Section 7.

3—The Dot Product of Two

Geometric Vectors

In Chapter 6, the concept of multiplying a vector by a scalar was discussed. In

this section, we introduce the dot product of two vectors and deal specifically
with geometric vectors. When we refer to geometric vectors, we are referring to
vectors that do not have a coordinate system associated with them. The dot
product for any two vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes
multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the two vectors when the two
vectors are placed in a tail-to-tail position.

Dot Product of Two Vectors

C

A u B

AC # AB
@ AC @ @ AB @ cos u, 0  u  180°
! ! ! !

Observations about the Dot Product

There are some elementary but important observations that can be made about
this calculation. First, the result of the dot product is always a scalar. Each of the
quantities on the right side of the formula above is a scalar quantity, and so their
product must be a scalar. For this reason, the dot product is also known as the
scalar product. Second, the dot product can be positive, zero, or negative,
depending upon the size of the angle between the two vectors.

Sign of the Dot Product

For the vectors a and b , a # b
0 a 0 @ b @ cos u, 0  u  180°:
! ! ! ! ! !
! !
• for 0  u 6 90°, cos u 7 0, so a # b 7 0
! !
• for u
90°, cos u
0, so a # b
0
! !
• for 90° 6 u  180°, cos u 6 0, so a # b 6 0

The dot product is only calculated for vectors when the angle u between the vectors
is to 0° to 180°, inclusive. (For convenience in calculating, the angle between the
vectors is usually expressed in degrees, but radian measure is also correct.)

NEL CHAPTER 7 371

 Perhaps the most important observation to be made about the dot product is that when
two nonzero vectors are perpendicular, their dot product is always 0. This will have
many important applications in Chapter 8, when we discuss lines and planes.

EXAMPLE 1 Calculating the dot product of two geometric vectors

! !
Two vectors, a and b , are placed tail to tail and have magnitudes 3 and 5, !
!
respectively. There is an angle of 120° between the vectors. Calculate a # b .

Solution
Since 0 a 0
3, @ b @
5, and cos 120°
0.5,
! !

a # b
132 152 10.5 2

! !

7.5

Notice that, in this example, it is stated that the vectors are tail to tail when taking
the dot product. This is the convention that is always used, since this is the way of
defining the angle between any two vectors.

A. Given vectors a and b where! 0a 0
5, 冨b 冨
8 and the angle between the

! ! ! !
INVESTIGATION
!
vectors is 60°, calculate a # b .
! !
B. For the vectors given in part A calculate b # a . What do you notice?
a
Will this relationship always hold regardless of the two vectors used and the
60° measure of the angle between them? Explain.
! ! ! !
C. For the vectors given in part A calculate a # a and b # b . Based on your
! ! !
observations, what can you conclude about u # u for any vector u ?
D. Using the vectors given in part A and a third vector c , 0c 0
4, as shown in the
! !
a
diagram, calculate each of the following without rounding:
iii. a # 1b  c 2
! ! ! ! !
60° i. 冨b  c 冨
20° b ! ! ! !
ii. the
! angle between iv. a # b  a # c
c ! !
b  c and a .
E. Compare your results from part iii and iv in part D. What property does this
demonstrate? Write an equivalent expression for c 1a  b 2 and confirm it
!# ! !
a
using the appropriate calculations with the vectors given in part D.
F. Using the 3 vectors given above, explain why 1a # b 2 # c  a # 1b # c 2 .
! ! ! ! ! !
60°
d 20° ! !
b G. A fourth vector! d , 冨d 冨
3, is! given as shown
c ! in the diagram. Explain why
a d
a 1d 2
1a 2 d
1a 2 1d 2
!# ! !# ! # ! #

! ! ! ! ! !
H. Using the vectors given, calculate a # 0 , b # 0 and c # 0 . What does this imply?

