ABDU GUSAU POLYTECHNIC TALATA MAFARA ZAMFARA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

HND II MASS COMMUNICATION

LECTURE NOTES

ON
REPORTING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

BY
MRS CHINASA IBRAHIM

2021/2022

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Introduction

Science and technology have always played an important part in man's existence from time
immemorial. Even though our ancestors may not had called their knowledge and skill by these
names, when they made such decisions as choosing the best seasons to plant their yams, cassava
and potatoes, they took into account the seasons, the weathers, the amount of water available, the
fertility of the soil, and other factors. This was simple science. When they dug the soil with a
pointed stick or built paddy fields, this was technology.
Today, science and technology have become more complex as we learn more about our universe
and develop ways of changing it. Science and technology today range from theoretical subjects
such as physics to more practical subjects like medicine, agriculture and engineering. There is a
host of other fields such as physics, chemistry, zoology, marine biology, geology, ecology,
medicine, psychology, mechanical and electrical engineering. The list is enormous and growing
every day. Science and technology is too important for journalists to ignore.

The Meaning of Science

When we talk of the word "science" many things come to mind: a fat textbook, white lab coats
and microscopes, an astronomer peering through a telescope, someone carrying out experiments
in a laboratory, a naturalist in the rain forest, a long difficult mathematical equations scribbled on
a chalkboard or the launch of the space shuttle, etc. Although all these images reflect some
aspect of science, none of them provides a full picture of science because science has so many
facets, and a complete view of science is more than any particular instance. Etymologically, the
word “Science” is derived from the Latin word “Scientia” which means “knowledge”. It is an
intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the
natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be
organised into meaningful patterns.

A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data).

An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and amongst the
various facts.
Science is the concerted human effort to understand, or to understand better, the history of the
natural world and how the natural world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of
that understanding. It is done through observation of natural phenomena, and/or through
experimentation that tries to simulate natural processes under controlled conditions.
Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and organised inquiry
into the natural world and its phenomena. It has to do with gaining a deeper and often useful
understanding of the world.
Dauda (2008) cited in Nwabueze (2009) describes it as “the organised study of man and the
universe by means of observation, measurement and experiment”. It is any systematic field of
study which seeks for knowledge through experimentation, observation and deduction to produce
a reliable explanation of phenomena in the world around us. In other words, science is concerned

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with seeking to know about the existing social and natural facts around us. Simply put, it is an
inquiry into the unknown through the known.

The Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology defines science as:
1. The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about
them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts.
2. The organised body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be
verified or tested by further investigation.
3. Any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or
astronomy. Experimentation that tries to simulate natural processes under controlled conditions.
Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and organised inquiry
into the natural world and its phenomena. It has to do with gaining a deeper and often useful
understanding of the world.
Dauda (2008) cited in Nwabueze (2009) describes it as “the organised study of man and the
universe by means of observation, measurement and experiment”. It is any systematic field of
study which seeks for
knowledge through experimentation, observation and deduction to produce a reliable explanation
of phenomena in the world around us. In other words, science is concerned with seeking to know
about the existing social and natural facts around us. Simply put, it is an inquiry into the
unknown through the known.
science and technology in the developing nations. Others include:

Technology Transfer
The inability of the developing nations to develop their indigenous science and technology and
their insatiable appetite for goods manufactured by other nations contribute to their dependence
on other nations. Most of these developing countries believe in technology transfer from the rich
industrialised nation to their peril. Thus, they depend heavily on the importation of things like
vehicles, aeroplanes,
ships, trains, computers, cell-phones, machines of various kinds, clothes, beverages, processed
food items, electronics and billions of other products of scientific knowledge. All these
invariably work against the development of indigenous science and technology.

Brain Drain Syndrome

Generally, people migrate from one area or region to another in search of livelihood and those
things they value to keep and preserve. They also migrate in order to acquire the required
potentials, skills and other materials that help their survival and sustenance. Brain drain denotes
the emigration of professionals, e.g. Teachers, Doctors, Lawyers, Accountants, Pharmacists,
Agriculturists and other high-level administrators, highly skilled manpower and others, from one
country, region or state to another. These people migrate en-masse on daily basis from their own
countries into more advanced countries where their services are needed and valued. Many of
them move from the developing nations to the developed nations. These are persons that

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otherwise would have helped in the development of the less-developed countries, but end up
helping the already developed nations to the detriment of theirs.
Many of them leave their home countries to the Western World where they are welcome and
their services valued. In essence, these people are perpetually colonized, irrespective of the fact
that they seem to get what they could not get for their services in their countries of birth. It is a
new form of colonialism.

Corruption and Leadership Problems

Corruption has been a major problem that has eaten very deep into the fabric of the national lives
of virtually all developed world nations. It has rendered the foundations of development in many
third world countries useless. To many of them, occupying a privileged position means granting
one the license to steal with impunity, to loot shamelessly, to ensure that the treasury is empty
before being forced out of office. Embezzlement, misappropriation, mismanagement of State
funds and converting public funds to personal use do not mean anything to them. Corruption
comes in the form of laziness, bribery, theft, embezzlement and looting of public and private
properties.
As a result of corruption in high and low places in most developing nations, development in the
areas of science and technology that require a lot of investment becomes a mirage.

Political Instability
Political instability occurs whenever there is injustice, nepotism, greed and avarice in the
political system of a country. Political instability retards economic, social and technological
growth. Under this condition, anarchy, confusion and socio-political instability threaten the
corporate existence of many nations. It is a threat to the solid foundation of a political system and
works against scientific and technological development.

Lack of Funds/Poverty
The state of a nation’s economy is a major determinant of its growth and development.
According to Karl Marx, “a nation’s economy is its social infrastructure.” It is on it that every
other structures rest upon. This means that without it, every other institution structure is bound to
fail. In a state of poverty a nation lacks the necessary fund or capital to mange, maintain and
sustain an established structure. Research and development is difficult under this state as there is
little or no capital to sponsor research.
Many of the developing countries are even chronic debtors to the International Monetary Fund
(I.M.F), World Bank and many advanced countries. They enter into loan agreements that are
exploitative of the benefiting nation. It is also common knowledge that these borrowed funds
find their way into private bank accounts and the purpose for which they were borrowed
forgotten. Much of the loans are paid through the exportation of raw materials at very cheap
rates. The prices of the raw materials are deliberately kept low by the manipulative tendencies of
the imperialists. With these precarious situations, poverty has remained endemic in the third
world nations and little or no attention is given to the development of science and technology.

