PRECIPITATION

The term precipitation denotes all the forms of WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR PRECIPITATION
moisture that reach the ground from the
atmosphere(clouds). FRONT
The usual forms are: It is the interface between two distincy air masses.
rainfall. snowfall, hail, glaze, rime, and ice pellets Under certain favorable conditions when a warm air
mass and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION lifted over the colder one with the formation of a front.
(i) The atmosphere must have moisture.
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
(ii) There must be sufficient nuclei (0.1 - 10 mm) In this type of precipitation, a packet of air which is
present to aid condensation. warmer than the surrounding air due to localized
heating rises because of lesser density.
(iii) Weather conditions (cooling and pressure change)
must be good for condensation of water vapor to take OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
place. The moist air masses may get lifted-up higher altitudes
due to the presence of mountain barriers and
(iv) The products of condensation must reach the consequently undergo cooling, condensation, and
earth, i.e. droplet weight > buoyancy force. precipitation.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS

• DRIZZLE SIZE AND SHAPE

A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less Drops vary in size from the tiny cloud,
than 0.5 mm, and intensity less than 1mm/h. droplets (measuring less than 0.1 mm in diameter) to
The drops are so small that they appear to float in the the large drops associated with heavy rainfall, and
air. reaching up to 6 mm in diameter.

• RAIN INTENSITY, DURATION, AND DEPTH

The term rainfall is used to describe precipitation in the INTENSITY (i): Amount of rain in a certain time
form of water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. (depth/time).
The maximum size of a raindrop is about 6 mm.
DURATION (t): Time at which rain occurs.
Types:
Light (<2.5) DEPTH (d): Volume of rain over an area (d = Vol/A)
Moderate -Heavy (> 7.6) d = i*t
Rainfall intensity ~ 2.5 mm/hr - 7.6 mm/hr
INTENSITY AND AREA
• GLAZE We can expect a less intense rainfall over a large area
When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground than we can over a small area.
at around 0°C.
The water drops freeze to form an ice coating called
glaze or freezing rain. INTENSITY AND DROP SIZE
High intensity storms have a larger drop size than low
Sp. Gravity = 0.8 intensity storms.

• SLEET (RIME) MEASUREMENT

It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which form Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to
when rain falls through air at subfreezing temperature. which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it.
• HAIL
It is showery precipitation in the form of irregular Thus, 1 cm (10 mm) of rainfall over a catchment area
pellets or lumps of ice. of 1km^2: represents a volume of water equal to
10^4m^3
Size more than 5mm. The precipitation is collected and measured in a rain
Sp. Gravity = 0.8 gage.
Hails occur in violent thunderstorms in which vertical
currents are very strong. RAIN GAGE SETTING:
1. The ground must be level and in the open
and the instrument must present a
horizontal catch surface.
 2. The gauge must be set as near the ground as
possible to reduce wind effects.
3. The instrument must be surrounded by an
open fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m.
4. No object should be nearer to the
instrument than 30m or twice the height of
the obstruction.

RECORDING GAUGES
Tipping- Bucket
Weighing- Bucket
Float- Syphon

RAINGAGE NETWORK:
1. n flat regions of temperate, Mediteranean and
tropical zone (according to WMO): TYPES OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Ideal - 1 station for 600 - 900 km^2 • Potential Evapotranspiration
Acceptable - 1 station for 900 - 3000km^2 It is the measure of the ability of the atmosphere to
remove water from the surface through the processes
2. In mountainous regions of temperate, of evaporation and transpiration assuming no control
Mediterranean and tropical zones: of water supply.
Ideal - 1 station for 100 - 250 km^2
Acceptable - 1 station for 250 - 1000km^2 • Actual Evapotranspiration
It is the quantity of water that is actually removed from
3. In arid and polar zones: 1 station for 1500 - 10 000 a surface due to the processes of evaporation and
km ^2 transpiration.