372 7 . 3 T H E D OT P R O D U C T O F T W O G E O M E T R I C V E C TO R S NEL
 Properties of the Dot Product
It should also be noted that the dot product can be calculated in whichever order we
choose. In other words, p # q
0 p 0 0 q 0 cos u
0 q 0 0 p 0 cos u
q # p . We can change
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
the order in the multiplication because the quantities in the formula are just scalars
(that is, numbers) and the order of multiplication does not affect the final answer.
This latter property is known as the commutative property for the dot product.

Another property that proves to be quite important for both computation and
!
theoretical purposes is the dot product between a vector p and itself. The angle
between p and itself is 0°, so p # p
0p 0 0p 0 11 2
0p 0 2 since cos10°2
1.
! ! ! ! ! !

EXAMPLE 2 Calculating the dot product between a vector and itself

a. If 0a 0
V7, calculate a # a .
! ! !
! !
b. Calculate i # i .

Solution
a. This is an application of the property just shown. So, a # a
1 V7 2 1 V72
7.
! !
!
b. Since we know that i is a unit vector (along the positive x-axis),
i # i
!112! 112
1. In! general, # x
0x! 0 2
1.
! ! ! ! !
! for any
! vector
! x of unit length, x
Thus, j # j
1 and k # k
1, where j and k are the unit vectors along the
positive y- and z-axes, respectively.

Another important property that the dot product follows is the distributive property.
In elementary algebra, the distributive property states that p1q  r2
pq  pr.
We will prove that the distributive property also holds for the dot product. We will
prove this geometrically below and algebraically in the next section.

Theorem: For the vectors p , q , and r , p 1q  r 2
p # q  p # r .

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! !
Proof: The
! vectors p , q , and r , are drawn, and the diagram is labelled as shown
! !
with AC
q  r . To help visualize the dot products, ! lines from B and C
!
have been drawn perpendicular to p (which is AF ).
C
r
B

q q+r

A D p E F

Using the definition of a dot product, we write q # p
0 q 0 0 p 0 cos BAF.

! ! ! !

NEL CHAPTER 7 373

 If we look at the right-angled triangle ABD and use the cosine ratio, we note
that cos BAD
! or AD
0 q 0 cos BAD. The two angles BAD and BAF are
AD !
0q0
identical, and so AD
0 q 0 cos BAF.
!

Rewriting the formula q # p
0 q 0 0 p 0 cos BAF as q # p
1 0 q 0 cos BAF 2 0 p 0 , and

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

substituting AD
0 q 0 cos BAF, we obtain, q # p
AD 0p 0 .

! ! ! !

! ! !
We also consider the vectors r and p . We translate! the vector BC so that point B
is moved to be coincident with D. (The vector BC maintains the same direction
and size under this translation.)
C
r

B, D E p

Writing the dot product for r and p , we obtain r # p
0 r 0 0 p 0 cos CDE. If we use
! ! ! ! ! !

trigonometric ratios in the right triangle, cos CDE
! or DE
0 r 0 cos CDE.

DE !
0r0
Substituting DE
0 r 0 cos CDE into r p
0 r 0 0 p 0 cos CDE, we obtain
! !# ! ! !
r # p
DE 0p 0 . If we use the formula for the dot product of q  r and p , we
! ! ! ! ! !
get the following: 1q  r 2 # p
0 q  r 0 0 p 0 cos CAE. Using the same reasoning
! ! ! ! ! !

! and AE
1cos CAE 2 0 q  r 0 , and then, by

AE ! !
as before, cos CAE
!
0q  r0
substitution, 1q  r 2 p
0p 0 AE.
! ! # ! !

! ! ! !
Adding the two quantities q # p and r # p ,

q # p  r # p
AD 0 p 0  DE 0 p 0
! ! ! ! ! !

0 p 0 1AD  DE 2
!
(Factoring)

0p 0 AE
!

1q  r 2 # p
! ! !

Thus, q # p  r # p
1q  r 2 # p , or, written in the more usual way,

! ! ! ! ! ! !

p # 1q  r 2
p # q  p # r
! ! ! ! ! ! !

We list some of the properties of the dot product below.

