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CHEMISTRY NOTES
by dhamira :)

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 CHAPTER 2,F4: MATTER & THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2.1) Basic concepts of matter

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Matter -something occupies space&has mass
Particle Theory of matter

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id

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 CHAPTER 3,F4: MOLE CONCEPT,FORMULA&EQUATION

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Melting point -constant temperature that changes a solid to liquid at a specific pressure
Freezing point -constant temperature that changes a liquid to solid at a specific pressure

2.3) Atomic structure

Proton number number of proton in the nucleus of an atom
Nucleon number sum of protons & neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

2.4) Isotopes&its uses

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What is isotopes atoms of the same element w same proton numbers but different nucleon number
Its uses

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 CHAPTER 3,F4: MOLE CONCEPT,FORMULA&EQUATION

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3.1) RAM & RMM
Role of Carbon 12 -used as a standard atom
• can be handled easily
• solid at room temp
• can be found in almost all substances
Relative atomic mass Average mass of one atom/molecule of the element
(RAM) / Relative
1/12 x mass of 1 c-12 atom (*this eq =1
molecular mass (RMM) *kira atas je tkyah bahagi dgn bawah)

Relative formula mass total mass of all atoms in an ionic substances

(RFM)

3.2) MOLE CONCEPT

Mole (mol) amount of particles contained in a substance

Avogadro constant -fixed number of particles in 1 mole of substance
-NA= 6.02 x 10^23
Calculate no of particles no of mol x NA
Molar mass (g mol^-1] -mass of 1 mol of substance
-molar mass = relative mass
Molar volume -volume occupied by 1 mol of gas
-room conditions: 24.0 dm^3
-STP: 22.4 dm^3
Coversion
No of particles

Mass of substance Volume of gas

No of moles

3.3) CHEMICAL FORMULA

Empirical formula -chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms
of each element in a compound
Molecular formula -chemical formula than shows the actual number of atoms of each
element in a compound
Cation&anion Cation= positively charged ion
Anion= negatively charged ion

3.4) CHEMICAL EQUATION

needs to be balanced
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 CHAPTER 3,F4: MOLE CONCEPT,FORMULA&EQUATION

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CHAPTER 4,F4: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

4.2) The arrangement in the periodic table of elements

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GROUP -the vertical column
-from 1 to 18
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-is determined by the no of valence electrons
PERIOD -the horizontal column
-from 1 to 7
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-is determined by the number of shells

4.3) Elements in group 18

What are the elements in -known as noble gas/inert gas
group 18? -exist as monoatomic gas
-chemically inert
-atoms hv already achieved an octet/duplet e.a
-atoms x receive,donate,share electrons w other elements
Physical properties -colourless gass at room cond
-low melting & boiling point
-low density
-insoluble in water
-cannot conduct electricity in any state
-poor conducter of heat
Going down the group, -boiling points increases
-atomic size increases
-attraction force becomes stronger
-more heat energy is required to break the force
Examples& its uses Helium
-fill oxygen tanks & water balloon Krypton
-cool metals in superconductor -fill flashlight in cameras
Neon Xenon
-advertising board lights & TV -in nuclear reactors
Argon -for anesthesia
-provide inert atmosphere for welding Radon
at high temp -used in cancer treatment

4.4) Elements in group 1 (alkali metals)

Physical properties -soft metal
-low density -silver & shiny surface
-low melting & boiling point -good conductor of heat&electrical

Going down the group, -melting & boiling point decrease

-atomic size increase
-metallic bond becomes weaker
-less heat energy is required to break the force
-reactivity & electropositivity increases
-v.e becomes further away from each other
-attraction force between nucleus & v.e becomes weaker
-ability of atom to donate electrons become easier
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Safety precautions -stored in dark bottles filled with paraffin oil

-avoid holding w bare hands
-wear safety googles & gloves
-use only small pieces of them
 CHAPTER 4,F4: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

4.5) Elements in group 17 (halogens)

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Physical properties -low melting &boiling point
-x conduct electricity in any state
-pungent smell&poisonous
-low density
Physical states in room -Flourine: pale yellow gas -bromine: reddish brown liquid
cond -chlorine: greenish yellow gas -iodine: purplish black solid

Going down the group, -melting & boiling point increases

-molecular size increases
-attraction force stronger
-more heat energy is required to break the force
-electronegativity decreases
-v.e becomes further from nucleus
-ability of atoms to receive electrons is harder
all elements hv same • 7 v.e
chemical properties • react w water to form acidic solution
because • react with metals to form metal halide
• react with alkaline solution to form metal halide, metal halate & water
Safety precautions -carry out experiments in fume chamber
-x inhale the gas
-wear goggles, mask&gloves