4. In Islands Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration

1 station for 25 km ^2 1. Environmental Factors
(depending on the feasibility) • Temperature
(The warmer it is, more is
ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION evapotranspiration)
• Humidity
1. NORMAL ANALYSIS (Higher humidity means lower
If the normal annual precipitations at various station evapotranspiration)
ae within about 10% of normal annual precipitation at • Water Available
station X: (Less water means less evapotranspiration)
• Colour of Surface
(Lighter colours reflect heat away so there is
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION less evapotranspiration)
It is a combination of two separate processes: • Wind Speed
(More is the speed, more
1. Evaporation - movement of water to the air evapotranspiration)
from sources such as the soil, canopy
interception, and water bodies. 2. Plant & Crop Factors
Stomatal Resistance
2. Transpiration - movement of water within a Plants regulate transpiration through adjustment of
plant and the subsequent loss of water as small openings in the leaves called stomata. As
vapor through stomata of the leaves. stomata close, the resistance of the leaf to loss of
water vapor increases, decreasing to the diffusion of
water vapor from plant to the atmosphere.
The total amount of water loss in the form of water
vapors into the atmosphere from the surface of the 3. Geographical Factors
soil, canopy interception, water bodies as well as from • Evapotranspiration rates are also dependent
the aerial parts of plants in a process known as upon geography, an area’s latitude and
evapotranspiration. climate.
Evapotranspiration is responsible for 15% of the • Regions on the globe with the most solar
atmosphere’s water vapor. radiation experience more
evapotranspiration.
 • Evapotranspiration rates are also highest in Mass inflow - Mass outflow = Change in Inflow
areas with a hot and dry climate. Storage
• Evapotranspiration is lesser at higher
altitude. If the density of inflow and outflow is the same, then:
Volume inflow - Volume outflow = Change in Storage
4. Soil Factors
• Soil capillary character Determination of Evapotranspiration
• Water table depth 1. Blaney-Criddle Method
• If soil moisture content has high value, This method requires the use of only two factors,
evapotranspiration is also high in value. temperature and information of day light hours which
is a factor based purely on the latitude of the place.
When soil is lacking moisture, plants begin to transpire
less water in an effort to survive, this in turn decreases 2. Thornthwaite Method
evapotranspiration. based on the assumption of an exponential
relationship between mean monthly temperature and
mean monthly consumptive use.
Measurement of Evapotranspiration
1. Lysimeter Measurement 3. Hargreaves’ Method
A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a Hargreaves based on his work on data from grass
block of soil and set in a field of growing plants. The lysimeter, proposed the following relationship to
plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the estimate ET,
surrounding field.
Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the 4. FAO Penman-Monteith Method
amount of water required to maintain constant The FAO Penman-Monteith method is used to estimate
moisture conditions within the tank measured either reference evapotranspiration.
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an
arrangement made in the lysimeter. Lysimeter studies Significance of Evapotranspiration
are time- consuming and expensive. • Plays a major role in precipitation.
• It is the most significant component of the
2. Field Experimental Plots hydrologic budget.
Measurement of water supplies to the field and • A thorough knowledge of evapotranspiration
changes in soil moisture content of the field plots are is very important for planning and adjuvating
sometime more dependable for computing seasonal the distribution of water resources.
water requirement of crops than measurement with
lysimeters which do not simulate field conditions. INFILTRATION
The seasonal water requirements are computed by • the process of water entry into the soil
adding measured quantities of irrigation water, the through the earth's surface. The water at the
effective rainfall received during the season and the soil surface can originate from rain,
contribution of moisture from the soil. snowmelt, or anthropogenic activities.
• is the flow of water across the ground
3. Soil Moisture Depletion Studies surface into the soil. This process provides a
The soil moisture depletion method is usually critical link between surface hydrologic
employed to determine the consumptive use of processes and subsurface soil and
irrigated field crops grown on fairly uniform soils when groundwater systems
the depth to the ground water is such that it will not • the physical process involving movement of
influence the soil moisture fluctuation within the root water through the boundary area where the
zone. atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The
Seasonal consumptive use (Cu = Σu) is calculated by surface phenomenon is governed by soil
assuming consumptive use values of each sampling surface conditions. Water transfer is related
interval. A correction is made by adding PET values for to the porosity of the soil and the
accelerated water loss for the intervals(s) just after permeability of the soil profile.
irrigation and before soil moisture sampling.