This final property has not been proven, but it comes directly from the definition
of the dot product and proves most useful in computation.

374 7 . 3 T H E D OT P R O D U C T O F T W O G E O M E T R I C V E C TO R S NEL
 Properties of the Dot Product
! ! ! !
Commutative Property: p # q
q # p ,
Distributive Property: p # 1q  r 2
p # q  p # r ,
! ! ! ! ! ! !

Magnitudes Property: p # p
0 p 0 2,
! ! !

Associative Property with a scalar K: 1kp 2 # q
p # 1kq 2
k1 p # q 2

! ! ! ! ! !

EXAMPLE 3 Selecting a strategy to determine the angle between two

geometric vectors
If the vectors a  3b and 4a  b are perpendicular, and 0 a 0
2 @ b @ , determine
! ! ! ! ! !
! !
the angle (to the nearest degree) between the nonzero vectors a and b .

Solution
Since the two given vectors are perpendicular, 1a  3b 2 # 14a  b 2
0.
! ! ! !

Multiplying, a # 14a  b 2  3b # 14a  b 2
0

! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
4a # a  a # b  12b # a  3b # b
0 (Distributive property)
Simplifying, 4 0 a 0  11a b  3 @ b @
0
!2 !# ! !2
(Commutative property)
Since 0 a 0
2 @ b @ , 0 a 0
12 @ b @ 2
4 @ b @
! ! !2 ! 2 !2
(Squaring both sides)

Substituting, 414 @ b @ 2  11112 @ b @ 2 1 @ b @ 2cos u2  3 @ b @
0

!2 ! ! !2

Solving for cos u,

13 @ b @ 2
!
cos u

22 @ b @ 2
!

, @b@  0
13 ! 2
cos u

22
13
Thus, cos1 a b
u, u ⬟ 126.2°
22
Therefore, the angle between the two vectors is approximately 126.2°.

It is often necessary to square the magnitude of a vector expression. This is

illustrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE 4 Proving that two vectors are perpendicular using the dot product
If 0 x  y 0
0 x  y 0 , prove that the nonzero vectors, x and y , are perpendicular.
! ! ! ! ! !

NEL CHAPTER 7 375

 Solution
Consider the following diagram.
x

x+y

–y y
x–y

Since 0x  y 0
0x  y 0 , 0 x  y 0 2
0 x  y 0 2
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
(Squaring both sides)

0x  y 0
1x  y 2 1x  y 2 and 0 x  y 0
1x  y 2 1x  y 2
! !2 ! ! # ! ! ! !2 ! ! # ! !
(Magnitudes
Therefore, 1x  y 2 1x  y 2
1x  y 2 1x  y 2
! ! # ! ! ! ! # ! ! property)

0 x 0 2  2x # y  0 y 0 2
0 x 0 2  2x # y  0 y 0 2
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
(Multiplying out)
!# ! !# !
So, 4x y
0 and x y
0
Thus, the two required vectors are shown to be perpendicular. (Geometrically,
this means that if diagonals in a parallelogram are equal in length, then the sides
must be perpendicular. In actuality, the parallelogram is a rectangle.)

In this section, we dealt with the dot product and its geometric properties. In the
next section, we will illustrate these same ideas with algebraic vectors.

IN SUMMARY

Key Idea
! !
• The dot product between two geometric vectors a and b is a scalar quantity
defined as a b
0a 0 @ b @ cos u, where u is the angle between the two vectors.
!# ! ! !