4.6) Elements in period 3 (3 shells)

Going across from left to -atomic size decreases
right -no of protons increases,no of v.e increases
-attraction force between nucleus &v.e increass

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-electronegativity increases
Changes of physical a) solid —> gas
state b) metal —> smei metal —> non-metal
Types of oxide formed i) Basic metal oxides (Na&Mg) ii) Amphoteric (Al)
& -form alkaline solution in water -can act as acid/base
-react w avid to produce salt&water -react w both to produce salt&water

iii) Acidic non metal oxides

-form acidic solution in water
-react w base to produce salt&water
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Semi metals (metalloids) -intermediate between metal&non metal
-good electrical conductors
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-used in microelectronics field
 CHAPTER 4,F4: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

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4.7) Transition elements (elements from group 3 -12)
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Physical properties -solid at room cond
-shiny surface
-high ductility & malleability
-high melting & boiling point
-high density
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-good conductor of heat & electricity

Special physical
characteristics

Application

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CHAPTER 5,F4: CHEMICAL BOND

5.1) Basic of Compund formation

What is a chemical bond -are formed when electron are transferered/shared
-only involve the valence electrons
-types: -Ionic bond -Covalent bond

5.2) Ionic bond

What is ionic bond? -involves the transfer of electrons between a metal & non-metal atom
-metal atom =donates electrons
=form a positively charged ion(cation)
-non-metal atom =receives electrons
=form a negatively charged ion(anion)
-strong electrostatic attraction force holds the ions together
Electron arrangement ex: between sodium,Na & chloride,Cl

XX

XX Cl
**
X

XX

XX

Lewis structure

Explain the formation of

-Electron arrangement of sodium atom is 2.8.1
-Sodium atom releases an electron to achieve a stable octet electron
arrangement, forming a Na+
-Electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7
-Chlorine atom receives an electron to achieve a stable octet electron
arrangement, forming a Cl-
-One mole of sodium ions, Na+ is attracted to one mole of Cl- by a strong
electrostatic attraction force, forming an ionic compound with the chemical
formula of NaCl.
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5.3) Covalent bond
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What is covalent -formed thru sharing of electrons between non metal compounds
TYPES

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bond?
-single(1e shared),double(2e shared),triple(3e shared) covalent bond
Electron arrangement between hydrogen & chlorine (hydrogen chloride)

Lewis structure

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CHAPTER 5,F4: CHEMICAL BOND

Explain the formation of -Electron arrangement of hydrogen atom is 1.

-Hydrogen atom needs an electron to achieve a stable duplet electron
arrangement.
-Electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7.
-Chlorine atom needs an electron to achieve a stable octet electron
arrangement.
-1 mole of hydrogen atoms shares 1 electron with 1 mole of chlorine atoms,
forming a single covalent bond.
-A covalent compound with the chemical formula of HCl is formed.

5.4) Hydrogen bond

What is hydrogen bond? -attraction forces between hydrogen atom w a high

electronegativity atom : Flourine, oxygen, nitrogen
-is weaker than ionic/covalent bond
-strong than the van der waals attraction
How is it formed? EXAMPLE 1
• In ethanol molecule, the hydrogen atom forms a single covalent bond with the
oxygen atom.
• The oxygen atom from ethanol will form a hydrogen bond with the hydrogen
atom from the water molecule, H2O.
• The hydrogen atom from ethanol also can form another hydrogen bond with
the oxygen atom from the water molecule.
• The formation of hydrogen bonds between ethanol molecules and water
molecules causes the solubility of ethanol in water.

EXAMPLE 2
• Our hair consists of protein molecules that can form hydrogen
bonds when the hair is dry.
• When the hair is wet, the protein molecules form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules.

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• Formation of hydrogen bonds between protein molecules and
water molecules causes the hair to stick together.

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 CHAPTER 5,F4: CHEMICAL BOND

5.5) Dative bond

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What is dative bond? -type of covalent bond between 2 atoms where the electron pair is shared by
one atom only
-also known as coordinate bond
Examples Ammonium ion, NH4-
t
It

H"
* H

NH3 + H+ —> NH4+

(i) Ammonia molecule, NH, has a lone pair of electrons at the nitrogen atom.
(ii) Hydrogen ion, H has an empty orbital.
(iv) Nitrogen atom shares its lone pair of electrons with hydrogen ion, H through
the formation of a dative bond between nitrogen atom and hydrogen ion.

