Dr.

Muhammed Gamal

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
States of Matter
Sublimation

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement Regular Irregular Irregular
Molecular Closely Packed Loosely packed Widely Separated
Packing
Molecular Vibrate in its fixed Free to move Free to move fast
Movement point slowly and randomly

Diffusion
• Random movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration
Diffusion increases by

Increasing Temperature Decreasing Molecular Mass

➢ Relative molecular mass = sum of atomic masses of the atoms (Covalent)

Brownian Motion Boiling vs Evaporation

Random, Zigzag motion of particles when: at boiling At room
point temp
Bombarded by invisible water Bombarded (smoke or dust) by Whole From
molecules around them. invisible air particles, i.e. liquid Surface
Nitrogen and Oxygen Molecules Needs No heat
due to fast, random motion. heating needed
Pure substance : Sharp Melting and boiling points (used as a test of purity)

Impurities

Decreases melting point Increases boiling poin

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Atomic Structure

Atom: Smallest particle which makes up an element.

Atomic no. = Proton no.
Mass no. = Protons + Neutrons
No. of neutrons = Mass no. - Atomic no.
-Same Period= Same Number of Shells

-Same Group= Same number of outermost electrons

Particles Proton Neutron Electron

Mass 1 1 1/1840

Charge +1 0 -1
Symbol P+ N0 e-

➢ Atom : p+ = e-

➢ Ion : p+ ≠ e-

-ve +ve
e- more than p+ p+ more than e

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of:
• Same element
• Same atomic number
• Different mass number
➢ Same Chemical properties as they have same number of electrons in outer
shell.
➢ Different Physical Properties as they have different masses

Uses
Medical Industrial
Example: Cobalt-60 Example: Uranium-235
Treating cancer Fuel in nuclear power stations
Sterlizing Medical Equipment Detecting cracks in water pipes

To calculate relative atomic mass:

e.g. Chlorine-35 has 75% abundancy, while Chlorine-37 has
25%abundance, calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
-Multiply percentage abundance by the Ar then add them
e.g.
(75 x 35 +25 x 37)/100= 35.5
N.B
Fission: Splitting Nucleus of an atom to generate large amount of energy

Fusion: Joining two nuclei together to form one nucleus, e.g. Sun
explosions

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Metals and alloys
Definitions:
Element : Substance made of only one type of atom+ Cannot be chemically
separated into smaller parts.
Alloys: Mixture of elements designed to have useful properties for a particular
purpose.
Group 1 Metal VS Transition metals
Physical properties LOW melting point HIGH Melting point
LOW Density HIGH Density
SOFT HARD
Chemical Properties White compound, Coloured compounds
colourless in solution
ONE oxidation state More than One
oxidation state
Cannot act as catalyst Can act as CATALYST
Table B: Uses of metals
METAL USE REASON
Aluminium 1) Kitchen foil Resistant to corrosion
2) Cooking utensils Resistant to corrosion
Good Heat Conductor
3)Aircraft &Overhead Low density, high tensile
power cables strength
Copper Cables Good electric conductor
Zinc Galvanising Iron More reactive than iron
Why do we make alloys?
Usually they have higher tensile strength--→Differently sized of atoms make
friction and decrease sliding over each other.
They are more resistant to corrosion
ALLOY USE REASON
Brass ( Zinc and Copper) Ornaments
Bronze (Copper and Tin) Ornaments
Mild steel(Iron and Car bodies and machinery due to high tensile
Carbon) strength
Stainless steel Cutlery and surgery tools Resistant to corrosion
(Iron Nickel, Chromium)
Solder( Lead and tin) Welding Low melting point

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
REACTIVITY SERIES

REACTIONS WITH METALS

Na

Ca

Mg

Al

-C-

Zn

Fe

Sn

Pb REACTION WITH ACIDS REDUCTION BY CARBON

-H- Salt and Hydrogen Metal and Carbon

Cu 2K +2HCl → 2KCl + H2
2ZnO + C → 2Zn + CO2

Hg Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
Cu + HCl → NR
Ag Al2O3 + C → NR
Ca +2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Au 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2