4. Water Balance Method

It is also called the continuity equation or PERCOLATION
conservation equation. In other words, it is the • is the movement of water through the soil
balance of the input and output of water within a given itself.
area taking into account net changes in • the movement of water though the soil, and
storage. it's layers, by gravity and capillary forces
It can be defined by the following relationships.
 • Water that is in the zone of aeration where
air exists is called vadose water. Water that is SLOPE OF THE LAND
in the zone of saturation is called Slope of the land is essentially the gradient or incline
groundwater. of the land. A steep slope refers to a sharp incline; a
gentle slope refers to a slight incline.
• The boundary that separates the vadose and
the saturation zones is called the water table EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration includes water evaporation into
SEEPAGE the atmosphere from the soil surface, evaporation
• It is the process of seeping by which a liquid from the capillary fringe of the groundwater table, and
leaks through a porous substance. evaporation from water bodies on land.
• Water that has seeped or oozed through a Evapotranspiration also includes transpiration, which
porous soil. is the water movement from the soil to the
atmosphere via plants.
PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation refers to any form of water, HORTON’S INFILTRATION METHOD
liquid or solid, that falls from the Horton's infiltration method is an empirical technique
atmosphere to the Earth's surface. It used to estimate the rate at which water infiltrates into
includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail and is a the soil during a rainfall or precipitation event.
crucial component of the Earth's water cycle. Developed by American hydrologist Robert E. Horton
Precipitation plays a vital role in providing in the early 1940s, this method provides a simple and
freshwater to ecosystems and human practical way to estimate infiltration when detailed soil
activities, replenishing water sources, and data and instrumentation are not available. Horton's
influencing weather patterns. infiltration equation is based on empirical observations
and is commonly used in hydrology and civil
BASE FLOW engineering for quick and approximate estimations of
Base flow is the steady and continuous flow of water in infiltration rates.
a river or stream, primarily sourced from groundwater
seeping into the watercourse. It represents the portion The curve is called the Horton infiltration capacity
of a stream's flow that is not directly influenced by curve. The capacity decreases with time and ultimately
recent precipitation events but is sustained by the slow reaches a constant rate, caused by filling of soil pores
release of groundwater into the stream. In the with water, which reduces capillary suction.
hydrological cycle, base flow is related to infiltration
because it is a product of water percolating through PHI INDEX INFILTRATION METHOD
the ground, recharging aquifers, and subsequently The phi index of a catchment is defined as the constant
feeding into rivers and streams, contributing to their infiltration capacity that would yield the actual total
overall flow. runoff for a given rainfall amount. In principle, the
magnitude of the φ index is bounded between the
SOIL CHARATERISTICS maximum and minimum average infiltration capacities
Soil characteristics refer to the physical and chemical of the
properties of the soil that influence its behavior and catchment during a rainfall event.
suitability for various purposes. Soil properties such as
texture, structure, porosity, and organic matter GREEN-AMPT INFILTRATION METHOD
content can affect the rate at which water can As one of the theory-based infiltration methods,
penetrate the soil, with well-structured, loamy soils Green-Ampt method is widely used in hydrologic
generally allowing for better infiltration, while modeling to account for loss from infiltration. Green-
compacted or impermeable soils hinder the process, Ampt method was initially developed for ponded
potentially leading to surface runoff and erosion. infiltration into a homogeneous soil with a uniform
initial water content and the water wetting front
movement in the soil was governed by Darcy’s law.