5.6) Metallic bond

What is metallic bond? • Metal can conduct in electricity solid state due to the presence of electrons
that move freely.
• Although metallic atoms are arranged closely and orderly in solid state, the
valence electrons of metal atoms are donated easily and can be delocalised
• Valence electrons in metal atoms that move freely throughout the whole
metal structure indicates that the electrons are delocalised
• The delocalised electrons are known as a sea of electrons.
• When electrical source is applied the free moving electrons carry charges
and move from the negative terminal the positive terminal to conduct
electricity.

5.7) Properties of ionic compounds & covalent compound

a)
b) Covalent compound c) Uses of ionic & covalent compounds in daily life
 CHAPTER 6,F4: ACID BASE & SALT

6.1) Role of water in showing Acidic & alkaline properties

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What is acid? Chemical substances that ionises in water to form H+/Hydroxonium ions,
H3O+
What is acidity of an acid? -no of moles of H+ formed when 1 mole of acid dissolves in water
Monoprotic Acid
-acid that ionises Diprotic Acid Triprotic Acid
in water to form -2 mole of H+ -3 mole of H+
1mole of H+

Uses of acids • Ethanoic Acid= coagulate latex

• Ascorbic acid= vitamin C
• Benzoic acid= preserve ketchups
• Hydrochloric acid= remove rust
• Nitric acid= make fertilisers
• Sulphuric acid= as an electrolyte in lead acid accomulators
What is base? Chemical substances that can react with acid to form salt and water
What is alkali? A base that ionises in water to form OH-
Uses of bases/alkalis • Sodium hydroxide= make soaps
• Potassium hydroxide= make shampoos&lotions
• Magnesium hydroxide= produce antacids
• Ammonia=make fertilisers
• Calcium hydroxide= used as lime to neutralise acids in soils
Litmus paper -Acid= blue turns red
-Alkali= red turns blue

6.2) pH value
Acidic solution -pH value <7
-concentration of H+ increases, pH value decreases
-pH=-log [H+]
Alkaline solution -pH value > 7
-concentration of OH- increases, pH value increases
-pOH=-log[OH-]
pH scale -set of numbers to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution
-pH+pOH = 14

6.3) Strength of acids & alkalis

Strong acid Acid that ionises completely in water to produce a higher concentration of H+
-ex: hydrochloric acid,HCL
Weak acid Acid that ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of H+ ions
-ex:ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
Strong alkali Alkali that ionises completely in water to produce a high concentration of OH-
-ex: sodium hydroxide,NaOH
Weak alkali Alkali that ionises partially in water to produce low concentration of OH-
-ex: ammonia,NH3
 CHAPTER 6,F4: ACID BASE & SALT

6.4) Chemical properties of acids & alkalis

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Acid & its physical CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
properties -acid+base —> salt+water
-acid+reactive metal —> salt+hydrogen gas
-acid+metal carbonate —> salt + water + CO2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
-sour taste
-corrosive
-pH value <7
-blue litmus paper turns red

Alkalis & its physical CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

properties -alkali+acid —> salt+water
-alkali+ammonium salt —> salt+water+ammonium gas
-alkali+metal ion —> insoluble metal hydroxide+cation from the alkali

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
-biiter taste
-soapy feel
-pH value >7
-red litmus paper turns red

6.5) Concentration of aqueous solution

Concentration (g dm-3) Mass of solute (g)
Volume of solution (dm3)

Molarity (mol dm-3)

No of moles of solute (mol)
Volume of solution (dm3)

Conversion x molar mass

Molarity Concentration
(mol dm-3) (g dm-3)
divide molar mass

6.6) Standard solution

What is standard solution A solution of accurately known concentration
Ways to prepare -from a solid substances
-dilution method of an aqueous solution
What is dilution -process used to reduce the concenof a solution from a stock solution
-water is added into the stock solution to obtain a little dilute solution
Formulae
M1V1=M2V2

M= molarity before&after
V= initial & final volume
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CHAPTER 6,F4: ACID BASE & SALT

6.7) Neutralisation
What is neutralisation? Chemical reaction between an acid& an alkali to produce salt & water
What is the product of H+ + OH- —> H2O
neutralisation
Application of Agriculture Health Industry
neutralisation
-treat acid in stomach -soap&detergent
-pH of soil -prevent tooth decay product
-aquaponic -treat bee&wasp -treat acidic effluents
-nitrogenous fertiliser stings,jellyfish -treat acidic gases
stings&ant bites

