated measures need to be development [129], modeling and analysis, identifica-
undertaken to ensure that these hurdles are crossed in tion of innovative battery chemistries and processing
time. technology. Recycling deals with developing proper
 SMART SCIENCE  49
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Figure 16. Layout of the German EV R&D Plan under the National Platform Electromobility.

recycling measures to ensure safe disposal of battery and plans of Germany, it is forecasted that country will lead
drive train components once they cover their lifetimes. the way in terms of electric car production by 2021 [25].
Electric vehicle design technology deals with identifying With the fact that Germany is the largest passenger car
lightweight materials and components for the vehicle market in Europe, it is understandable that the country’s
structure, multiple material design, and manufacturing market for EVs will also expand in due time. This is largely
technology [130,131]. Norms and standardization assure because major German automobile manufacturers are in
that there exists a proper framework to address each and the process of launching EVs and HEVs in the upcom-
every technical and organizational issue important to EV ing years. The future of electric transportation system in
expansion, including standards, testing platform, infra- Germany looks promising and with further advancements
structure platform and application, EV promotion, and it is anticipated that the technology will become more
demonstrations. accessible and user friendly.

9. Conclusion Disclosure Statement

For Germany, in the next 15 years it is very important to No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
promote electric vehicle manufacturing and ownership
domestically and globally for achieving their mission ORCID
of being a global leader in the field of green transporta-
Aqueel Ahmad http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7701-7236
tion. German EV development platform has shown its Mohammad Saad Alam http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4008-
potential with the fact that the manufacturing of these 2680
vehicles is now being targeted by all major automobile
manufacturers, consequently market is also expanding.
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