SOIL SATURATION Generally four (4) parameters are required for Green-
Soil saturation is the condition in which soil pores are Ampt infiltration method: initial water content
completely filled with water, leaving no room for (dimensionless), saturated water content or porosity
additional water to infiltrate or percolate into the soil. (dimensionless), wetting front soil suction head (inch),
and hydraulic conductivity (in/hr). Some literatures
LAND COVER and software list three (3) parameters by combining
Land cover is the physical material at the surface of initial water content and saturated water content as a
Earth. Land covers include grass, asphalt, trees, bare single parameter – initial water content deficit
ground, water, etc. (saturated water content – initial water content)
Founded by William Heber Green and Gustav Adolf THE WATER TABLE
Ampt The water table is the top surface of the saturated
zone, where the saturated zone is not confined by
5 PRINCIPAL ASSUMPTIONS OF G-A METHOD overlying impermeable rocks. The height of the water
1. The soil under consideration is homogeneous and table varies as well. It is highest when the ratio of input
stable, implying that water to water removed is greatest, typically in the
macropores and preferential migration pathways spring, when rain is heavy or snow and ice
should not be considered. accumulations melt.

2. The supply of ponded water at the surface is not GROUNDWATER Recharge

limited. Is the processes of infiltration and migration or
percolation by which ground water is replaced.
3. A distinct and precisely definable wetting front
exists, and as water continues to infiltrate, the wetting GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE
front advances at the same rate with depth. Groundwater discharge occurs where ground water
flows into a stream, escapes at the surface in a spring,
4. The capillary suction just below the wetting front is or otherwise exits the aquifer
uniform throughout the profile and constant in time
during the infiltration event. CAPILLARY FRINGE
– region above water table where water rises due to
5. The soil is uniformly saturated above the wetting capillary forces in the porous medium
front, and the volumetric water contents remain
constant above and below the advancing wetting front. AQUIFER
-a geologic unit that stores and transmits water
GROUNDWATER -recharge area
In the hydrologic cycle, precipitation that infiltrates
through the soil to the water table. It is an important AQUIFER CONTAMINATION
component of water resource system. occurs when man-made products such as gasoline, oil,
road salts and chemicals get into the groundwater and
GROUNDWATER SIGNIFICANT USES cause it to become unsafe and unfit for human use.
• agricultural use
Farmers rely on groundwater for irrigation, especially POROSITY
in areas with limited access to surface water Percentage volume occupied by voids. Porosity is
independent of scale.
• municipal use
Many municipalities use groundwater as a primary PERMEABILITY
source for drinking water. Measures the transmission property of the media and
the interconnection of the pores. Related to hydraulic
• industrial use conductivity and transmissivity.
Industries use groundwater for various processes,
including cooling systems, manufacturing, and as a
component in products.
MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER
• Movement is exceedingly slow – typical rate
zone of aeration of movement is a few centimeters per day.
The pores in this layer are usually partially filled with • Energy for the movement is provided by the
water, while rest of them are filled with air. Thus, in this force of gravity
layer, air and water are able to interact with each other,
leading to aeration of water.
DARCY’S LAW
Saturated Zone or phreatic zone • Darcy was a French engineer who lived in the
This zone also known as groundwater zone is the space mid-16th century
in which all the pores of the soil are filled with water. • Darcy’s law says that if permeability remains
uniform, the velocity of groundwater will
increase as the slope of the water table
increases.