Pt

Cold water Steam ( water vapour)

First 4 metals in reactivity series Second 4 metals in reactivity series

2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H 2 Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2

Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2 2 Fe + 3H2O → Fe2O3 + 3H2

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Solid Structure
1- Ionic 2- Metallic 3-Covalent

Ionic Metallic
Description
Metal + Non Metal Metals only

Positive and negative ions with Positive ions surrounded by sea of

strong electrostatic attraction forces negative electrons with attraction
forces, arranged in layers
Lattice / regular arrangement Lattice / regular arrangement

Properties
Hard : Due to strong attraction forces Hard : Due to strong non-directional
between positive and negative ions attraction forces between positive
ions and free moving electrons
High m.p : strong attraction forces High m.p : Strong attraction forces

Conducts electricity: free moving Conducts electricity : free moving

ions electrons
Soluble in water Malleable(Can be stretched to sheets)
and ductile(Can be stretched to
wires) : layers can slide over each
other

COVALENT BONDS

1 – Simple covalent 2 – Giant Covalent

Simple covalent : (non-metal + non-metal) when two or more atoms are

bonded covalently by sharing electrons.

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
GIANT COVALENT

Diamond Silicon Dioxide Graphite

Description
Each carbon atom is Each silicon atom is bonded Each carbon atom is
bonded to 4 carbon to 4 oxygen atoms and each bonded to 3 carbon
atoms by strong oxygen atom is bonded to 2 atoms by strong covalent
covalent bonds in a silicon atoms by strong bonds. (one free electron
tetrahedral structure covalent bonds in a for each carbon atom )
tetrahedral structure

Properties
-Hard solid and high : - Hard solid : strong Soft Solid : weak
strong attraction attraction forces, attraction forces so layers
forces between carbon tetrahedral shape can slide past each other
atoms held by strong
covalent bonds,
tetrahedral shape
-High m.p : strong - High m.p : strong - High m.p : strong
attraction forces attraction forces attraction forces

-Doesn't conduct -Doesn't conduct electricity - Conducts electricity :

electricity : No free : No free moving electrons free moving electron
moving electrons No free moving ions
No free moving ions

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Acids and bases
Acid Base
Proton donor, pH <7 Proton acceptor, pH >7
Strong acid: completely ionized in solution. Strong alkali: complete ionized, producing
high conc. of OH- ions.
Weak acid: partially ionized in solutions.
Weak alkali: partial ionization. producing low
conc. of OH- ions

Chemical Properties of Acids Chemical Properties of Bases

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen Alkali + Ammonium Salt →
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 Salt + Water + Ammonia gas(weak base)
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + H2O + NH3
dioxide
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Acid + base(Metal Oxide or hydroxide)→ Salt + water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Acid turns litmus paper Red. Base turns litmus paper Blue.

Tests Acid Base

1- Litmus paper Red Blue
2- pH meter 1-6 8-14
3- Methyl orange Red Yellow
4- Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Universal indicator

1,2,3 4,5 5,6 7 8,9 10,11 12,13,14

Red Orange Yellow Green Dark Green Blue Violet

Acid

Base

Strong Weak

Strong Weak
Rapid effervesnce when Mild effervesnce when
added to metal added to metal
carbonate carbonate

Violet colour with Dark green9 with

universal indicator universal indicator
Red colour with universal Yellow colour with
indicator universal indicator
 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Oxides

Basic oxide Acidic Oxide Neutral Amphoteric

Metal Oxide Non-Metal oxide Monoxides AL2O3 AND ZnO
React with acid React with base Don’t react with both React with Both

Titration

Acid Base

- Two acids of the same conc. - Two bases of the same conc.