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Indigenophobia
The concept of “indigenophobia” was coined to reflect on the rejection of home made goods by
citizens of developing nations due to fears over quality and durability. This is evident in the
spread of indigenous technological products within and outside the borders of these nations. The
fact remains that people of the developing nations make many goods and services available.
These goods are valued artifacts which are products of their indigenous technology. Some
products like shoes of varied quality, plates and cooking utensils of high quality like cooking and
drinking vessels, cooking stoves, gas cookers, spoons, and electronic appliances like stabilizers,
batteries and bulbs, textile products, woodworks and thousands of other products are locally
manufactured in some nations of the developing world. But the citizens of these nations do not
patronize these products effectively.

Most people in these nations prefer foreign- made goods to the ones manufactured domestically
which compare favourably in quality if allowed to exist freely in the world market. It is even
disheartening that some people from many developing world nations even find it difficult to
admit that ‘they are citizens of such nations in international gatherings. Hatred for home- made
goods and denying that one comes from his/her place of birth are unpatriotic and
counterproductive because one can only help in the development of a place he/she is proud of.

Insecurity/Threat of Wars
The development of science and technology has been hindered by insecurity and threats of war
in many developing countries. Many such nations are in constant squabble internationally and
nationally. Within nations, there are ethnic or tribal wars. These wars are the products of
colonialism. This is because, at the time Africa was partitioned, the contending world powers,
mostly European nations, never considered the cultural boundaries and affinities of the people
they pulled together as one nation. For instance, Nigeria is made up of more than 260 ethnic
groups. At least three of these groups are large enough and have the potentials to stand and exist
as different nations i.e. the Igbo, the Hausa, and the Yoruba.
These developing countries were forcefully partitioned. During the partitioning process, these
giant ethnic groups were amalgamated as one Nigeria. This marked the beginning of crisis and
unstable political and other socio-institutional problems. It marked the beginning of serious
ethnic rivalries and endless wars, leaving little or no efforts towards technological development.
Indigenophobia The concept of “indigenophobia” was coined to reflect on the rejection of home
made goods by citizens of developing nations due to fears over quality and durability. This is
evident in the spread of indigenous technological products within and outside the borders of
these nations. The fact remains that people of the developing nations make many goods and
services available. These goods are valued artifacts which are products of their indigenous
technology. Some products like shoes of varied quality, plates and cooking utensils of high
quality like cooking and drinking vessels, cooking stoves, gas cookers, spoons, and electronic
appliances like stabilizers, batteries and bulbs, textile products, woodworks and thousands of

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other products are locally manufactured in some nations of the developing world. But the
citizens of these nations do not patronize these products effectively.
Most people in these nations prefer foreign- made goods to the ones manufactured domestically
which compare favourably in quality if allowed to exist freely in the world market. It is even
disheartening that some people from many developing world nations even find it difficult to
admit that ‘they are citizens of such nations in international gatherings. Hatred for home- made
goods and denying that one comes from his/her place of birth are unpatriotic and
counterproductive because one can only help in the development of a place he/she is proud of.

Insecurity/Threat of Wars
The development of science and technology has been hindered by insecurity and threats of war
in many developing countries. Many such nations are in constant squabble internationally and
nationally. Within nations, there are ethnic or tribal wars. These wars are the products of
colonialism. This is because, at the time Africa was partitioned, the contending world powers,
mostly European nations, never considered the cultural boundaries and affinities of the people
they pulled together as one nation. For instance, Nigeria is made up of more than 260 ethnic
groups. At least three of these groups are large enough and have the potentials to stand and exist
as different nations i.e. the Igbo, the Hausa, and the Yoruba.
These developing countries were forcefully partitioned. During the partitioning process, these
giant ethnic groups were amalgamated as one Nigeria. This marked the beginning of crisis and
unstable political and other socio-institutional problems. It marked the beginning of serious
ethnic rivalries and endless wars, leaving little or no efforts towards technological development.
Cultural Barriers

Culture is a people’s way of life. Some cultures in Africa constitute threat to the development of
science and technology. This can occur when the people so concerned fail to be receptive to
social changes, restructuring and reformation. In many instances, some scientific innovations
have been stopped as a result of cultural barriers. For instance, scientific ideas in some cultures
have not been developed because of the people’s unwillingness to adjust to changes and
conditions associated with such. In some areas, people have rejected the establishment of
industries or factories because they do not have value for them.
Many development projects are wrongly sited as a result of cultural barriers and hitches even at
this time of globalisation.

Illiteracy
Illiteracy is one of the obstacles to the development of science and technology in many nations of
the world. This is because an educated child is the hope of his or her society. The future of his or
her society depends on the child. Education is no doubt a good instrument of development at all
levels. It helps to equip individuals with information about the prevailing conditions of their
environment that are challengeoriented. In the words of Good (1945), “an educated population is
more receptive to new ideas and innovation and are able to deal with technology and modern

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culture”. Education enables individuals to develop their potentials, skills, capabilities and all
norms and behavioural patterns that are of positive value in the society of his residence. This
idea tells us about the need to have skilled and power, which is very essential in determining the
level of development in a given social environment. The societies of the developing world tend
to lack adequate skilled manpower that will match their scientific and technological expectations,
hence their low rating in the socio-economic development ladder.