• Protease enzyme
=function well in acidic medium stomach
=break down the protein into polypeptide
=pH of stomach is maintained between 1 and 2 by the presence of hydrochloric acid
• Gastric patients
=experience excess HCl in stomach
=milk of magnesia, Mg(OH), relieve pain as its alkaline properties can neutralise
excess HCl
• Plants
=grow best when the pH of the soil is close to 7
=extremely acidic soil is not suitable for crops
=quicklime, (CaO)or slaked lime, [Ca(OH)2] can be used to treat the acidic soil.
• Bacteria in the mouth produce lactic acid
=toothpaste is an alkaline can neutralise the acid.
•Bee sting
=acidic
=treated with alkaline calamine lotion or baking powder.
•Wasp sting
=alkaline
=can be treated with vinegar.
Titration -method use to determine volume of acid required to neutralise alkali & vice
versa quantitatively

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-involves a slow addition of a solution of known concentration (in the burette)
to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration (in the
conical flask) until the reaction reaches the end point indicated through colour
change of the acid-base indicator

pH indicator
Indicator in acid in distilled water in alkali
litmus red purple blue

universal red light green purple

methyl
red orange yellow
orange
phenolp
hthalein
colourless colourless pink

Solving numerical
M1V1 n(a) M=molarity (mol dm-3)
problems =
M2V2 n(b) V=volume (cm-3)
n=mole ratio of acid/alkali
 ⭐

CHAPTER 6,F4: ACID BASE & SALT

6.8) Salts,crystals & their uses in daily life

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What is salt? -ionic compound form from metal ion or ammonium ion,NH4+ that replaces H+
in the end
Salt’s products • acid+alkali —> salt+water
• acid+reactive metal —> salt+hydrogen gas
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• acid+aqueous ammonia —> salt
Physical characteristics of -flat surface,straight sides&sharp corners
salt crystal -angles between adjacent faces are the same
-has geometrical shape
-high melting point
-geometrical shape varkes for different crystals
-geometrical shape is the same for similar crystals of different sizes
Examples&uses of salts -ammonium chloride/nitrate/
phosphate chemical fertilisers
-potassium chloride
-copper(II) sulphate
-mercury(I) chloride pesticides to kill insects,pests,grass&legs
-sodium chlorate(V)
hydrated calcium sulphate make plaster casts for supporting broken
bones
iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate iron supplements to treat anemia
-magenesium sulphate
heptahydrate(epsom salt)
-sodium sulphate laxatives to treat constipation
decahydrate(glauber salt)
-ingredients in antacids
sodium hydrogen carbonate
-neutralise excess acids in stomach
barium sulphate make intestinal organs seen clearly on x-
ray

potassium manganete (IV) -kill bacteria

-used as disinfectants
sodium chloride food additives
MSG enhance taste of foods
sodium nitrite preservatives for processed food
sodium benzoate tomato &chilli sauce
sodium hypochlorite bleaching agent&disinfectant
tin(II) flouride water&toothpaste to prevent toooth decay
silver bromide photographic papers&films

6.9) Preparation of salts

Solubility of salts

Preparation of soluble salt

a) Sodium,potassium or ammonium salt b) Soluble salt pther than <—

=neutralisation reaction between acid & -reaction between acid&reactive metal
alkali -reaction between acid&metal sandwich
-reaction between acid&metal carbonate
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c) Purification of soluble salts by recrystallisation Preparation of insoluble salt
method -double decomposition reaction (precipitation method)
-ionic eq can be constructed thru the continuous
variation method

6.10) Effect of heat on salts

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c) Effect of heat on carbonate salts d) Effect of heat on nitrate salt

6.11) Qualitative analysis

a) Confirmatory test for anions b) Cation tests are conducted by using

-NaOH solution
-NH3 solution

c) Confirmary test for cations

 CHAPTER 7,F4: RATE OF REACTION

7.1) Determining the Rate of Reaction

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Chemical reactions
Fast reaction Slow reaction
-Combustion of cooking gas -Rusting
-Fireworks -Fermentation
-Ignition of matches -Photosynthesis
-Burning of papers -Decaying process
-Precipitation -Rock erosion

Rate of reaction -Meaning: Changes in the quantity of reactant or product per unit time
-Formula: Change in quantity of reactant or product/time taken for the
change to occur
-During the reaction:
a) Quantity of reactants decreases per unit time
b) Quantity of products increases per unit time
Average rate of reaction Average value for the rate of reaction that occurs in a particular time interval
Rate of reaction = Total volume of gas
Total time