- Add few drops of methyl orange - Add few drops of methyl orange
- Add sodium hydroxide drop s by - Add hydrochloric acid drops by
burette until colour changes from
burette unti colour changes from
yellow to orange
red to orange

Base that requies

Acid that requires greater volume of HCl
greater volume of is stronger base
NaOH is the stronger
acid
Base that requies less
Acid that requires less volume of HCl is
volume of NaOH is the weaker base
weaker acid

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Redox Reactions
Oxidation Reduction
Reducing Agent(Highly reactive metal) Oxidizing Agent (Less Reactive metal ION)
1. Gain of oxygen 1. loss of oxygen
2. Loss of electrons 2. Gain of electrons
3. Increase in oxidation state 3. Decrease in oxidation state

Oxygen transfer reaction

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Oxidation occurs Reduction occurs
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

Electron transfer reaction

2Mg + O2 → 2Mg+2 + 2O-2
Oxidation occurs Reduction occurs
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

Change in oxidation state

Oxidation (increase in oxidation state): Reduction (decrease in oxidation state):
Fe → Fe
+2 +3 +4
V →V

Test for reducing agents → using strong oxidizing agents

Potassium Manganate (KMnO4): Purple → Colorless

Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7): Orange → Green

Test for oxidizing agents → using strong reducing agents

Potassium Iodide (KI): Colorless → Brown solution

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
To understand half ionic equations:
The more reactive ATOM becomes an ion, and the reactant ion,
by turn, becomes an atom, e.g.
Na+ Cl-+K-----→K+Cl-+Na
Since Cl- is present as an ion in reactants and products, it cancels
out, so ionic equation is:
Na+ + K--→Na + K+
The more reactive metal has greater tendency to form ions, in this case,
Potassium. Potassium Loses electrons and Sodium ion gains the electrons

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
ELECTROLYSIS

INERT ACTIVE

1.INERT: (Graphite or Platinum electrodes)

Molten Aqueous

Metals form at
Cathode (-ve) The Least Reactive +ve ion
form at Cathode
Non-metals form at The Less Complex -ve ion
Anode(+ve) form at Anode
Electrolyte is used up

Example:
Pb+2 Br-
cathode: Pb+2+ 2e- Pb
-
anode: 2Br - 2e- Br2

NOTE:
1. Electrolysis of aqueous tin sulphate & zinc sulphate are similar to copper sulphate
2. Equation of hydroxide: 4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2
3. Electrolysis of Brine solution (NaCl) from 3 important chemicals: Cl2 – H2 - NaOH

• At Anode: 4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2

• At Cathode: Cu+2 + 2e- Cu
Electrolysis of Aqueous • ELECTROLYTE: H2SO4
CuSO4

• At Anode: 4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2

• At Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2
Electrolysis of Aqueous • ELECTROLYTE: Conc. H2SO4
H2SO4

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
EXCEPTION: Dilute NaCl: Oxygen form at anode Hydrogen form at cathode, Electrolyte
change to Conc. NaCl

2.ACTIVE:(Metal electrodes)

Purification Electroplating

Rule when you purify Rule when you plate

any metal: any object:
1.At cathode: object to be
1. At cathode: pure metal plated
2. At anode: impure metal 2.At anode: pure metal
3. Electrolyte: a solution of 3.Electrolyte: a solution of the
the metal to be purifed metal used in electroplating

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Purification of copper Electrplating with SIlver
* At anode(impure Cu): decrease *At anode: decrease in size as
in size as copper convert into Cu +2 silver convert into Ag+
*At cathode(pure Cu): increase in *At cathode: increase in size as
size as Cu metal form( gains Ag metal form
electrons and gets discharged) *Electrolyte (AgNO3): no change
*Electrolyte (CuSO4): no change

NOTES:
• Electrolyte doesn’t change:
As Ions used in electroplating replaced from anode by the same rate.

• Observations (SEEN): e.g. bubbles, colour of electrolyte fades/gets darker

N.B: -Electrolysis is an endothermic reaction
-Electrons flow from anode to Cathode in external circuit.