Meaning of Science and Technology Reporting

In our previous module, we defined science as field of study which seeks to know about the
existing social and natural facts around us. We also defined technology as the technical skills and
achievements of a particular time in history of civilisation or a group of people. To report on the
hand mean “to give account”, “to tell the story’, etc, and the purpose is usually to inform,
educate entertain, persuade or mobilise. From the above point of view, science and technology
reporting could be said to be the account or story of scientific and technological developments in
the world around us. It refers to the reportage of discoveries, advancements of achievements in
the field of science and technology as well as explaining and interpreting their implications on
the lives of the members of the society.
Nwabueze (2009:324) sees science and technology reporting as “the application of journalistic
principles in conveying information about science and technology issues, topics and
developments to the public through the mass media”. The author goes on to observe that it is that
specialised branch of journalism which consists of the process of gathering newsworthy
information about happenings in science and technology world, processing the raw information
and presenting it to the public through straight news reports and features in the media.
To Nworgu and Nwabueze (2005:154), science and technology reporting is the reportage of reak
throughs in the field of science and technology and their unfolding implications on the lives of
the public”. Such breakthrough could be new inventions or new discoveries, new uses
of/improvements on existing inventions, etc. Before recent times, this aspect of reporting in the
journalism profession was not seen as a worthy area for a reporter to specialise in. But with the
continuous massive breakthroughs in the field in recent times, it has become an interesting aspect
of specialised reporting and several media organisations are beginning to venture therein to.
Today some newspapers and magazines are creating special pages to report happenings in the
science and technology world, while some now specialise in reporting science and technology
issues. Popular science and technology magazines and news sites include:
This magazine covers breaking news, features, and special reports on technology and its impact
on e-business, finance, communications, personal technology, and entertainment.

Discover Magazine: This magazine specialises on features, news, articles, current events and
future views on technology, space, environment, health, and much more.

IEEE Spectrum: This is a magazine for technology innovators, business leaders, and the
intellectually curious. It explores future technology trends and the impact of those trends on
society and business.

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Information Week: This is a business managing technology magazine, offering editorial
commentaries, feature articles, and daily news.
InfoWorld: This is a technology magazine for IT news, product reviews, best practices, and
white papers covering security, storage, virtualisation, open source and more.
Invention & Technology: This is a quarterly magazine dedicated to the history of technology.
This magazine's mission is to identify important new technologies, deciphering their practical
impact and revealing how they affect and change people’s lives.
Mobile Magazine: This magazine covers news and reviews on mobile technology, including
cell phones, PDAs, MP3 players, digital cameras, etc.
OnWindows.com: This magazine provides news, resources and information about companies
that provide enterprise technology solutions.
Popular Mechanics: This magazine covers a variety of information on home improvements,
automotive needs, electronics, computers, outdoors and fitness.
R&D: This magazine provides news and information for the research and development
community, including the annual R&D 100 awards.
Red Herring: This magazine covers innovation, technology, financing and entrepreneurial
activity and such like.
Small Times: This magazine provides features daily articles covering micro electromagnetic
systems (MEMS), nanotechnology, and micro systems, with a business angle.
Tech News World: This magazine offers real time technology news from around the world.
Coverage includes hardware, software, networking, wireless computing, personal technology,
and more. In broadcast stations like the Discovery Channel, Discovery World and NaGeo Wild,
are good examples.

Science and technology reporting could include news about:

1. Parliamentary activities such as bills, laws, deliberations, subcommittees and public

hearing on science and technology matters

2. science workers/teachers, their associations, unions, or groups, e.g. Science Teachers

Association of Nigeria (STAN)

3. science and technology businesses (including sale of science and technology equipment
at small and large scale levels, local and international levels etc)

4. science and technology beat reporters and their association

5. science and technology-based NGOs, CBOs, and faith-based organistions. This includes
news about science and technologyactivities that are related to science matters. For
instance, an environmental NGO could organize a protest against the sighting of a nuclear
technology plant in a residential area

6. workshops, seminars, and conferences in science and technology

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 7. science and technology fraud, crime, impersonation, copyright etc

8. special days on science and technology issues, topics, events, etc, examples include
World Health Day, World AIDS Day, and Science Teachers’ Day, etc. such special days
are likely to yield
science and technology stories.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY REPORTING IN THE

SOCIETY

On a daily basis, breakthroughs occur in the human society. In the areas of science and
technology, it is even a more regular thing. Hardly is there any aspect of human life that is not
affected by this regular occurrence. Nwabueze (2011:239) believes that the entire human
existence and mutual coexistence in any society are to a large extent, shaped by scientific
activities or technology in the world. It is therefore no surprise that people are always interested
in knowing and hearing of new developments in the field of science and technology.
They want to know the latest scientific breakthroughs or how the latest technological
development would impact on their lives (Nwabueze,2011:239). Ordinarily, people would want
to know the latest technological breakthroughs in education, health, sports, information and
communication, banking, business, automobile world, military warfare, etc. This may include
even happenings in local technology.

Nowadays, we hear the United States, Israel and the United Nations mount pressure on Iran and
North Korea to halt their plan to acquire nuclear weapons. Although these stories are awash in
the media, but many people do not even know what the Uranium Iran is accused of is all about. It
is thus left for the media to explain to the people that Uranium is a substance used in developing
nuclear weapons, and that nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction or weapons capable
of destroying many or even wiping out the entire human race.
Such explanations are important because many people do not know what such technologies are
and the reasons why it is detrimental to the world if Iran and South Korea succeed. This goes to
show that science and technology is still an area where many members of the society are show
enormous ignorance. This is incumbent on the media because they are the information purveyors
in the society, and as such, they are expected to play the watchdog role of providing information,
education, entertainment, etc, to the people, not only on political issues, economy, sports, etc, but
indeed in every aspect of the human life, including in the new developments in science and
technology. To do this and do it efficiently and effectively require requires that science and
technology reporting should be treated as a separate genre in journalism. This is in view of the
peculiar technicalities involved in reporting science and technology. Sometimes, the
technicalities and complexities involved in science and technology reporting make it necessary
that media houses employ services of scientists to cover specific areas in science after which the
scientists give such reports the journalist who then give it the journalistic angle. Nwabueze
(2011) drives this home when he observed that:

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the essence of this is because a journalists does not have to be a scientists, neither does he have
to read engineering to become a successful science and technology reporter, and that all a
journalists needs is to master the art of applying journalistic principles in reporting about science
and technology. He also needs to go some extra miles if he is to become a successful specialist in
this field. He must develop special interest in reading and understanding issues and happenings
in science and technology.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY REPORTING

