The Ocean Planet

Chapter 2
The Ocean Planet

Our Watery World
70034_Encyclopedia_Of_Diving_04_Sec2.indd 2 12/14/20 2:45 PM

The Ocean Planet

Chapter 2
The oceans produce two influences – the weather
and world climatic patterns – and many natural resources
that make them vital to life. And, although humans have
The Ocean Planet

explored the seas for thousands of years, it is largely the
surface that we’ve seen. There’s still more to learn than we
know. To give you an idea of how little we’ve actually seen,
Our Watery World if this page were the oceans, the part human eyes have
seen would be about the size of the period at the end of
this sentence.
This chapter is based upon Life on an Ocean Planet, a high school
curriculum marine science textbook written and developed by PADI’s
In Chapter One, you learned about the motivation
corporate affiliate, Current Publishing. For more information about Life on that drives us to explore the underwater world – mainly
an Ocean Planet and Current Publishing, visit currentpublishing.com. our thirst for discovery. Unlike on land, it’s possible to
discover underwater places that no one, or very few, has
ever seen. Through scuba and other technologies, we can
INTRODUCTION study the aquatic realm for recreation, for work or for
Although we talk about the world’s oceans – plural, there science – or a combination of these.
is really only one ocean because ultimately, all the water In this chapter, you’ll discover what we’ve learned
on earth connects. Despite separation and confinement about the underwater portion (fresh and salt) of our ocean
by land, all aquatic systems – fresh water and salt water – planet in more detail. We’ll look at the diversity of marine
link. No matter where you find an aquatic system, water environments that have come to exist. You’ll find that
is water. marine organisms have common lifestyles based on where
Through the hydrologic cycle of continual evaporation, they live. Surprisingly, different organisms can share many
condensation and precipitation, at least in theory, given lifestyle characteristics because they live in the same type
enough time every water molecule eventually circulates of environment.
through every ocean, sea, bay, river, lake or stream. In this chapter you’ll learn about the vertical motion
NASA caused by waves and tides. Like currents, waves and tides
The Water Cycle

Compared to earth’s total volume and mass, the outer
Earth is an ocean layer in which we find life is as thin as paper wrapped
planet. This NASA around an egg. Yet all the organisms on earth get
(National Aeronautic what they need from the resources in this layer with the
and Space exception of energy from sunlight.
Administration)
Biological processes would rapidly exhaust earth’s
photograph shows
water, oxygen and vital elements if they were used only
that ocean covers
more of the earth once. These resources remain and support life because
than land does. they cycle between the air, land, water, and organisms.
Water travels in a hydrologic cycle, changing form as
The water in the ocean today may have been in a river organisms take it in, as it evaporates, as it condenses
yesterday. It could also have been part of an ice cube in and as it flows. During the cycle, heat from the sun
someone’s lemonade or a snowflake that fell in the Arctic. turns water from the seas, lakes, and streams into water
vapor – evaporation. During transpiration plants give
Its journey back to the ocean may take thousands of years.
up water as vapor into the air.
It may appear that fresh water accounts for a sizable
The water vapor rises into the atmosphere,
portion of the earth’s hydrosphere – but it doesn’t. Only eventually condensing and falling as precipitation
about three percent is fresh and three-quarters of that is (snow, rain). It flows into streams and rivers, picking up
frozen in the polar ice caps. Another 20 percent is ground minerals and compounds that it carries to the oceans.
water. That leaves very little fresh water to Organisms consume some of the water, later releasing
account for the numerous rivers, streams it as water vapor, with waste products, or as a
and lakes of the world. Yet, this consequence of death and decomposition. From there
relatively small amount is incredibly it returns to the sea, river, and eventually, the air.
important to life.
2-2 Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

P R E C IP IT A T IO N C O N D E N SA T I O N
Aquatic Life Interaction
T R A N SP I R A T I O N
F R O M P L A N T S As divers, we’re privileged to interact with aquatic
life. This privilege comes with the responsibility of
minimizing disruption and damage to the underwater
E V A P O R A T IO N
R U N O F F ecosystem. The following guidelines help:
The Ocean Planet