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Metal Extraction
Aluminum Iron Zinc
.Method of extraction: .Method of extraction: .Method of extraction:
Electrolysis Reduction by Carbon in blast Reduction by Carbon in
Its ORE: Bauxite (Al2O3) furnace blast furnace
Materials used: Its ORE: hematite (Fe2O3) . Its ORE:(ZnS)/ (ZnCO3)
(950-1000oC) / Cryolite Materials used:
(Na3AlF6) Hot
air/coke/hematite/Limestone
Steps: Steps: Steps:
• Aluminum oxide dissolve in • Hot air is blown through holes • Zinc blende is roasted in air
Cryolite • C + O2 —> CO2 (Exothermic 2ZnS + 3O2 —> 2ZnO+2SO2
• Aluminum formed at cathode reaction) • Thermal decomposition of
and • CO2 + C —> 2CO ZnCO3
oxygen formed at anode • 2 Fe2O3+3C —> 4 Fe + 3 CO2 ZnCO3 —> ZnO + CO2
• Reactions take places: Or Fe2O3+3CO —> 2Fe+3CO2 • Zinc oxide is heated with
• Al2O3 —> 2Al3+ + 3O2- (Redox reactions) Carbon in
1. At cathode: Al3+ + 3e- —> Al • CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2 blast furnace :
2. At anode: 2O2- - 4e- —> O2 • To remove impurities: 2ZnO + C —> 2Zn + CO2
• Gases formed at anode: • CaO + SiO2 —> CaSiO3 💡 Zinc formed at the top of
• Oxygen (from electrolyte) (Acid&Base reaction) the blast furnace.
• Carbon dioxide (from complete • Finally, Two layers formed at 💡 Atfer we obtain zinc oxide,
reaction between Oxygen and the bottom we can also extract zinc by
carbon) of the furnace: electrolysis.
• Carbon monoxide (from 1. Slag (less dense)
incomplete 2. Molten Iron (more dense)
reaction between Oxygen and 💡 Function of coke:
carbon) 1. Release energy
• Flourine (from cryolite) 2. Reduce hematite to iron
Note that for aluminium extraction:
💡 • Purpose of Cryolite:
1. To reduce its melting point
2. Reduce Cost
💡 • We must use more than 1 anode:
As liberated oxygen burns the anode as the temperature is about 950-1000
Steel Making
Iron produced by blast furnace contains about 3-5% Carbon and
other impurites Sulfur, Silicon, phosphorous. Materials used are: Oxygen, Heat, Calcium oxide
C + O —> CO
2 2 (g) ✈

S + O —> SO
2 2 (g) ✈

P + O —> PO
2 2 (s)

Si + O2 —> SiO2 (s) Then, CaO + SiO2 —> CaSiO3

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

-Converts chemical energy into Q : How to increase electricity

produced ?
electrical energy
-Exothermic A: 1- Increase gap between metals in
Reactivity Series.
-No battery needed
2- Increase concentration of
electrolyte

Sulfuric Acid

-More reactive metal is the negative pole

- loses electrons and gets oxidised, since it has greater tendency to form ions.

-Electrons flow from more reactive metal to less reactive metal.

-Mg – 2e → Mg+2 , 2H- + 2e → H2 .

-less reactive metal does not lose electrons neither does it get oxidized.

Observation when voltage increases (Gap/Conc.):

• More Hydrogen bubbles are seen to be produced

• Brightness of a connected bulb would increase

Note that:
The solution used could be any acid e.g. sulfuric or hydrochloric acid.

RUSTING:
Iron+Air----→Iron rust: 2Fe+O2---→Fe2O3 (in presence of water)
Rust is the red-brown solid layer which forms on iron and steel.
Salt (NaCl) increases the rate of rusting.
Methods of rust prevention:

1. Painting.
2. Oiling (greasing)
3. Plating
4. Galvanization:. coating iron or steel by zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so zinc corrode by
losing electrons to the iron.
5. Sacrificial protection: more reactive metals oxidised in preference to iron by losing electrons.