Science and technology reporting face myriads of challenges in many developing nations. They
include:
Inadequate research facilities
In most developing countries like Nigeria, it is hardly debatable that there are gross inadequacies
in science and technology research facilities. In most cases where they are available, what we
call state-ofthe-art facilities are already obsolete and completely outdated in the Western World.
Under this condition, it is even difficult to have a breakthrough in science and technology that
would be reported. You may recall that we earlier defined science and technology reporting as
giving the account or telling the story of scientific and technological developments in the world
around us; or the reportage of discoveries, advancements of achievements in the field of science
and technology as well as explaining and interpreting their implications on the lives of the
members of the society. This means that, to report science and technology, there must be
newsworthy happenings in the area of science and technology. But this has been difficult as not
many new breakthroughs or developments are recorded in science and technology research in the
third world due to inadequate research facilities.
Information hoarding
This is another barrier to science and technology reporting in Nigeria. An average Nigerian is
secretive, not always willing to disclose information. At many times, the persons involved are
not willing to grant interviews to reporters on science and technological achievements, feats,
discoveries or successes. Many attempts end up with such phrases as: “No comment”, “No idea”,
“I don’t know”, “Off record”, “…Who pleaded anonymity”. This has in no little measure
hampered science and technology reporting in the country.
Scarcity of well-trained science and technology reporters
Science and technology reporting is a new genre of journalism that requires special training to do
well therein. At other times, many journalists are skeptical and sometimes afraid to venture into
science and technology reporting due to the technicalities and the numerous hazards associated
with this aspect of journalism. This has served as a barrier to science and technology reporting in
Nigeria. Illiteracy and ignorance of the importance of science and technology Illiteracy
constitutes a major hitch to science and technology reporting in Nigeria. News items are meant to
be consumed by people, i.e. the readers, the listeners or the viewers. Meanwhile, a good number
of the members of the public are not literate enough to read or understand science and
technology writings. Again, a situation where majority of the population do not appreciate

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science the value of science and technology does not augur well for science writing in the
country. This is indeed a major barrier to this genre of journalism in the country.

Poor database

The absence of adequate statistical data and information storage system has been a serious hitch
to the development of science and technology reporting in Nigeria. By this, we refer to the dearth
of reference materials such as professional journals, books, newspapers, magazines, library,
newsletters, computers, internet services, among others.
Lack of basic amenities
Lack of basic amenities indeed hampers the growth of science and technology reporting in
Nigeria. This is because, many of the science and technology news and information emanate
from industries, companies, laboratories and institutions. These organisations depend on
infrastructure to do well and viz-a-viz provide the needed information for science and technology
reporting.
Endemic Poverty
This is another hindrance to the growth of science and technology reporting in Nigeria. This is so
because most of these reports are written and packed to be sold to the members of the public.
These are people whose larger percentage, according to the United Nations, lives below $1 per
day. With such standard of living, it is difficult to patronise science and technology writings.
Without patronage, science and technology reporting suffers serious setbacks.
Inadequate ICT Facilities
In modern times, the business of news reporting has gone digital. Today, broadband and satellite
technologies, among others have made media reporting quite different from what it used to be in
the past. In reporting science and technology, it is even a more serious matter following the
technicalities involved therein. Today, we have reporters that go into space along with the
astronomers, those that go to sea alongside with the ocean divers, report sophisticated wars
alongside the air force, the navy and all manner of scientific ventures. There is little doubt that
reporting these areas requires some technologies which are not available in the developing world.
Systemic Corruption
The science and technology reporter in Nigeria today is not operating from the moon. He is in a
society where the fabrics, according to Aliede (2005:136), are already overwhelmed by high
levels of corruption everywhere. Such a reporter according to him can hardly be expected to be a
saint among sinners. Thus, he/she, just like his/her counterparts in other professions, wallows in
all manner of corrupt practices forgetting to protect his/her calling.

BLUEPRINTS TO EFFECTIVE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY REPORTING

To effectively report science and technology, the reporter should:

Build up a basic knowledge
Science and technology is a huge field, but each subject usually has some basic rules which
govern it. If you understand these rules, you will be able to work out the rest of the topic, even

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though you will not understand all the details.
Read wide

Science and technology advance so quickly that you must keep up to date. Read articles on
science and technology. Read books on basic science (encyclopedias are a good place to start).
Avoid textbooks which are too complicated. Instead, look for books which explain their subject
in simple terms for ordinary, non-scientific readers. Ask people expert in each field for advice on
the best books for your needs - something clear and simple.
Make contacts
Get to know as many scientists and technologists as you can. They can give you advice on
subjects you do not understand and, like any good contact; they will be a useful source of story
ideas. Do not expect an expert in one field to be able to help in another. Few electrical engineers,
for example, will know what lymph glands do in the body. Make as wide a range of contacts as
you can, across all the fields of science and technology.
Choose people who can give you:
(a) Story ideas
(b) Background information, and
(c) The names of people you should ask for further details.
Try to establish at least one contact from each major scientific field (such as medicine,
environmental science, agriculture and fishing, geology, engineering or any other fields which
are especially important in your society). Keep in regular contact with them. You can quote
them in your stories if they are experts in the particular field about which you are writing, but it
is better to go to the expert who is best able to give you the specific information you need. Some
scientists are better at explaining their work in simple terms than others. When you are
researching a story, go to the contact most suited to your particular need. For example, one
zoologist may be able to explain the background to a new development, but you may have to ask
the head of the university department or the director of the research station for any official
comments.
Do not forget that scientists often work in teams. If one member cannot help, another might be
able to. Technicians and laboratory assistants can be a very good source of story ideas, but do not
rely on them for the official version of a story. If they give you a story idea, seek out the scientist
concerned for details.
Build trust
Any scientists do not trust journalists. They may not think you are capable of reporting their
work properly or they may have had a bad experience with journalists in the past. They may have
been misquoted or seen errors in stories. You have to show that you can be trusted. It will help if
you do some background research of your own before interviewing them, so that you can show
you know the basic facts about their field. It is not enough to tell them you can be trusted; you
have to show it in every story that you write. If you make careless errors or do not keep a
promise, you will lose their trust for ever.
Dig for the truth

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Being friendly does not mean you have to believe everything a person says. Much of science is
built on experiments and on trial-and-error. In many fields, a number of scientists may be
working on the same topic, and may reach different conclusions. They are often competing
against each other to be the first with a result. They may occasionally make big claims to show
how important they are or to justify money being spent on their research. Be especially careful
about scientists who say their work will benefit mankind. In many cases it will, but in others it
may not. For example, a scientist may tell you that a new drug will help people to relax, but
he/she may not tell you that it increases their risk of getting cancer. The side-effects of science
can be more damaging than the benefits from it.