U P T A K E
1. Passive interaction is best. Passive
L ak e interaction means that you do nearly nothing to
WA T E R
disrupt the normal behaviors. Generally, this means
P E R C O L A T IO N swimming, watching and taking photos/video in
I N T O SO I L
O c e an ways that don’t frighten or otherwise disturb.
G R O U N D WA T E R 2. Be aware of unintended harm. Seemingly
F L O W
harmless activities may be detrimental. Coral and
other organisms are extremely fragile and easily
The hydrologic cycle. injured by an intentional or unintentional touch, so
watch what you touch and secure dragging gauges
influence where and when you can dive. Did you know or accessories. Feeding organisms may seem
a positive interaction, but it may disrupt normal
that even gigantic, high-powered aircraft carriers must
behaviors and the ecological balance.
bow to the tides and, sometimes, to the waves? You’ll learn
3. If you hunt, be conservative. Follow all
that wind doesn’t cause all waves and why the proper term
game laws and take no more than you will consume
for a “tidal wave” is tsunami.
personally. Remember, it’s the organisms you leave
You’ll also begin looking at aquatic ecology, which that reproduce more for the future.
studies the intricate processes that connect organisms
with each other and the environment. You’ll see that,
ultimately, every environment has a system that balances
the energy flow and matter cycles through organisms While we still have more to learn than we know,
within it, but almost no ecosystem exists entirely isolated. we’ve learned a great deal about the physical characteristics
Each part of the aquatic environment interacts with other of the earth’s aquatic environments, as well as how these
parts, as well as with terrestrial environments. From kelp physical characteristics and their innate processes are
beds to coral reefs, each environment presents unique essential to life – not only in virtually every body of water,
conditions that shape many characteristics of indigenous but in the entire biosphere (the habitable space on earth).
species. These diverse organisms have developed a number
of successful, and occasionally dramatic, adaptations that Ocean Basins
reflect the nature of the dense, fluid environment in which Where did the oceans come from? According to the
they live. prevailing view of mainstream geology, four and a half
billion years ago, the earth was a sphere of massive
Physical Characteristics of volcanic eruptions. Gases loaded with water vapor
the World’s Oceans exploded from volcanoes into the atmosphere. Lava flowed
down the sides of the volcanoes, creating landmasses
The world’s oceans cover approximately 71 percent and an uneven surface covering the earth. As the earth
of the earth’s surface, with an average depth of 3800 cooled, water vapor condensed and fell as rain, filling the
metres/12,500 feet. Water covers about 80 percent of low basins on the earth’s surface. This created the oceans.
the southern hemisphere, compared to 61 percent of the Smaller water bodies that exist today (lakes, ponds, rivers,
northern hemisphere. etc.) came much later as a result of rain, erosion and the
Despite the fact that 84 percent of the seafloor rests rise and fall of landmasses. These same processes changed
at depths below 1825 metres/6000 feet, most of our the shape of the oceans into the four main basins that exist
knowledge of the aquatic realm is confined to depths today: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian and Arctic. From a
shallower than 90 metres/300 feet. Considering that south-polar view, you can see that these major basins form
most divers rarely venture below 30 metres/100 feet, our one large, interconnected ocean system.
relative ignorance of the earth’s aquatic environments isn’t The Antarctic Ocean surrounds Antarctica and has
surprising. three large embayments extending northward. These three
The Ocean Planet 2-3