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Chemical Reactions

Displacment

Single Double

Metals Non-metals Preciptiation Neutralization

Zn + CuSO4 --> ZnSO4 + Br2 + 2KI --> 2KBr + I2

Cu K2SO4+ Cacl2 --> CaSO4 + H2SO4 + 2KOH --> K2SO4 +
2KCl 2H2O

Thermal decomposition
Thermal decomposition of: Products Example
Carbonate salts Metal Oxide + Carbon dioxide CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Sulphate salts Metal Oxide + Sulphite CuSO4 → CaO + SO3
Hydroxides Metal Oxide + Water Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O
EXCEPTION OF HYDROXIDES Group I metals (alkali KOH → N.R
metals)- No reaction NaOH → N.R
Nitrate salts Metal Oxide + Nitrogen 2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
dioxide + Oxygen
EXCEPTION OF NITRATES Group I metals (alkali 2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2
metals)- Metal nitrite + 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
Oxygen
Ammonium salts Varies NH4Cl → NH3 + HCl
(NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + H2O + CO2

Important notes:
- Group I metals have thermal stability
- As the reactivity increases the thermal decomposition decreases
- All chlorides are stable except ammonium chloride
- All Na, K compounds are stable except Nitrates

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Rate of Chemical Reaction
 Factors affecting rate of chemical reaction:
1. Temperature:
 Temperature increases, particles gain energy, move faster so they collide more
frequent thus the rate of reaction increases.

 More particles have energy greater than the activation energy.

2. Pressure: by increasing pressure, the gas is compressed into smaller volume,
the more frequent collision, the more chance the particles react, and the faster
rate of the reaction.
3. Concentration: By increasing concentration, more particles present per unit
volume so the particles collide more frequently.
4. Surface area: the greater the surface area the greater the rate of the
reaction.( increasing surface area = decreasing size)
5. Catalyst: the presence of the catalyst speed up the rate without being used
up by lowering the activation energy providing alternative route.
6. Light: photochemical reaction.
7. Stirring
 How to measure rate of chemical reaction?
1. Monitoring the rate of decrease in reactants as they are being
consumed
2. Monitoring the
rate of increase in
products as they
are being formed

 Define Catalyst: Is
a substance that
increases the rate of
chemical reaction
without being used
up or changed at the
end of the reaction

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal

CHEMISTERY AND ENERGY

ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
• H = +Ve • H = -Ve
• Activation energy > Energy released • Activation energy < Energy released
• Energy is taken in • Energy is given out
• Temperature decreases • Temp. increases
• EG : thermal decomposition and evaporation • EG: Neutralisation and combustion
(Sodium + water)
We calculate Net Energy Used/Released (Delta H)=ENERGY IN –ENERGY OUT
as to determine if reaction exo or endo.
e.g.
H2+Cl2--→2HCl (H---H +Cl----Cl→2x(H---Cl)
H---H Cl---Cl H---Cl
436kJ 242kJ 431kJ
Calculate energy IN ( Bonds Broken)=436+242=678kJ
Calculate energy out(Bonds formed)= 2x431=862kJ
Delta H= In-OUT=678-862= -1840kJ hence it is exothermic

Note that: we multiply the bond energy by the mole ratio (Number beside the
chemical) as to get the total energy.
N.B.
One Mole of Water(H2O) has 2x(O---H) Bond( H----O----H), so for 2 Moles of water we multiply
O----H Bond energy by 4
Carbon dioxide has 2 Carbon oxygen bond O C O, so as to break one mole of carbon
dioxide we multiply the carbon oxygen bond by 2.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Preparation of Salts
IMP:
Soluble Insoluble
All group 1 and ammonium salts
All nitrates
Chlorides Silver and lead chlorides
Sulfates Calcium , lead, barium sulfates
Sodium ,potassium and ammonium Carbonates
carbonates

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Main points:
Neutralization:
Used to prepare soluble salt

1. Add excess corresponding insoluble base to a certain volume of corresponding acid in

a beaker.
2. Warm and stir with a spatula. (solid will dissolve)
3. Filter to remove the excess unreacted insoluble base oxide.
4. Evaporate till crystallization point, cool, filter and dry.
(PS: drying could be between 2 filter paper or in the oven. Use metal oxide as a base.)