Therefore, you must question their claims by asking probing questions. If you still feel unhappy
about what you have been told, go to other experts in that field and ask for further information.

Be skeptical
Both science and journalism are based on being skeptical and questioning what people say.
Galileo would never have proved the world was round by believing what most other scientists of
his era were telling him. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein would never have exposed the
corrupt Watergate Scandal if they had trusted the White House press denials. As a journalist with
the power to influence people, you will be asked to accept at face value all sorts of claims.
Science and technology companies will offer you all sorts of free samples, advice and even
prepared news stories to promote their products. They will disguise this by saying these are
important medical breakthroughs. Always question their claims and always balance what they
say by seeking and reporting opposing views. Drug manufacturers and research companies are
increasing offering television journalists ready-made and professionally-packaged news reports
of a new medical breakthrough or wonder drug. In many cases they may be beneficial but a good
journalist – like a good scientist – must always ask hard questions and inform readers and
listeners honestly and fairly. Do your own work, even use some of the video footage if it is
relevant – then go out and get alternative views to balance or moderate the claims.
Use simple language
In reporting science and technology, simplicity of language is necessary. This is because, the
reports are not writing for experts alone, industrial in-house journal. He is writing for the entire
public comprising mostly of people who do not know the scientific jargons or terms or languages
used by those in the industry. This means that his job is to step down the high-level language of
scientists to a level that all interested readers will understand. This means that scientific
information must be translated for the understanding of the layman.
Summarise the process and make the report brief A reporter does not necessarily need to begin a
step-by-step report on how new surgical equipment was manufactured. This is because major
breakthroughs in scientific research are usually long term affairs involving many-complicated
procedures. The job of the science and technology reporter is to summarise the findings without
omitting the important objects. This means that he must be able to say many things in few words.
Get to the point but endeavour to leave out unnecessary details that would bore your audience.

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Interpret as is necessary
In science and technology reporting, efforts should be made to step down the scientific or
technological breakthrough to its implication to the lives of the ordinary members of the public.
This is perhaps the sure way members of the public can benefit maximally from scientific stories.
Of course, science and technology terms are technical and complicated to the ordinary man on
the street. They do not want to know a new technology has been discovered, but how it will
either improve their lives in the long or short run. These and other blueprints would go a long
way in guiding reporters in the area to excel. Career Prospects in Science and Technology
Reporting In our society today, science and technology play crucial roles in human existence.
This has made it imperative for every media organisation to have the science and technology
desk or unit in its editorial section.

Science and technology reporting is no doubt, an aspect of journalism that has great prospects for
anyone that chooses to venture therein. This is because, the area is relatively new when
compared to other forms of specialised reporting, and media organisations out there are
constantly in need of specialist reporters in the area to correspond for them. This is more so
because, we are in the age of technological advancement and new breakthroughs are recorded
even as you read this lecture series, and these discoveries and breakthroughs are issues that affect
you and me.

The media as part of their basic function of informing, educating and entertaining society are
duty bound to report these happenings in the public interest. This increasing importance of this
area of journalism has led increase in the number of special interest publications in science and
technology in the news stand. You may be aware of the PC World magazine, the I.T. & Telecom
Digest and many other health publications that discuss science and technology issues. Interested
specialist reporters, i.e. reporters that develop themselves (see our discussions in the previous
units) in this area can take the opportunity to pursue a career in such special interest publications.
They could also run science and technology programmes in broadcast media as we already have
today in some stations like AIT, NTA and a few others. The programmes could run for 30
minutes or more, covering news and other reports in science and technology issues. Again,
specialist reporters could correspond for international media organisations. They could even
work as freelancers in this field. They could work for science and technology based governments
and non government organisations, faith based organisations of course some religious bodies are
now fully involved in publishing.
Trained reporters in this field could also be employed by IT firms who publish newsletters and
periodicals, health research institutions, and indeed, every science and technology establishment
that publish newsletters, periodicals, among others. These and other fruitful areas in this branch
of journalism goes to show that they area can never be overtaken by events, especially as newer
discoveries and breakthroughs in science and technology are continuously made on daily basis.

Sources of Science and Technology News

Science and technology have come to stay with us. Hardly is there any aspect of the human

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society that is not affected in one area or the other. This has made sources of science and
technology news quite ubiquitous.

Ohaja (1994) believes that Curtis MacDoughall’s example provides good insight to the fruitful
areas to source science and technology news, and they include:
1. News on facilities that enhance human comfort and aid relaxation, for example, advances
in the entertainment industry, automobile, engineering, communication technology, among
others News on facilities or procedures for improving health and extending life span, for
example, advances in pharmaceutical research, cures for deadly diseases, surgical procedures,
family planning, nutrition techniques and developments, industrial safety, pollution, and control.
Here the depletion of ozone layer by industrial activities and implication to live also come in

2. News on nature of the universe, for example, discovery of new planets, stars and
elements eclipse, etc

3. News on scientific waste, for example waste of natural resources, susceptibility to

diseases, over population, among others

4. At the local level, efforts being made by various state governments in Nigeria on waste
management projects also fall in here

5. Efforts in areas of gas flaring and gas turbine development, i.e. conversion of waste into
useful materials belong

6. News on scientific predictions, for example, the elimination of manual labour, control of
elements, constructive use of nuclear energy, among others

7. News on heroism, for example, bravery in bad health, sacrifices to research, among
others. Some researchers have been bitten to death by poisonous snakes in the course of
collecting venom from snakes for scientific research. Such stories fall under this sub-heading.
Search for local examples as a way of encouraging researches in Nigeria. Such people could
exist in the rural areas without being recognised. It is the duty of a crack reporter in science and
technology beat to fish them out and let the public know about them

8. News on adventure, for example, hardship at the poles, in the jungle, on mountain tops

9. News on the unusual, for example new intentions. You hear of people trying to fly across
the globe in a balloon.

MEANING AND TYPES OF INTERVIEW

Meaning of Interview
An interview is an exchange of information between a reporter and a source. It is one of the
commonest methods of gathering information for news writing and reporting. Hardly is any news
story written without facts from interviews in one form or the other. The interview is therefore

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indispensable in modern journalism. The primary purpose of interviewing a source is to get
information on any issue as take. In modern science and technology reporting, interview is a very
suitable method of digging into persons, issues and events and coming up with facts and figures
which may otherwise be hidden from the public.
Interviews require patience, confidence and an uncanny ability to listen, participate, observe and
absorb. Reporters must be able to ask questions and then listen to the entire response from the
source.
An interview may be arranged, unarranged or abrupt. When it is abrupt, it requires no
preparations, but when it is arranged, it is well prepared for.