S o u th A m e r ic a
No r t h A m e r i c a
A t lan t i c O c e an
P ac i f i c O c e an A fr ic a
A n t ar c t i c a E u ro p e
A u s t r ali a I n d i an O c e an A s ia
South-polar view of the world’s oceans
oceanic extensions, partially separated by continental TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF OCEAN BASINS

barriers, are the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. Other The ocean floor – from the shoreline to its greatest depths
smaller oceans and seas, such as the Arctic Ocean and – has topographical features that create diverse and varied
the Mediterranean Sea, project from the margins of the terrain (more detail about this later). The continental shelf
larger ocean basins. Connections between the major ocean is an underwater extension of continental landmasses.
M e d i t e r r an e an S e a
A r c t i c O c e an
Car i b b e an S e a
No r t h S e a
B e r in g S e a G u lf o f M e x i c o
S o u t h Ch i n a S e a
B ay o f B e n g al
R e d S e a
P ac i f i c O c e an
A r ab i an S e a A t lan t i c
O c e an
An equatorial view of the Co r al S e a
world’s oceans. Note that
Pacific Ocean is the largest. I n d i an O c e an
R o s s S e a W e d d e ll
S e a
basins permit exchange of seawater as well as plants and If the sea level lowered only five percent of its present
animals. Similarly, rivers and estuaries connect the ocean average depth, the shelf would be exposed to air. Some
basins and their extensions to inland freshwater bodies. scientists say that as recently as 10,000 to 15,000 years
An equatorial view of the earth shows the connections ago, a large portion of the current continental shelf was
between the various seas and the world’s oceans, with the land. At that time, an ice age caused much of the ocean’s
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins covering the water to freeze, lowering the sea level and exposing the
majority of the earth. continental shelf.
The continental shelf width varies considerably, from
a few kilometres/miles offshore to hundreds of kilometres/
miles offshore. In total area, the continental shelf accounts
for about eight percent of the total seafloor surface area.

Average Average Maximum
Ocean Area Volume Depth Depth
x10 km2/mile2
6
x106 km3/mile3 m/ft m/ft
Pacific 165.2/63.8 707.6/169.8 4282/13,917 11,022/35,822

Atlantic 82.4/31.8 323.6/77.7 3926/12,760 9200/29,900
Indian 73.4/28.3 291.0/69.8 3963/12,880 7460/24,245
The Ocean Planet

Arctic 14.1/5.4 17.0/4.1 1205/3916 4300/13,975
Caribbean 4.3/1.7 9.6/2.3 2216/7202 7202/23,400
Mediterranean 3.0/1.2 4.2/1 1429/4644 4600/14,950
Other 18.7/7.2 17.3/4.2
A comparison of the major ocean basins.

However, many of the world’s most valuable and sensitive trenches are especially common in the Pacific. The deepest
ecosystems exist in this area due to light penetration into known point in any ocean is the Challenger Deep in the
the relatively shallow waters. Mariana Trench. It’s approximately 10,900 metres/35,750
The edge of the continental shelf drops off feet deep (the exact depth measurements vary from one
at a significant angle at depths around 110-190 expedition to the next due to technology changes and
metres/350-600 feet, beginning the continental slope. likely variations in the trench’s bottom). The trench is so
This slope continues down to depths of 2800-3700 deep that if you put Mt. Everest into it, the top would
metres/9000-12,000 feet, where the largest surface area of still be more than 1990 metres/6530 feet underwater.
the seafloor begins – the abyssal plains. The world’s oceans hold more than 1.3 billion cubic
Undersea mountain chains called oceanic ridges kilometres/285 million cubic miles of water.
occupy about 30 percent of the ocean-basin area.
Seamounts and many islands are formed by the volcanic Basic Ocean Zones and Marine
activity that takes place along these ridges. The tallest
Lifestyles
peaks of these linear mountain systems occasionally
break the surface, creating islands such as Iceland and One of the amazing things about earth is its diversity
Ascension Island. of environments and life. After the atmosphere, oceans
Finally, deep trenches cut into the deepest parts of the and life formed, biologists think that organisms changed
ocean. Usually found at the margins of basins, deep-ocean through processes still at work today. Uneven heating by
the sun created regions with different relative temperatures
40 and moisture, with ongoing physical processes continually
changing these conditions. Scientists theorize that these
35
1,990m processes explain the diversity of environments and
(6529ft) the organisms within them on earth today. Because
30
DEPTH (thousands of feet)
CHALLENGER the characteristics of an environment determine the