Titration:
Used to prepare soluble salt
1. Use the pipette to add certain volume of corresponding soluble alkali.
2. Add few drops of a suitable indicator. (methyl orange)
3. Fill the burette with the corresponding acid.
4. Add acid from the burette to the alkali in the conical flask. Stop adding acid when the
appropriate color change in the indicator happens and note the readings.
5. Repeat the experiment with the same volumes without using an indicator. (To obtain pure
salt)
6. Evaporate till crystallization point, cool then dry. PS: If a hydrated salt needed, don’t dry.
Precipitation:
Used to prepare insoluble salt
1. Add a certain volume of aqueous corresponding soluble salt (containing
non-metal needed) to a certain volume of other corresponding soluble salt
(containing the metal needed).
2. Mix the solutions in a beaker, precipitate is formed.
3. Filter to remove the precipitate.
4. Wash and dry.
(PS: soluble salt + soluble salt insoluble salt+ soluble salt)

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Reversible reactions
Chemical equilibrium: Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward of reaction. *
without change in concentration.
*This must occur in a closed system to avoid the escaping of any product.

Factor Effect on Yield Effect on Rate

Temperature increase Increases if forward is INCREASES in all cases
endo
Pressure increase(Gases ONLY) Increases if Forward has Always INCREASES
less moles
Adding Catalyst NO EFFECT Increases

Factors
affecting the
equilibrium
Pressure
Concentration (in gaseous Temperature
reactions)

Reaction is Reaction is
Increasing the Decreasing Increasing Deacreasing
forward backward
pressure; the pressure; temprature; temprature ;
when; when;

Concentration of Concentration of Favours

products increases The equilibrium The equilibrium Favours exothermic
reactants increases endothermic side+ Decreases
OR concentartion moves to the moves to the side + Increases
OR concentartion side more moles. rate of reaction
of reactants side less moles. rate of reaction
of products
decreases. decreases. reaction

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Air and Water
How could you separate oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air?
Air is liquefied by compression.
Then the gases are separated according to their different boiling points
by fractional distillation

Name Oxygen Nitrogen Water

Properties -Colourless, odourless . It is treated by two stages :
-is a colourless gas.
-It is a very unreactive 1-Filtration
-It is slightly soluble in
gas. insoluble
water.
-It is a diatomic gas (N2). solids.
-It is not flammable but
helps burning Chlorination:
to kill bacteria
Test using a glowing splint,
it relights -It turns anhydrous cupper (II)
sulphate from white to blue
Uses -Making ammonia by the Manufacture of ethanol.
-In welding Haber process.
In steel industry Solvent
-Making nitric acid.
converting iron into
steel. -Used as a refrigerant for Coolant
-for breathing in freezing food.
hospitals. -Making fertilizers

Pollutant Its source Harmful effect

Incomplete combustion Poisonous gas. Prevents

Carbon
of fuels. blood from carrying oxygen
monoxide

Burning of fossil fuels

Sulphur which contain sulphur Main cause of acid rain
dioxide like coal Damage to lungs

Oxides At high temperature and Causes acid rain

of electric spark in the car
nitrogen engines Brown fumes prevent sunlight

Burning petrol which

Lead containing lead additives Damage to brain causing
compounds . mental retardation.

Unburnt Inefficient combustion

of petrol Increases the risk of cancer.
Hydrocarbon

Catalytic converter:

• Nitrogen oxide is reduced to nitrogen

2NO N2 +O2
• Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbo dioxide
2CO+O2 2CO2

2NO + 2CO 2 CO2 +N2

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal

Acid rain harmful effects:

1. Acid rain damages trees and limestone buildings.

2. Acid rain makes lakes too acidic for fish to live in.
3. Acid rain removes minerals from soil and increases the acidity of the soil.
Sources of carbon dioxide:
1- Burning of fossil fuels.
Sources of methane:

Produced by the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in

animals.