Types of Science and Technology Interview

There are different types of interviews that a science and technology reporter may apply in
sourcing for information. Some of them are:
a. Exclusive interview: This refers to an interview granted to a reporter by a source without any
invitation extended to any other reporter. It is exclusively conducted by a reporter without any
other reporter participating in it. Whatever information disclosed during the interview is known
only by the reporter who conducted the interview. This type of interview is booked for in
advance.
b. Panel interview: This type of interview is when a group of reporters comes together to
interview a personality or a group of personalities.
c. Telephone interview: This is an interview conducted on the phone. It is a non-face-to face
interview. The main advantage of this kind of interview is that it saves time and perhaps cost.

d. Personality interview: This is an interview conducted by a reporter with a view to gathering

information concerning a person whose life’s activities or discoveries, the reporter wants to write
about. This type of interview is mostly conducted with a public figure or a celebrity. Like the
exclusive interview, personality interview is booked for in advance with adequate preparation.
e. On-the-spot interview: This type of interview is conducted on the scene of an event, e.g. it
could be done in the laboratory where an important discovery is made.
f. Symposium interview or vox pop or voice of the people or public opinion interview: This is an
interview intended to generate public opinion on an issue of public interest. e.g. it could be about
a new technology, say mobile phone; an epidemic, say HIV/AIDS; new medicine, etc.

g. News interview: This is when the primary purpose of the interview is to elicit background
information that will help to explain news events.
h. Group interview or news/press conference: This is a forum of interaction or exchange of views
between as many reporters as possible and the news source(s).

Meaning of Beat Reporting

A beat is a reporter’s assigned area of responsibility. A science and technology beat, therefore, is
the special interest area where a science and technology reporter is assigned, for the purpose of
continuous coverage of science and technology news. A reporter assigned to a particular beat is

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responsible for the gathering of important information from such beats and reporting it to the
public through his medium.
A reporter who covers a particular beat is called a special beat reporter. As a specialised reporter,
he/she is “limited to some aspects of news coverage or to a particular beat” (Nworgu and
Nwabueze, 2005:55) When a reporter is assigned to a particular place, his/her job requires
frequent visiting perhaps on daily basis to seek or hunt or sniff for information and writes and
files such stories to his editor for onward transmission to his audience whether in print or
broadcast.
In a general interest medium, science and technology could be regarded as a beat for a reporter to
special on. However, in a science and technology special interest magazine like the PC World or
a science and technology broadcast medium like the Discovery Channel, there could be several
beats in science and technology reporting. In that case, a reporter may be assigned to specialised
area in covering wild life, another in covering developments in a space centre (e.g. John F.
Kennedy Space Centre, in the USA). One could be assigned to specialise in reporting
developments or breakthroughs in medical research centres or health correspondent, agriculture,
telecommunications, energy correspondents, oil and gas, etc.

Whatever the beat is, the method requires 3Cs, “Call, Cultivate and Comb”.
i. Call means that you must be there to call on the most important persons in that office as you
hunt for your information. This means mixing with high and low persons in your beat for
gossips. Any important gossip or rumour becomes a clue that needs investigation.
ii. Cultivate means that the reporter should build friendship at the beat. i.e. cultivating mutual
relationships with people who will eventually serve as his/her sources of information.
iii. Comb means that the reporter must regularly and carefully search every nook and cranny of
the beat for news clues and news possibilities.

IMPORTANCE OF BEATS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NEWS

Gathering Process
Beat reporting is very important in science and technology news gathering process in many
ways. Some include the fact that it:
a. enhances day- to- day work of the news medium by making news and other reports
readily available
b. boosts the quality and quantity of news items carried by a news medium

c. leads to specialisation in the science and technology news gathering process. This is
because the more a reporter covers a special beat, the more he/she becomes a specialist in the
coverage of such beat.

d. boosts the quality and quantity of news items because the news sources develops
confidence in the reporter and gives him/her every information he requests.
However, the major problem with beat reporting is that the reporter may develop cronyism

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(possibility of showing bias towards your friends i.e. the tendency to protect your loved one) due
to the friendship developed at the beat.

Meaning and Types of Style

In the general term, style means fashion or trend. It is a particular way of doing things; a way
somebody does what he does, writes what he writes, and says what he says. Summers et al
(1995:1437) define style as “a particular way of doing something designing something, or
producing something especially one that is typical of a particular group of people”.
As a journalistic term, it simply means distinctive ways of writing news, editorials and sundry
journalistic writings (Nwodu, 2006 :). According to Aligwe (1999:185), “Style is the
peculiarities about the rhythm of a writer’s work resulting from diction and sentence
construction”. Emphasis on style in science and technology reporting is perhaps due to the many
technicalities involved in the area.

Types of Style in Science and Technology Reporting

Generally, there are two types of styles. They are formal style and informal style.

Formal style: Formal style is the style used in writing classical English. It emphasises a serious
tone, purity and dignity of expression, elevated diction but usually expressed in long sentences
yet interesting because of generous use of punctuations in the right places to achieve simplicity
and precision. Formal writing style shows mastery of the language. It is common with people of
high education who write serious things with dignity. It is called “Queen’s English” or “Classical
English”.

Informal style: Mos writings today are informal. They are used in everyday usage with respect
to correct grammar.

Sometimes: it adds colloquialism, dialect, even slangs but the writer should be conscious not to
slip into sub-standard writing such as unconventional sentence structure and annoying
Americanisms.