25 DEEP
approx. 8848m
adaptations organisms must have to live there, let’s begin
20 10,900m (29,028ft) by looking at the basic ocean environments and the types
(35,750ft) elevation of
15
Mt. Everest of organisms you find there.
10 ENVIRONMENT CLASSIFICATION METHODS

5 How can you classify marine environments? Pretend
you’re visiting a local park. Your job is to define park areas
0
for closer study. How would you go about it? You might
Challenger Deep and Mt. Everest comparison. Challenger observe that parts of the park consist of lawn, trees and
Deep is so deep that Mt. Everest could be placed within it other plants. Other parts consist of small buildings, paved
and still have approximately 1990 metres/6530 feet of water walkways and swing sets for children. This may lead you to
above it. The only visit to Challenger Deep was made in divide the park into the “natural zones” and the “developed
1960. No submersible in use today can reach the bottom of
Challenger Deep.
zones.” Or, you might notice that the park has outlying
areas near the surrounding streets. The inner areas, on the

NE
ZO
GIC ITIC
A NER
PEL H ig
h T
L o w id e
IC
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T id LITTORAL
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OC
(INTERTIDAL)
F
The pelagic zone is subdivided along both
EL
PHOTIC ELA
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EU EPIP
ZONE PH
IC
there are the neritic and oceanic zones, which
OT LAG
DY
SP IC
ft MES
OPE are delineated by the edge of the continental
HO /2 3 0
L
7 0 m 0 ft shelf. The neritic zone is shoreward of the
YA
TI /6 5
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TH
0 0 ft AGIC
6 0 0 m
/2 0
PEL shelf. Vertically, the pelagic zone is divided by
BA
t HY
m /3 0 0 0 f BAT
1 0 0 0 depth. The depth of light penetration defines the
APHOTIC ZONE
top layers, epipelagic and mesopelagic. The
E
N
m /1 3
0 0 0 f
t
remaining deeper ones are in constant darkness
O
IC
LAG
L
4 0 0 0 LPE
Z
SA
A Y
SSA and comprise the seas below approximately
IC
YS
B
B
H
1000 metres/3280 feet.
A
T
N
E
B
0 0 ft
2 0 0
0 m / GIC
6 0 0
L P ELA
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HYD L
A
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0 0 ft
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1 1 0 0
other hand, lie a good distance from any motor traffic. LOCATION
This might call for a division into the “outer zone” and the The most basic division of the ocean based on location
“inner zone.” is between the water column and the bottom. The water
On the other hand, your interest may relate to how portion is called the pelagic zone and the bottom is called
organisms live in the park. You notice birds, insects, dogs, the benthic zone. Each of these has subdivisions.
trees and people. Based on this, you may classify the life The pelagic zone is divided into two horizontal zones
forms into “inhabitants” that live there and “visitors” that – neritic and oceanic. The neritic zone is the water area
come visit from time to time but don’t stay. Or, you may between the low-tide mark to the edge of the continental
classify them as those that fly and those that don’t. shelf. The oceanic zone is the open water area beyond that.
None of these division methods is right or wrong; The pelagic zone is further divided into vertical regions
they are valid ways to define the park’s areas. In studying called the epipelagic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathypelagic
the park, you may end up using more than one method, zone, abyssalpelagic zone, and the hadalpelagic zone.
depending on what you’re considering. Studying the effect The epipelagic zone is the top layer that sunlight
of noise, you may consider the “inner” and “outer zones.” penetrates. Below that lies the mesopelagic zone, which
Studying how people use the park, the “natural” and sunlight reaches but not strongly enough to support much
“developed” division may be more useful. life. The zones below are the bathypelagic, abyssalpelagic
As a diver you have the same concerns when you and hadalpelagic. The bathypelagic zone is the deep water
consider the oceans and its inhabitants. The seas can be in open ocean. The abyssalpelagic zone is the even deeper
divided into many different regions based on physical water in oceanic trenches. Hadalpelagic is the deepest
characteristics. Parts of the ocean could be classified water in the ocean trenches.
into different zones or regions based on the light, depth, The benthic zone is divided based on depth. Moving
temperature, density (more on these characteristics to from shore toward the open ocean, the first zone is the
come), latitude, and distance from shore or a combination supralittoral zone. This is the zone that water splashes, but
of these. For now, let’s look at some of the basic it does not remain submerged. Beyond that lies the littoral
classifications based on distance from shore zone, which is the bottom area between the high-tide
and depth. and low-tide mark so that it is sometimes submerged and
sometimes above water.
Beyond the littoral zone is the continental shelf.
This area is divided into the sublittoral zone, which is the