Instantaneous rate of
reaction -

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 CHAPTER 7,F4: RATE OF REACTION

7.2) Factors affecting rate of reactions

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Factors
SIZE OF
REACTANTS CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE PRESENCE OF
-the smaller the OF REACTANTS -the higher it is, CATALYST
size of -the higher it is,the the higher the -catalyst
reactants,the higher the rate of rate of reaction increases the rate
higher the rate reaction of reaction
of reaction

Characteristics of -specific
catalyst -changes the rate of reaction
-only small amount of catalyst required
-undergo physical changes
-no changes in chemical properties
-powdered catalyst is more effective
-
-transition elements

7.3) Application of Factors that Affect the Rate of Reaction in Daily Life
F
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Factors Rate of reaction in daily life

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Size -cooking *cut into smaller pieces

-actions of medicines *the smaller pieces hv larger TSA
*— increases
-barbecue
-

Concentration -rusting
-
-corrosion in industrial area
Pressure -haber process
-pressure cooker
&

Temperature -cleaning
-
-storage of food
Catalyst -fermentation
-production of ammonia solution
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-production of sulphuric acid
HABER PROCESS PRESSURE COOKER
CORROSION IN INDUSTRIAL
RUSTING increases the
AREA
-

pressure increases N 3 Ha -high pressure

Window grills made of iron , ,
water faster
temperature of
-

rust faster concentration react3 produce ammonia gas

near d seaside will In industrial area ,
whigher
-

steam molecules
this pressure form ammonia
-

near the
vapours of SO2 higher heat
-

-
bes the water is
higher Kinetic
hv
Seaside contain higher Clions liquid for easier storage energy
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So dissolves in water
-

When the concentration

of ,
energy
be
form acid rain Raw materials can
water vapours increases
,
-

w ain that comes in

Acid contact
cooked faster
-

faster
rusting becomes with metuls causes Corrosion

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA
FERMENTATION PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID
CLEANING added to glucose I wn powder is added to
Zymase is
-

dissolved (v) oxide added to

-

-
Vanadium
-

Detergent powder to produce alcono

mixture of N23Hy gas in

gas & 502

Mixture of 02 in
stains
in not water can remove haber
-

Duration for fermentation process contact process

easier
Can be reduced Iron as catalyst speeds up
formation of soz
-

- -

Speeds up
STORAGE FOOD
OF formation of ammonia
before Channelled to
gas is
-

Looked food is stored in form concentrated sulphuric

Oleum

fridge acid
-

Low temp fridge slows

of
down bacterial activity

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 CHAPTER 7,F4: RATE OF REACTION

7.4) Collision theory

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Based on collision theory -reactant particles must collide w e/o for a reaction to occur
-rate of reaction depends on the frequency of effective collisions
-
-the higher it is, the higher the rate of reaction
To produce effective -reactant particles must hv energy =/> than the activation energy (Ea)
collision -Ea is the minimum energy required to break the chemical bonds between
reactants particles & form a new chemical bonds in the products
Activation energy -difference between reactants energy & energy at the peak of the curve in the
graph

Size of reactants -the smaller the size of reactants,the larger the TSA exposed
-the frequency of collisions between reactants particles is higher
- -the frequency of effective collisions between reactant particles is higher
-
-rate of reaction is higher
Temperature of solution -the higher the temperature,the more kinetic energy of the reactant particles
-the frequency of collision between reactant particles is higher
-thee frequency of effective collision between reactant particles is higher
-
-rate of reaction is higher
Concentration of -the higher the concentration of reactant particles,the higher the number of
reactants particles per unit volume
-the frequency of collision between reactant particles is higher
-the frequency of effective collision between reactant particles is higher
-
-rate of reaction is higher
Gas pressure -the higher the gas pressure, higher the number of gas particles per unit volume
-the frequency of collision between reactant particles is higher
-the frequency of effective collision between reactant particles is higher
-rate of reaction is higher

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Presence of catalyst -catalyst lower the Ea for the collision of reactant particle
-more reactant particles achieve the activation energy
-the frequency of collision between reactant particles is higher
-the frequency of effective collision between reactant particles is higher
-rate of reaction is higher
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reaction

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 CHAPTER 8,F4: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

8.1) Alloy & its Importance

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Meaning of alloy Mixture of 2 or more elements whereits main elements is metal

-
Strength & hardness Alloy > Pure metal

Properties of alloy -Shiny

-More resistant to corrosion
-Harder than its pure metal
-Harder to be mouled
-

Comparison between
pure metal & alloy Pure metal Alloy
Diagram of the
arrangement