Need to Know
! !
• If 0°  u 6 90°, then a # b 7 0
! !
• If u
90°, then a # b
0 SUMMARY
! !
• If 90° 6 u  180°, then a # b 6 0
! ! ! !
• a#b
b#a
a # 1b  c 2
a # b  a # c
! ! ! ! ! ! !
•
a # a
0a 0 2
! ! !
•
! ! ! ! ! !
• i # i
1, j # j
1, and k # k
1
1ka 2 # b
a # 1kb 2
k1a # b 2
! ! ! ! ! !
•

376 7 . 3 T H E D OT P R O D U C T O F T W O G E O M E T R I C V E C TO R S NEL
 Exercise 7.3
PART A !
!
1. If a # b
0, why can we not necessarily conclude that the given vectors are
perpendicular? (In other words, what restrictions must be placed on the
vectors to make this statement true?)
2. Explain why the calculation 1a # b 2 # c is not meaningful.
C
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
3. A student writes the statement a # b
b # c and then concludes that a
c .
Construct a simple numerical example to show that this is not correct if the
given vectors are all nonzero.
! ! ! ! ! !
4. Why is it correct to say that if a
c , then a # b
b # c ?
! !
5. If two vectors a !and b are unit vectors pointing in opposite directions, what is
!
the value of a # b ?

PART B
6. If u is the angle (in degrees) between the two given vectors, calculate the dot
product of the vectors.
a. 0p 0
4, 0q 0
8, u
60° d. 0p 0
1, 0q 0
1, u
180°
! ! ! !

b. 0x 0
2, 0y 0
4, u
150° e. 0m 0
2, 0n 0
5, u
90°
! ! ! !

c. 0a 0
0, @ b @
8, u
100° f. 0u 0
4, 0v 0
8, u
145°
! ! ! !

7. Calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle between the given vectors.
a. 0x 0
8, 0y 0
3, x # y
12V3 d. 0p 0
1, 0q 0
5, p # q
3
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

b. 0m 0
6, 0n 0
6, m # n
6 e. 0a 0
7, @ b @
3, a # b
10.5
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

c. 0 p 0
1, 0 q 0
5, p # q
3 f. 0u 0
10, 0v 0
10, u # v
50

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !
K 8. For the two vectors a and b whose magnitudes are shown in the diagram
below, calculate the dot product.

)b* = 6
120°

)a* = 7.5

9. Use the properties of the dot product to simplify each of the following
expressions:
a. 1a  5b 2 # 12a  3b 2
! ! ! !

b. 3x # 1x  3y 2  1x  3y 2 # 13x  y 2
! ! ! ! ! ! !

NEL CHAPTER 7 377

 !
10. What is the value of the dot product between 0 and any nonzero vector? Explain.
! ! ! ! ! !
A 11. The vectors a  5b and ! a  b are perpendicular. If a and b are unit vectors,
!
then determine a # b .
! !
12. If a and b are any two nonzero vectors, prove each of the following to be true:
a. 1a  b 2 # 1a  b 2
0 a 0 2  2a # b  @ b @ 2
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

b. 1a  b 2 # 1a  b 2
0 a 0 2  @ b @ 2
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
13. The vectors a , b , and c satisfy the relationship a
b  c .
a. Show that 0a 0 2
@ b @ 2  2b # c  0c 0 2.
! ! ! ! !
! !
b. If the vectors b and c are perpendicular, how does this prove the
Pythagorean theorem?
! ! !
14. Let u , v , and w be three mutually perpendicular vectors of lengths 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. Calculate the value of 1u  v  w 2 # 1u  v  w 2.
! ! ! ! ! !

15. Prove the identity 0u  v 0 2  0u  v 0 2
2 0u 0 2  2 0v 0 2.

T
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! !
16. The three vectors a , b , and c are of unit !length and! form the sides of
! !
equilateral triangle ABC such !that a  b!  c
0 (as shown). Determine
the numerical value of 1a  b 2 # 1a  b  c 2 .
! ! !

b a

A c B

PART C
! ! ! ! ! ! !
17. The ! vectors a , b ,! and c are such that a  b  c
0 . Determine the value of
a # b  a # c  b # c if 0a 0
1, 0b 0
2, and 0c 0
3.
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !
18. The vector a is a unit vector, and the vector b is any other nonzero vector. If
c
1b # a 2a and d
b  c , prove that d # a
0.
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

378 7 . 3 T H E D OT P R O D U C T O F T W O G E O M E T R I C V E C TO R S NEL