NE
ZO
GIC ITIC
A NER
PEL H ig
h T
L o w id e
IC
EAN
T id LITTORAL
e
OC (INTERTIDAL)
The Ocean Planet

F
EL
ELA
GIC SH The benthic zone is the bottom of the ocean
PHOTIC EPIP
ZONE EU
PH ranging from the littoral zone to the hadal
OT GIC
DY IC OP ELA zone. The littoral zone, also known as the
SP
/2 3 0
ft MES
HO
L
7 0 m 0 ft intertidal zone, is submerged according to the
YA
TI /6 5
C 2 0 0 m
TH
0 0 ft
6 0 0 m
/2 0
PEL
AGIC tides. Past the low-tide mark is the continental
BA
t
m /3 0 0 0 f BAT
HY
1 0 0 0 shelf. After the continental shelf break is the
APHOTIC ZONE
bathyal zone that extends down to the bottom
E
N
t
0 0 0 f of the continental slope. The abyssal zone runs
O
m /1 3 LAG
IC
4 0 0 0
Z
LPE
SA
ABY
SSA from the base of the continental slope to the
IC
YS
B
H
beginning of the deep ocean – after which is
A
T
N
E
2 0 0
0 0 ft B
the hadal zone.
0 m / IC
6 0 0 LAG
A LPE
HAD
L
A
D
A
H
0 0 ft
3 6 0
0 m /
1 1 0 0
ocean bottom close to shore, and the outer sublittoral

zone, which is the ocean bottom out to the edge of the Z O O P L A NK T O N
continental shelf. The bathyal zone is the bottom along ( an i m al p lan k t o n )
the continental slope down to the deep open
ocean bottom. The deep open ocean bottom
is called the abyssal zone. The deepest zone,
areas below 6000 metres/19,685 feet, is the PHYTOPLANKTON
hadal zone. Commonly you’ll hear the bathyal, ( p lan t p lan k t o n )
abyssal, and hadal zones called the deep sea floor.
ORGANISM LIFESTYLES
Later in this chapter you’ll be reading about some of the
thousands of different types of specific organisms living
in the world’s fresh and saltwater environments. You’ll
quickly learn that aquatic life is incredibly diverse. With
hundreds of thousands of species, it can be difficult to
discuss them individually.
Scientists therefore group and subgroup organisms
based on common physical characteristics, but this type
of classification doesn’t work for some discussions. As a
diver, you often find that the specific organism itself is
less important than how and where it lives. Very different
organisms can exist in the same environment and have
similar survival strategies. For these types of discussion,
scientists classify aquatic life into three lifestyles called Marine lifestyles.
plankton, nekton and benthos. Organisms classified according to lifestyle are divided into three
major groups. The plankton are the drifters (which also include the
Plankton is a group of plants (phytoplankton) and neuston, which live at the surface), nekton are the independent
animals (zooplankton) that exist adrift in ocean currents. swimmers, and benthic organisms live on or in the bottom.