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
is the water table slope and its determined by dividing
the vertical difference between the recharge and
discharge points by the length if flow between these
points. EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION
Erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment in
HYDRAULIC HEAD a watershed are natural processes which are intimately
the vertical difference between the recharge and connected with the hydrologic processes. Soil and
discharge points water conservation in watershed and reservoir
sedimentation are important parameters affecting the
GROUNDWATER WITHDRAWAL success and economy of many water resources
Groundwater withdrawal is the process of extracting development activities in a basin.
groundwater from the aquifer.
EROSION
CONE OF DEPRESSION wearing away of land. Natural agents such as water,
a circular lowering of the water table immediately wind and gravity are eroding the land surface since
around the well in an unconfined aquifer. geologic times. Out of many erosion causing agents the
role of water in detachment, transportation and
COMPACTION AND SURFACE SUBSIDENCE deposition is indeed very significant.
-If the aquifer rocks are no longer saturated with water,
they may become compacted from the weight of EROSION PROCESSES
overlying rocks. This decreases their porosity, INTERRILL EROSION
permanently reducing their water-holding capacity, In this, the detached particles due to raindrop impact
and may also decrease their permeability. are transported over small distances in surface flow of
shallow depth without formation of elementary
Rock types such as carbonate rocks or beds of rock salt channels called rills.
or gypsum, chemical sediments deposited in shallow
seas, are extremely soluble in water. Dissolution of
these rocks by subsurface water, and occasional The mode of transport is essentially sheet flow and the
collapse or subsidence of the ground surface into the inter-rill erosion from this mode is known as sheet
resultant cavities, creates a distinctive terrain known erosion.
as karst
RILL EROSION
The underground water dissolving large volumes of Rills are elementary channels which form during the
soluble rocks over long periods of time that slowly surface run- off event due to the concentration of flow.
enlarging underground caverns can also erode support These are temporary features and facilitate channeling
for the land above. There may be no obvious evidence of overland flow.
at the surface level of what is happening until the
ground collapses abruptly into the void, producing a GULLEY EROSION
sinkhole. Gullies are formed due to the confluence of many rills
and formation of a major rill. When a major rill
becomes deeper and steeper a gulley is formed. Gullies
A Well is a hole drilled into the ground to access water are capable of transporting larger amounts of
contained in an aquifer. A pipe and a pump are used to sediment. The sediment removed due to formation,
pull water out of the ground, and a screen filters out enlargement and deepening of gullies is known as
unwanted particles that could clog the pipe. Wells gulley erosion.
come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the
type of material the well is drilled into and how much CHANNEL EROSION
water is being pumped out. Channels are permanent topographic features formed
due to confluence of gullies. Channel erosion is
BORED OR SHALLOW WELLS significantly larger than sheet erosion.
usually bored into an unconfined water source,
generally found at depths of 100 feet or less. UNIVERSALSOILLOSS EQUATION (USLE)
the most widely used tool for estimation of soil loss
CONSOLIDATED OR ROCK WELLS from agricultural watersheds for planning erosion
are drilled into a formation consisting entirely of a control practices.
natural rock formation that contains no soil and does
not collapse. Their average depth is about 250 feet. RAINFALL EROSIVITY FACTOR(R)
The factor R is the number of rainfall erosion index
UNCONSOLIDATED OR SAND WELLS units (EI30) in a given period at the study location.
are drilled into a formation consisting of soil, sand,
gravel or clay material that collapses upon itself SOIL ERODIBILITY FACTOR(K)
The factor K relates the rate at which different soils
erode due to soil properties. These are usually
determined at special experimental runoff plots or by is the deposition of rock fragments, soil, organic
use of empirical erodibility equations which relate matter, or dissolved material that has been eroded,
several soil properties to factor K. that is, has been transported by water, wind, ice, or
gravity.
TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR(LS) SEDIMENT MEASUREMENT
The two factors L and S are usually combined into one the process of quantifying and studying the movement
factor LS called topographic factor. and deposition of sediment (particles of sand, silt, clay,
and other materials) in water bodies, such as rivers,
CROP MANAGEMENT FACTOR(C) streams, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries. This is an
It is used to determine the relative effectiveness of soil important aspect of hydrology because sediment
and crop management systems in terms of preventing transport and deposition can have significant
soil loss. environmental, ecological, and engineering
implications.