Individual style: There is what we call “individual style”. Every writer has a style. When we
read several writings or works of some authors and compare their types of writing, we begin to
see differences in their approaches to writing. But the surprise is that no author is likely to be
able to describe his or her style, rather it is the reader that identifies the author’s style.Some
writers use serious expressions, some use suspense, some use proverbs. Some other writers use
satire (ridicule) sarcasm, vituperation. Other use solecism euphony and elegance. All these are in
order to create effect on the readers. We also have other forms of style such as:
Complex style: This type of style as the name sounds is complex. It uses ambiguous language in
the believe that some audience members are easily thrilled with ambiguous words and sentences.
This type of style must not by any means be used in science and technology reporting, this is
because science and technology reporting is already an ambiguous area, any additional
ambiguity would make it more complicated.

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The Simple style: This is the direct opposite of the complex style. Simple style of writing makes
for easy reading and enhances easy comprehension. Journalists are often encouraged to adopt
this style. This is perhaps the best style of media writing, especially for science and technology
writing. Nwodu (2006:) believes that the simple style performs the following functions:

1. It makes room for smooth, convenient and pleasurable reading

2. It emphasises the use of easy-to-understand (simple) vocabularies, which help to carry

greater percent of the audience members along regardless of their differential educational
levels.

3. It creates room for brevity in writing by ensuring that every vocabulary, diction, syntax
phrase, imagery and sentence length is not only simple and short but also plays
significant function in the overall sentence structure.

4. It creates room for clarity in writing by ensuring that the message of communication is
properly conceptualised, articulated and communicated to the audience members in a
manner that will enhance easy understanding of the message idea.

5. It encourages precision in writing by ensuring that the intended message idea is precisely
in tune with the message idea communicated and understood by the audience members.

Humorous style: This type of style uses funny, amusing, humorous style to communicate
important messages. Most writers that use this style of writing are usually naturally endowed
with high sense of humour. Aligwe (1999:188) cited in Nwodu (2006) observes that: the
objective of humorist is to achieve relaxation and amusement in his readers. He helps his readers
relax frayed nerves. He leads them to the rich treasures of fun and amusement concealed in so-
called sad subjects.
There can be fun in war. There can be amusement in oppression. There can be laughter in
suffering. The humorous stylist is skilled in making the heavy loads of life light on his readers.

Flowery style: Here, the language is made very colourful, beautiful and well embellished with
appealing images. This type of style takes the form of prose. The language is simple; it is
narrative and makes use of proverbs, figures of speech, etc.

The journalistic style: Journalism writing combines both formal and informal style. In most
cases, however, it makes use of formal style in the sense that it is usually aimed at the average
readers.
A newspaper is not a textbook or a material for attention of professionals. It is for anybody who
can afford it. Newspapers and magazines are such that once bought by one person can circulate
to many secondary readers. But sometimes some newspapers and magazines have particular
audiences. So it is for the writer to know the style that suits his/her audience.
We say in journalism that “News is sacred, and opinion is free” That means that news writing is

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more serious writing than the feature. The individual feature writer has the right to use his
peculiar style, yet we find nowadays that much news writing is sensational writing.
News is primarily meant to provide information and interpretation. In opinion writing, editorials
are very serious writing. It is educative, instructive, interpretative, argumentative and persuasive.
Argumentation appeals to the sense of season. Persecution appeals to the emotion. Thus, unlike
news, unlike editorials, feature writing and column writing use the free style. Free style means
individual style.

Some journalists however, carry informalities to the extreme and degenerate from the pathos to,
turning informal writing to substandard writing. This type of writing turns educated people away.
This is why some educated people do not treat journalistic writings with much significance, but
see many as sensational writers who sacrifice truth and seriousness to falsehood. Young
journalists who believe that they are being creative by writing to impress and sensationalise,
afflict the reader with what is called “Journalese” thics: A Conceptual Overview The natural man
is both rational and instinctual. Man, therefore, is said to be ethically guided only when he/she is
able to suppress his/her instincts and behave in a manner considered to be rational within a social
group. This suppression of the instinctual aspect of man for morality sake is what is known as
ethics.

Explicitly put, ethics is the moral philosophy or science that determines what is right or wrong in
a social context, (Nwodu, 2006:134.) The same author cites Summer et al. (1995:466) as saying
that “ethics is a moral rule or principle of behaviour for deciding what is right and wrong”.
However, Merrill (1975) puts it succinctly: Ethics is a nominative science of conduct, with
stipulated guidelines, rules, principles and codes that are designed to lead individual to make
moral decisions.
The implication is that morality is at the core of ethical discourse-cumpractice. In the context of
ethics therefore, the acceptance or otherwise of human attitudes and behaviours; actions and
inactions; and overall conducts can be based on relative moral uprightness or otherwise of such
conducts. This explains why a given act can be said to be ethically right or wrong, good or bad,
responsible or irresponsible, logical or illogical; socially acceptable or unacceptable, and moral
or immoral (Nwodu, 2006:134).

Some Ethical Issues in Media Science and Technology

Reporting
The ethical issues facing today’s media reporters in the country have been how to strike a
balance between personal/organisational interests with societal interests. In balancing these
conflicting interests therefore, it is imperative that science and technology reporters reflect on the
code of ethics for Nigerian journalists.
1. Truth and honesty: An ethical media manager is required to use his medium to project issues
truthfully. The problem with this however is that absolute truth is only an ideal that does not
exist. If absolute truth in news reporting requires that journalist should report all happened
without prejudice and bias; then reporting an aspect of event in preference to other aspect can