Most plankton are very small or microscopic and can’t of energy coming from the sun. About half of this energy
swim against currents and waves. Plankton are among the makes it through the atmosphere, the ocean absorbs much
most important organisms on earth, without them most of it. Through convection, evaporation and radiation,
life would not exist. the heat returns to the atmosphere and radiates back into
The nekton are what you probably immediately space. Over time, the incoming solar radiation and earth’s
visualize when you think of marine organisms. These internal heat sources balance with the outward radiating
are the organisms that swim, from small invertebrates heat. This keeps the earth in thermal equilibrium, meaning
to large whales. Most of the seas’ predators are nekton. that it cools at about the same rate that it heats. Over
The majority of the nekton are vertebrates (animals with time, the earth grows neither significantly warmer nor
internal skeletons and backbones), such as fish and whales. colder.
But, a few are invertebrates (animals without internal Daily and seasonally, seawater acts as a global
skeletons and backbones), such as squid. thermostat, preventing broad temperature swings caused
The benthos are organisms that live on or in the by uneven solar heating across the globe. Seawater
bottom. Benthos can move about or be sessile organisms. absorbs heat during the day and during the summer and
Sessile organisms are attached, like sea anemones, then releases it back into the atmosphere at night and
barnacles and sea fans. during the winter. Also, sea ice found in the polar regions
These classifications have subgroups. One important absorbs heat as it melts during the day and releases heat
subgroup of plankton is called the neuston. The neuston as it refreezes in the night. The temperature differences
are those plankton that float at the surface. One example between day and night or winter and summer would
is the Portuguese man-of-war, which has a special gas float be much greater without the oceans providing thermal
that keeps it at the surface and allows the wind to push it equilibrium. Without the thermal inertia provided by
to help it capture prey with its stinging tentacles. water, many – perhaps most – of the organisms on earth
The benthos are divided into the epifauna, epiflora could not survive the drastic temperature swings that
and infauna. The epifauna are those animals, such as would occur between night and day.
crabs, that live on the sea floor. Epiflora are plants, Every species has a range of conditions in which
such as seagrasses, that live on the sea floor. Infauna it can live and beyond which it can’t. These conditions
are organisms that are partially or completely buried in include temperature, salinity and light intensity, among
the sea floor. These include some species of clams, sand many others. Some species can tolerate a wide variety
dollars, tubeworms and sea pens. Most infauna are either of environmental conditions and so can live in a large
deposit feeders or suspension feeders. Deposit feeders feed number of places. Others can tolerate only a narrow range
off detritus (loose organic and inorganic material) drifting of conditions and are more restricted in where they can
down from above. Suspension feeders filter particles live. An organism may have a wide range of tolerance for
(mostly plankton) suspended in the water for food. one condition (e.g., temperature) and a narrow range for
another (e.g., salinity).
Temperature Tolerance ranges tend to affect each other.
For example, sea stars can tolerate a wide range of
Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it can store and
temperatures, but if they are living near their temperature
hold more heat than most common substances (more
limit, they are under stress and are less tolerant of changes
about this in Chapter Four). This characteristic provides
in other environmental factors, such as salinity. An
the earth with thermal inertia, which is the tendency
organism’s tolerance range partly defines the ecological
to resist temperature changes. Because of its high heat
community in which it can live.
capacity, the ocean temperature doesn’t rise or fall much,
Aquatic life distribution is closely associated with
even when gaining or losing large quantities of heat.
geographical differences in water temperature. This is
Therefore, temperature changes in the sea tend to be much
because most animals and all plants lack a mechanism to
less severe and more gradual over time. By comparison,
control their internal temperatures. These organisms are
temperatures on land may vary widely – 20°C/68°F in a
called cold-blooded and their internal body temperature is
single day in some climates at some times
5 the same as the environmental temperature. As a result,
of the year.
these organisms can only exist within a fairly narrow
However, the ocean’s thermal
temperature range. Only birds, mammals and a very few
inertia is important to organisms
large pelagic (open ocean) fish, such as tuna, can regulate
on land as well as in the sea
their internal body temperatures (up to a point). These
because of the tremendous amount

SEASONS SPECIFIC TO THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Autumnal
Equinox
Summer
Solstice
The Ocean Planet

Summer
Wi n ter
L e s s S u n li g h t
Autumn
at o
r S u n li g h t
E q u
Su m m er
M o r e S u n li g h t Su m m er
M o r e s u n li g h t
Spring S u n li g h t to r
u a
E q
Wi n ter
L e s s s u n li g h t
Seasons result Winter
from the tilt of
the earth’s axis Winter
relative to the Solstice
Vernal
plane of its
solar orbit. Equinox
Uneven Solar Heating and the Seasons