SUPPORTING CULTIVATION PRACTICE (P)

This factor is the ratio of soil loss with a support SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
practice to that with straight row farming up and down
the slope. SEDIMENTS
• It is a naturally occurring material that is
MODIFIED UNIVERSALSOIL LOSSEQUATION (MUSLE) broken down by weathering and erosion.
The USLE was modified by Williams in 1975 to • Subsequently transported by action of wind,
MUSLE by replacing the rainfall energy factor with a water, or ice and/or by the force of gravity
runoff factor. acting on the particle itself.
• Most mineral sediment comes from erosion
CHANEL EROSION and weathering, while organic sediment is
The channel erosion comprises erosion in bed, sides, typically detritus and decomposing material
and flood plain of the stream. such as algae.
A channel flowing in a watershed transports the runoff • It includes decomposing organic substances
that is produced in the catchment and the erosion and inorganic biogenic material.
products, out of the watershed. The total sediment During a flood or other high flow event, even large
load that is transported out the catchment by a stream rocks can be classified as sediment as they are carried
is classified into components depending upon their downstream.
origin as:

1. Wash load
2. Bed material load SUSPENDED OR BEDDED
(i) Bed load (ii) Suspended load In an aquatic environment, sediment can either be
suspended or bedded. When both floating and settled
WASH LOAD particles are monitored, they are referred to as SABS:
Itis sediment originating from the land surface of the Suspended And Bedded Sediments.
watershed and is transported to the stream channel by
means of splash, sheet, rill and gully erosion. Wash SOURCES OF SEDIMENT
load is generally composed of fine-grained soils of very 1. Land Clearing
small fall velocity. • There is direct relationship between
increased soil erosion and sedimentation.
BED MATERIAL LOAD • In areas where catchment have been cleared
The sediment load composed of grain sizes originating and riverbanks are constantly grazed,
in the channel bed and sides of the stream channel. sediment loads are often high.
• Vegetation clearing increases = higher flows
BED LOAD increase erosion of stream channel, leading
Itis the relatively coarse bed material load that is to creation of deep gullies.
moved at the bed surface through sliding, rolling, and
saltation. 2. Road Building
• Unsealed roads can contribute significant
SUSPENDED LOAD sediment loads. The compacted road
The relatively finer bed material that is kept in surfaces are subjected to erosion which
suspension in the flow through turbulence eddies and generates sediment.
transported in suspension mode by the flowing water • Points where roads cross streams are
is called suspended load. particularly damaging.
SEDIMENTATION
 • Roads can become long term sources of the water column as they move
sediment if they are not properly downstream, or simply push them along the
maintained. bottom of a waterway.
• Another name for sediment transport is
3. IN-STREAM DISTURBANCES sediment load. The total load includes all
• When dams and reservoirs are under particles moving as bedload, suspended
construction, disturbance to the stream load, and wash load.
bank can generate large quantities of
sediment. COMPOSITION OF TOTAL LOAD
BED LOAD
4. OTHER ACTIVITIES consists of grains rolling, sliding and jumping in
• Sediment can also be increased by mining, frequent or continuous contact with the bed.
dredging, some industrial processes and
cleaning weirs that have filled with SUSPENDED LOAD