Greenhouse effect:

• Methane
• Carbon dioxide

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Non-metals

Halogen State at Colour Halogens are elements of group VII

room
temperature (7). They are non-metals.
Fluorine Gas Yellow

Chlorine Gas Palegreen Melting and Colour

Bromine Liquid Red- boiling becomes
Reactivity points darker
brown
Iodine Solid Grey increases increases
Astatine Solid Black
solid

Name Chlorine Hydrogen Ammonia

Test bleaches damp using a bright splint, -It turns damp red litmus
litmus paper hydrogen burns with a pop paper into blue
sound. Or
It forms white fumes with
hydrogen chloride gas
Production By electrolysis of -From crude oil by by the Haber process
brine solution cracking
Uses -As a bleaching -Used as a non- pollutant -In making fertilizers
agent. source of energy -In making nitric acid
-Water treatment to Making ammonia
kill microbes.
Making HCl

Name Sulphur Sulphur Dioxide Sulphuric acid Carbon Dioxide

Properties acidic oxide with a choking - is a colourless, odourless gas.
Yellow solid
smell. Denser than air.
it is poisonous

Sources - volcanic region By burning sulphur in air. made by the contact by the reaction between an acid
-fossil fuels containing sulphur process and a carbonate salt such as
calcium carbonate.
Uses In making sulphur dioxide that Bleaching wood pulp in paper -In making -In making fire extinguishers
is used in making sulphuric industry. detergents.
acid -As a food preservative -In making dry ice
-In making -Drying agent (Tested for By passing the gas
(removes water from through lime water Ca(OH)2
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) another substances) that turns milky (cloudy)
-In making dyes

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
FOSSIL
FUEL

Coal Natural Gas Petroleum

Mixture of Hydrocarbons can be separated according to their Boiling point by fractional

distillation
Hydrocarbon: Molecule made of Carbon and Hydrogen ONLY.
Fuel: Substance that burns to give out energy
Fossil fuels form under high temperature and pressure under earth crust.

Fractions Uses
Natural Gas (Mainly Methane) Gas cylinders
Gasoline Car fuel
Naphtha Producing chemicals
Kerosene Jet fuel
Diesel Oil Large vehicle fuel
Fuel Oil Ships and Factories

Lubricating oil Lubricating oil

Bitumen Road surfaces

• Properties of Homologous series:

• Same functional group
• Same general molecular formula
• Same chemical properties
• Same way of preparation

• How to name organic compound ?

1. Number of carbon atoms: 4 – But
2. Functional group: c=c – ene
3. Position of functional group: 2 – But-2-ene or 2-Butene

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
Hydrocarbons Organic compounds

Alkane Alkene Alcohol Carboxylic Ester

Acid
Functional group:
(Arrangement of atoms
which makes them
C -- C C=C -O-H
behave differently in
chemical reactions)

General formula CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+1OH -- --

Reactions 1. Combustion 1.Combustion 1. Oxidation to Similar to Acid 1. Formed by

•
•
Complete(CO2)
Incomplete (CO)
• Complete C.Acid reations alcohol and
2. Substitution • Incomplete 2. Undergo acids
3. Cracking 2.Addition dehydration to 2. hydrolysis
• Hydrogen form Alkene
• Steam 3. Formed by
• Bromine fermentation
3.Polymerization