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hardly stand as the truth. Thus, perhaps, the best an ethical journalist can attain is to be objective
in reporting issues even when such report is likely to affect his personal interests. Again, this is
an ideal that only exists in the mind. Objectivity as ethical principle therefore demands that
journalist should eschew his subjective views and personal biases in reporting issues that affect
public and even private interests.
2. Privacy: Both media laws and ethics recognise the importance of privacy. There is a limit to
which people can spy into the affairs of others. Individual’s right and privilege to privacy is
therefore a valuable asset that should be guided jealously.
3. should not get annoyed or snub back. Rather, try and establish a rapport with the hostile
person concerned and if all efforts fail to make him/her see reason, then the reporter may have to
look for another source.
Threats, intimidations, harassments, beating and other forms maltreatments At several instances,
newsmen face all sorts of threats, intimidations, harassments, physical assaults and all manners
of maltreatments in the process of news gathering and news reporting. Sometimes, the assaults
come from the police or other law enforcement agents, touts, organisational security men etc.
Still fresh in the mind is the brutal assault of a Channels Television reporter at the Lagos State
University Teaching Hospital, Ikeja, Lagos, in an attempt to take shots of the remains of the
DANA plane crash victims.
a. Law suits and jail terms
In our previous units, we discussed the various laws that regulate science and technology
reporting. One of such laws is defamation (libel and slander). Often times, reporters are given
false information and, as we stated earlier, any story based on false information could lead to a
reporter being charged to court for libel or slander. Publication of libelous and seditious
statements or obscene objects may earn a journalist a jail term. This makes it imperatives that a
reporter should not always rush to the editorial room with a story whose facts have not been
thoroughly substantiated. Also, he/she as a matter of serious importance take time to study
should and get acquaint with the constitutional provisions governing laws that regulate media
practice in the land. Similarly, many journalists have been charged to court or jailed for refusal to
divulge source of information when asked to do so by a judge, labeling it contempt of court.
b. The ultimate price (death)
Many journalists have paid the ultimate price in the process of gathering and disseminating
information for the public. A reporter may get killed or seriously injured while performing
his/her duty. Dele Giwa was killed by letter bomb. Mr Enenche of Channels TV was killed by
gunmen while reporting live in Kano in 2012. Many die in a motor accident, plane crash or ship
wreck while doing their assignments. Many journalists lose their lives while covering wars in
Lebanon, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Mali and even northern Nigeria.

Confidentiality: A media person is expected to keep the names of his informants secret.
Maintaining the confidentiality of the source of information, especially one obtained on deep
background is an essential pedigree of journalism practice. Hazards in Science and Technology
Reporting Hardly is there any profession in the world without its peculiar hazards. In the media

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industry, newsmen all over the world share an identical burden and face similar hazards in the
process of carrying out their traditional duty of gathering and transmitting information to the
public. Some of the hazards have little consequences, while others are grievous.
c. Snubbing
A science and technology reporter may be snubbed by the ever-busy cientist, technologist or any
potential news source when he/she makes his/her approach. Sometimes the source may even
become aggressive, hostile or uncooperative. However, when such happens, the reporter should
not get annoyed or snub back. Rather, try and establish a rapport with the hostile person
concerned and if all efforts fail to make him/her see reason, then the reporter may have to look
for another source.
Threats, intimidations, harassments, beating and other forms of maltreatments At several
instances, newsmen face all sorts of threats, intimidations, harassments, physical assaults and all
manners of maltreatments in the process of news gathering and news reporting. Sometimes, the
assaults come from the police or other law enforcement agents, touts, organisational security
men etc. Still fresh in the mind is the brutal assault of a Channels Television reporter at the
Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Ikeja, Lagos, in an attempt to take shots of the
remains of the DANA plane crash victims.
d. Law suits and jail terms
In our previous units, we discussed the various laws that regulate science and technology
reporting. One of such laws is defamation (libel and slander). Often times, reporters are given
false information and, as we stated earlier, any story based on false information could lead to a
reporter being charged to court for libel or slander. Publication of libelous and seditious
statements or obscene objects may earn a journalist a jail term. This makes it imperatives that a
reporter should not always rush to the editorial room with a story whose facts have not been
thoroughly substantiated. Also, he/she as a matter of serious importance take time to study
should and get acquaint with the constitutional provisions governing laws that regulate media
practice in the land. Similarly, many journalists have been charged to court or jailed for refusal to
divulge source of information when asked to do so by a judge, labeling it contempt of court.

e. The ultimate price (death)

Many journalists have paid the ultimate price in the process of gathering and disseminating
information for the public. A reporter may get killed or seriously injured while performing
his/her duty. Dele Giwa was killed by letter bomb. Mr Enenche of Channels TV was killed by
gunmen while reporting live in Kano in 2012. Many die in a motor accident, plane crash or ship
wreck while doing their assignments. Many journalists lose their lives while covering wars in
Lebanon, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Mali and even northern Nigeria. In recent times,
kidnapping of journalists and attacking and bombing of media houses are also becoming
frequent. All these threatening hazards pose a serious challenge not only to budding reporters,
but indeed to the media industry at large.
In addition to the above, a science and technology reporter specifically
may also fall victim to these other hazards identified below:

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Fire

In science and technology reporting, the risk of fire in is very high. Fire can break out in a
laboratory when a science and technology reporter is covering experiments. It could be as a
result of chemical reactions during experiments, flammable liquids such as gasoline if they come
close to a source of fire, such as a Bunsen burner. When such is the case, both those conducting
the experiments and those covering it become victims.

Chemicals

The chemicals that are used in a laboratory can cause harm to anyone around the area, especially
strangers or visitors such as invited media persons that are not very conversant with their modus
operandi. This includes the danger of the chemicals splashing into the eyes during
demonstrations, inhaling of such chemicals are also very dangerous to human health, etc. To
reduce the risk, media men who enter laboratories with scientists should wear safety goggles,
long sleeves and lab coats to minimise their vulnerability because some of the chemicals, such as
iodine and hydrogen fluoride, are very poisonous.

Electricity
Electricity is used in many appliances in the media. However, those who report science and
technology seem to be most vulnerable. It poses a potential hazard of short circuiting if negative
and positive wires come into contact. This can happen if workers accidentally pour water or
other liquid into the electricity sockets. This can lead to damage to the electrical system or even
cause a fire. Hot plates require special precautions, as a hot plate that is turned on looks the same
as one that is turned off. Another hazard posed by electricity is electrocution. If the electric
wiring system is faulty, workers may come into contact with live wires. To reduce the chances of
these accidents occurring, there must be proper enlightenment on proper handling of electricity
and electric gadgets. There should also be frequent inspections of the electric wiring system so
that any faults can be detected before an accident occurs.

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