deposited sediment. consists of grains in suspension above the
bed for extended periods of time.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT
• Sediments carried by estuarine waters WASH LOAD
typically encompasses a range of sizes from part of the suspended load that is not found in the bed
less than 2 mm (0.002 mm) to more than 4 is referred as wash load.
mm, but the finer sizes dominate most
estuaries. COHESIONLESS SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
• the bed banks of most estuaries are • Cohesionless sediment (sand size and larger,
dominated by clay and silts, with sand and plus coarse silt are transported).
larger sizes depositing either at the head of • At very low flow speeds, when the flow
the estuary or at the sea or ocean entrance. exerts tractive forces on the bed that are
• Fine-grained sediments-- clay sizes and some lower than a critical value, no motion occurs.
silts-- include both inorganic and organic • If the flow-induced forces slightly exceed the
materials and are almost universally called critical value for initiation of motion,
mud. individual grains begin to tumble or hop
• For transport purposes sediments are along the bed.
principally characterized by their size, by
constituent composition, and by cohesion. BED FORMS
• Estuarine sand is typically composed of • The shape of cohesionless bed surface varies
quartz, although other minerals such as with flow and the rate of transport.
feldspar or various heavy minerals such as • Initially smooth, planar bed will remain
magnetite may be present or even smooth for low transport rates, then become
predominate, depending on the sediment covered with moving ripples at a slightly
source. higher transport rate.
• Fine sediments in estuaries are mixtures of • At still higher rates the ripple coalesces into
inorganic minerals, organic materials, and large sand waves (or dunes).
biochemicals. • Sediment particles eroded from upstream
• Mineral grains consist of clays and non-clay dune face land on the steeper downstream
minerals. face and the waves march slowly
• Organic materials include biogenic detritus downstream.
and bacteria. • Under the reversing flow of estuaries, sand
• Organic fractions in suspended sediment waves reverse their migration direction
ranging from 18% to 85% have been every few hours, but often exhibit a locally
reported in various estuaries. dominant direction that can be interpreted
• Cohesion describes the tendency of fine to establish dominant flow and transport
sediment grains to bind together under directions.
some circumstances which significantly
affects sediment behavior. EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION
How Does Sedimentation Affects Fluvial Ecosystem?
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT Sediment suspended in water, can have significant
• Sediment transport is the movement of impacts on the flora and fauna living in the stream.
organic and inorganic particles by water. In
general, the greater the flow, the more Increased turbidity has significant physical,
sediment that will be conveyed. Water flow physiological, and behavioral effects on fish.
can be strong enough to suspend particles in
ACTIONS TO REDUCE SEDIMENTATION the distance measured along the longest axis of a
• Revegetation and stabilization of catchment reservoir, typically from upper end to lower end.
and riparian zones.
• Protect riparian vegetation. -RESERVOIR CONSTRICTION
• Manage runoff from cleared or disturbed refers to narrowed sections or bottlenecks within a
land so that it does not enter waterways. reservoir that can impact water flow