Isomers: Organic compounds that have same molecular formulae but different structural formulae.
To determine isomer for ALKENE, we change position of Double bond. (If it’s in the first carbon, don’t change
its position to last carbon, you basically did nothing). We can also isolate a carbon with three hydrogens to
form methyl group (CH3), writing it condensed.
Alkane Alkene (Unsaturated) Alcohol Carboxylic Acid
• Substitution • Addition: • Oxidation • Esterification
(sunlight) • H2 (Ni \ 150-300oC) (Acidified KMnO4 or (concentrated
Form different isomers • H2O (H3PO4\3000C\60atm) k2Cr2O7) H2SO4)
of chloro-alkane & HCl • Br2 (no catalyst needed)
Polymerization(catalyst\high • Fermentation
• Cracking temp) (yeast \ 37oC)
(heat&catalyst)
form alkene + H2 • Bromine water test
OR shorter alkane (alkene Decolourises the
and alkene bromine)

Alkane Alkene Alcohol+ Carboxylic

+ + KMnO4 or Acid
Heat & catalyst H2O k2Cr2O7 +
Ester
(H3PO4\3000C\6
(Cracking) 0atm) (Oxidation) Alcohol (-H2O)

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Condensation Polymerization

(Natural) (Artifical)
Different monomers of same type Made of two types of monomers.

1. Polyamide

Protein (Natural) Nylon (Artifical)

2. Carbohydrate: (Natural)

3) Polyester ( Terylene ) (Artificial)

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal
For hydrolysis of polymers, we heat in the presence of an acid, e.g. hydrochloric acid

Hydrolysis of proteins produces amino acids

Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates produces Glucose (Monosaccharide)

Artificial polymers are non-biodegradable ( they are not broken down by bacteria) so:

• They cause visual pollution

• Shortage of landfill sites
• Release toxic gases when burnt
• For obtaining ethanol:
Fermentation Hydration of ethene
Advantages No need for catalyst Pure Product
No high temperature Fast Reaction
required→Low cost Continuous (You don’t stop
Renewable method and yeast are halfway)
easily obtained
Disadvantages Slow Method Costly due to high temperature
Needs large reaction vessels needed
Non-renewable resource used
N.B. Carboxylic acids undergo normal acid reactions as with bases, metals,
and metal carbonates. To test for carboxylic acid you can simply use indicator e.g.
methyl orange

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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal

Moles
Moles = n (Molecular mass expressed in grams)
Mass of one mole = Mr
Solid → n= Mass/Mr
Liquid → n= Volume X concentration
Gas → n= Volume/24
“The use of any rule depends on the given in the question”
Maximum Yield = Theoretical Yield = Mass expected according to calculations
Percentage Yield = (Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield) X100
Percentage purity= (Pure mass/total unpure mass) x100
“Small number divided by large number”
In Empirical Formula:

‘Percentage = Mass’

1. Calculate the moles of each element

2. Calculate ratio (all moles divided by the smallest one of them)
3. Write the formula using the ratio calculated as whole number
• “Empirical formula is the simplest form of molecular formula”

When dealing with equations, 1) we look for information to convert to Moles.

2) We derive the number of moles of other chemicals using ration in the equation
(Cross multiply). 3) We get the required variable (e.g. mass or volume ) using
rules.

• This applies EXCEPT in gases, since we can compare volumes of gases as

number of moles ratio.
• For Solids having SAME moles ratio we can equalise their mole equation :
(MASS/Mr)=(MASS/Mr)
E.g. For 2.0 grams of Sodium added, calculate mass of Sodium Chloride
formed
Na +Cl→NaCl
2/23 = ??/35 , Mass=2x35/23=3.0 grams
• Same applies for liquids, having same ratio, using their equation
(ConcxVol=ConcxVol)
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 Dr. Muhammed Gamal

e.g. 10 cm3 of 2.0 mol/dm3 of HCl was added to 20 cm3 of NaOH, Calculate
concentration of NaOH needed.
NaOH+HCl→NaCl+H2O
10x2.0=??x20, Concentration= 10x2/20 = 1.0mol/dm3
N.B.
We use the limiting (NOT excess) reagent to calculate number of moles required.
IF you are asked to know the reagent that is in excess, calculate the number of
moles, divide by the ratio. The greater number of moles the excess is the reagent.

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