Size of atoms All atoms hv the same size Foreign atoms hv different sizes

-
Arrangemen Arranged in orderly manner Orderly arrangement is disrupted
t of by foreign atoms
particles
Ability of When force is applied, layers When force is applied,it is
particles to of atoms easily slide over difficult for the layers of atom to
slide over each other to fill the empty slide over one another
space & form a new
structure

BRONZE BRASS
-90% copper -70% copper
-10% tin -30% zinc
-Medals,trophies,monuments -Musical instruments,keys

DURALUMIN
PEWTER
-93% aluminium
-95% tin
-3% copper

=
-3.5% antimony
-3% magnesium
1.5% copper
-1% manganese
-trophies,souvenirs
-body of aeroplanes,racing cars,bicycles

STAINLESS STEEL
STEEL
-73% iron
-98% iron
-18% chromium
-0.2-2% carbon
-8% nickel
-construction materials, railway
1% carbon
tracks
-cutlery,surgical instruments

8.2) Composition of glass & its uses

Basic properties of glass

-Transparent -Hard but brittle -Chemically inert
-Waterproof -Heat insulator -Electrical insulator
 CHAPTER 8,F4: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

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Types of glasses
FUSED SILICA GLASS
-made from silica,SiO2 w/o mix w chemical
-high melting point
-make telescope lens

SODA LIME GLASS

-made from silica,SiO2 soda,Na2Co3 &
limestone, CaCo3
-low melting point
-make glass containers

BOROSILICATE GLASS
-made from SiO2,Na2Co3,CaCo3,boron oxide,B2O3 &
aluminium oxide, Al2O3
-resistant to heat
-low expansion coefficient
-make laboratory glasses

LEAD CRYSTAL GLASS

-made from SiO2, Na2Co3, lead (II) oxide, PbO
-Pb replaces Ca to produce denser&softer glass
-high refractive index
-make prisms

8.3) Composition of Ceramics & its uses

What is ceramic? Solid made up of non-metallic compound&inorganic compounds
Basic properties of
-High termal resistant -Break easily -Chemically inert
ceramics
-Electrical Insulator -Heat insulator -Hard&strong

Type of ceramics
TRADITIONAL CERAMICS ADVANCED CERAMICS
-made from clay (kaolin) -made from inorganic compounds
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O (oxides&carbides)
-make bricks,pottery&crockery -hv higher heat resistance
-resistant to abrasion
-more chemically inert
-hv superconductivity properties

Advanced ceramics a) SILICAN CARBIDE

Properties&Uses -hard&strong(cutting disc)
-resistant to thermal shocks&high d) SILICON (IV) OXIDE
resistance to heat(brake disc) -high melting point(furnace lining)
-hard&resistant to abrasion(tungsten -light&high melting point(ceramic
carbide rings) tiles for space shuttles)

b) SILICAN NITRIDE
-high strength&fracture toughness at e) LITHIUM DISILICATE GLASS
high temperature(structural -biocompatibility!excellent
component for gas turbines) aesthetic properties,good
mechanical strength (used in
c) ALUMINIUM OXIDE dental treatment)
-chemically resitant&resistant to
wear(hip joint replacement)

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 CHAPTER 8,F4: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
8.4) Composite materials & its importance

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Composite material A combination of 2 or more non-homogeneous substances

What is non- STRENGTHENING

homogeneous MATRIX SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCE
substances? -substance that holds -substance is added to the
strengthening substances matrix substance to enhance
together to form a composite the physical&chemical
material properties of the composite
material formed

Example of REINFORCED
FIBRE GLASS OPTICAL FIBRE
composite CONCRETE -combination between
-combination of steel -combination between
materials silica glass fibres (SS)
bar/wire mesh (SS) & pastic (MS) & glass fibres
&cladding/plastic
concrete (MS) (SS) jacket(MS)
-high compression -high stretching strength
strength -flexible
-durable -high compression strength
-resistant to corrosion
-high stretching strength
-resistant to corrosion -use:transmit information in
-uses: construction of -heat&electrical insulator the form of light
bridges,dams&buildings -uses:helmets

PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS SUPERCONDUCTORS

-combination between -YBCO has
glass(MS) &silver chloride w
copper(I) chloride (SS)
superconductivity
-transparent properties
-absorb UV rays (depends -0 electrical resistance
on light intensity) -use: to make MRI&NMR
-use as car windows&
camera lenses