-SIZE OF SEDIMENT
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION can vary widely, ranging from smaller particles like clay
RESERVOIR and silt to larger particles like sand, gravel, or even
A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored. boulders.
Most reservoirs are formed by constructing dams
across rivers. -CAPACITY INFLOW
refers to the total volume of water that a reservoir can
A reservoir can also be formed from a natural lake hold.
whose outlet has been dammed to control the water
level. The dam controls the amount of water that flows -VEGETAL GROWTH
out the reservoir. refers to the growth of vegetation, including plants and
aquatic vegetation, in and around a reservoir.
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
a critical issue affecting efficiency and lifespan of water -RESERVOIR OPERATION
storage facilities. refers to the planning and management of water
releases and storage within a reservoir to meet specific
It poses significant challenges to water resource objectives.
management.
-INFLOW PATTERNS OF THE STREAM
STRATIFIED FLOW refers to the variations in the amount of water entering
the fluid with density variations in vertical direction. the stream at different points in time.

DENSITY CURRENTS -SEDIMENT LOAD IN RIVER FLOW

currents that flow along the bottom of the reservoir. refers to the amount of sediment transported by a
river at a given point in time.
LIVE STORAGE
volume of reservoir which is used for irrigation and -SHAPE OF RESERVOIR
power generation. it can vary based on several factors, including the
topography of the area, the purpose of the reservoir,
DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OFSEDIMENTS and engineering considerations.
1. It provides an idea about how sediments
tend to deposit near the dam -OUTLETS
2. The allocation of the various storages is are structures or mechanisms designed to control the
carried out. release of water from a reservoir.
3. Helps to determine the region of delta
formation in the reservoir. -SEDIMENT-RESERVOIR VOLUME RATIO
is a measure that expresses the relationship between
4. Helps to decide the sides for locating the
the volume of sediment accumulated in a reservoir and
recreational facilities
the original storage capacity of that reservoir.
Sedimentation occurs due to the decrease in velocity
RATE OF RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
of water to a point below which the particles will no
Depends not only on the volume of reservoir inflow
longer in suspension.
into the reservoir but also on the trap efficiency.
When the velocity no longer supports the transport of
TRAP EFFICIENCY (TE)
the particles, gravity will remove them from the flow.
portion of the incoming sediment that is deposited, or
trapped, in a reservoir or pod.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEDIMENTATION PROCESS
Dependent on the characteristics of the inflowing
-SLOPE OF STREAM
sediment and the retention time of the water in the
measures the vertical distance that a stream drops
pond, which in turn are controlled by pond geometry
over a given horizontal length
and runoff characteristics.
-RESERVOIR LENGTHS
To obtain data on Trap efficiency for selected where water flow takes place and as a result most of
reservoirs or ponds, there are 3 following methods the silts do not get flushed as they remain undisturbed.
one can use:
• Reservoir survey with suspended-load -RESERVOIR OPERATION
measurements downstream The ratio of the reservoir capacity and the size of the
• Reservoir survey with suspended-load drainage basin is one of the most important factors
measurements upstream which govern the annual rate of sediment
• Suspended-load measurements up and accumulation in the reservoir.
downstream
-EROSION CONTROL
SEDIMENT DELIVERY RATIO The erosion is a main source of sediment yield
It is the ratio between the yield sediment at the The erosion control measures include all those
measuring site and the gross erosion in the catchment. measures which are effective in preventing or delaying
the movement of sediment laden flow from the origin.
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION CONTROL
It is very essential to control the problem of POST CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES
sedimentation i.e deposition of sediment in the Post constructive measures are undertaken during the
reservoir. operation of the reservoir. It includes the following
methods:
Various control measures which are adopted to control
the reservoir sedimentation can be classified into two
types:
1. Pre Constructive Measures
2. Post Constructive Measures
-REMOVAL OF FLOOD WATER
It is well known that the sediment content is more in
the stream water during initial stage of the flood.
PRE CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES
Refers to those measures which are adopted before -STIRRING OF SEDIMENT
and during the execution of work of the reservoir It is generally performed by using a mechanical stirrer.
construction Due to this, the deposited sediment is scoured and
disturbed in the water, which is flushed outside
-SELECTION OF DAM SITE through the sluice gates.
The amount of sediment reaching the reservoir from a
catchment area depends upon the soil erosion caused -REMOVAL OF SILT DEPOSITS
by water. If the catchment area is less susceptible to The deposited sediments in the reservoir are also
erosion, then less silts are charged into the stream removed by excavation, dredging and sluicing with
flow. hydraulic or mechanical agitators.
Dredging method is the most expensive method
-DESIGN CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR among all
The design capacity of reservoir plays a significant role
in the reservoir sedimentation. When the storage
capacity is less than the volume of stream flow coming
into the reservoir, then a large volume of water will be
out from the reservoir quickly.

-CONSTRUCTION OF CHECK DAM

Check dams play a key role in controlling the inflow of
sediment into the reservoir. The check dams are
constructed across the stream/river to trap the major
portion of sediment load.

-INSTALLATION OF VEGETATIVE SCREEN

Vegetative screen is a vegetative cover through which
flood water passes, before entering into the reservoir.
It is one of the best and cheapest methods of silt
control.

-CONSTRUCTION OF SLUICE GATE UNDER THE DAM

This method is not much suitable as the flow of water
tends to develop a channel behind the sluice from