The 23.5° tilt of the earth’s rotational axis relative to the northern hemisphere days are short, and the hemisphere
plane of its orbit around the sun causes the seasons. Close receives the least amount of sunlight of any time of
to the summer solstice, days are long, and the northern year. Above the Arctic Circle, the sun doesn’t rise for
hemisphere receives more sunlight than at any other time months. Seasons are exactly the opposite in the southern
during the year. For months, above the Arctic Circle, hemisphere because the bottom of the earth’s axis tilts
the sun doesn’t set and the region receives 24 hours of toward the sun when the bottom tilts away.
daylight every day. Close to the winter solstice, in the
organisms are called warm-blooded (homeothermic). The the release of sperm and eggs into the water. Species
ability to regulate body temperature gives these organisms common to Pacific Northwest shores, such as the bay
a much greater opportunity to move through a variety of mussel, use this environmental cue to ensure that all the
climate zones. individual mussels within the region spawn at once.
Temperature change can have several effects As a diver, temperature affects you much as it affects
on aquatic organisms. First, it can alter the rate of aquatic life. This is why you need to pay attention to
metabolism (cell growth, oxygen consumption, heartbeat water temperature and proper insulation. The amount
and other physiological processes). For cold-blooded of insulation varies with the water temperature, and
organisms, the environmental temperature regulates the water temperature varies with where you are, the
their metabolism. As a rule, metabolic rates for such season, and to some extent with the weather. You can
animals increase two to three times with every 10°C/50°F experience water temperature ranging from -2°C/28°F in
rise in temperature. Clearly, seasonal changes in water polar regions to more than 30°C/85°F in the tropics to
temperature can profoundly affect aquatic organisms. even higher temperatures in some geothermally heated
A cold-blooded species’ ability to tolerate temperature springs. Within a given region, water temperature usually
fluctuations can be crucial to its survival. Many aquatic varies, but not usually by more than 8°-11°C/15°-20°F
organisms use seasonal changes in temperature to trigger throughout the year. You’ve probably experienced that

in moderate climates a dry suit is preferable during cool in parts per thousand because even very small variations
seasons, but a wet suit is more than adequate during warm are significant. The abbreviation ‰ stands for “parts per
seasons. thousand,” so 35‰ means 35 parts per thousand. (Note:
To convert parts per thousand into percent, you divide by
Salinity 10, so that 35‰ = 3.5%.) The ocean’s average salinity is
35‰, or 3.5 percent.
The chemical composition of water is another major
Generally, a body of water’s salinity varies very little,
factor influencing the aquatic realm. Marine scientists
although there is a great deal of variation in specific
think that seawater is the accumulated product of the
areas: from near zero at the mouths of rivers to more
mixing, over millions of years, of particles from air, rocks
than 40‰ in confined, arid regions such as the Red Sea.
and soil with rainwater. One reason fresh water is fresh is
The proportion of the various dissolved salts in seawater
that it accumulates inland from precipitation (nearly pure
does not change, only the relative amount of water. The
water) and except in a few places, hasn’t had the time,
salinity changes when fresh water enters the ocean – such
geologically speaking, to become salty.
as from a river or from rain – or as water evaporates. For
Dissolved compounds compose about 3.5 percent
instance, brackish water results when fresh water mixes
of seawater. The other 96.5 percent is pure water. Traces
with seawater in estuaries. Brackish water has a salinity of
of all naturally occurring substances can be found in
0.6‰ to 30‰. Brine, which is water saturated or nearly
the world’s oceans and generally fall into one of three
saturated with dissolved salt, develops in areas with high
categories: inorganic substances (usually referred to as salts
evaporation and little inflow of fresh water or where salt
and nutrients), dissolved gases, and organic compounds
domes dissolve at the seafloor, as is common in the Gulf
(usually originating from living organisms). In recent
of Mexico. As with temperature, the amount of or changes
years another category has emerged: organic and synthetic
in salinity can drastically affect an organism’s survival. The
compounds such as DDT and other pollutants, which can
effect salinity changes have on aquatic plants and animals
have devastating effects on aquatic life.
relates to their own internal chemical balance.
80 80 80 80 80
34 35 60
60 60 60 60
60
32 35
35
33
40 40 40 40 40
40 34
40 30 35
41 37
32 30 20 20 20
20 35
40 36 33 35 36
32 33 32 35
38 33 35 34
28 35 34 34 30
36 140 120 100
Global salinity. 0
40 60
34
100 120 140 160 180 160
30
60 40 20
36
0
0
35
Global salinity of 30
34
36 37
37
35 36 20
the oceans can 20 20
30 36
36
vary markedly 35 30 35
40
40 35 40 40 36 40 33 34
from one area to 34 34
34
34 34 34
the next. Tropical 60 60 60 60 60
60
regions tend to 34
80 80
80 80 80
be saltier than 80
temperate regions.
Salinity greater than 36 parts per thousand Salinity 34-36 parts per thousand Salinity less than 34 parts per thousand
All aquatic plants, invertebrates and most fish have

Salinity refers to the sodium chloride (NaCl)
body fluids that approximate the salinity of the water they
dissolved in water, along with other salts, including
live in. There is a chemical balance between their internal
potassium chloride (KCl). Salinity includes the total
body fluids and the external environment. Most plants
quantity or concentration of all dissolved
or animals have no mechanism to adjust their chemical
inorganic solids, or more precisely, ions.
balance if they experience water of radically different
This includes the sodium chloride
salinity, but a few do. Salmon are perhaps the best
and everything else, commonly called
example of fish that exhibit osmoregulation (a regulation
the dissolved salts. We express salinity

process that allows an organism to use active transport [the Density
process of a cell moving materials from low concentration Differences in water temperature and salinity cause
to high concentration] to adjust the water concentration differences in water density. Density differences cause water
within their cells), the mechanism that allows them to to separate into layers. High-density water lies beneath
migrate between fresh and salt water. low-density water. Low temperature and high salinity result
in high-density water, whereas higher temperatures and
SOURCES OF SALINITY
The Ocean Planet

lower salinity result in low-density water.
With constant rain, runoff, erosion and other natural Relatively warm, low-density surface waters are
forces, you may think that oceanic salinity is rising or separated from cool, high-density deep waters by the
falling. However, that doesn’t appear to be the case. Most thermocline, the zone in which temperature changes rapidly
oceanographers think that salinity is in a steady state with depth. These distinct layers are so abrupt that in calm
and that there’s no sign of oceans becoming more or less water you can swim in warm water and stick your hand
salty. The thinking is that the sources of salt removal and into distinctly colder water. This is especially common in
addition cancel each other out. still, freshwater bodies like lakes and quarries.
V O L CA NI C D I S CH A R G E
• S u lf u r d io x id e
• Car b o n d io x id e
• H y d r o g e n s u lf i d e
• H y d r o c h lo r i c ac i d
Sources of salt in the ocean. Salt and other

VOLCANIC PRECIPITATION
compounds can enter the ocean by the
SEA SPRAY/
• S u lf at e • S u lf i d e • Ch lo r i d e weathering of rocks. Carried by rivers, these
WEATHERING
• S o d iu m
EVAPORATION
• S o d iu m
compounds become dispersed in the ocean.
• Calc i u m
• P o t as s i u m
• Ch lo r i d e Other minerals enter the ocean through
• M ag n e s i u m
• Ch lo r i d e
hydrothermal vent discharge and volcanic
RIVER DISCHARGE precipitation. Salts and other compounds
• S o d iu m • Calc i u m HYDROTHERMAL
• P o t as s i u m • M ag n é s i u m VENTS leave the ocean by sea spray, evaporation
• B i c ar b o n at e s • Calc i u m • Ch lo r i d e
• P o t as s i u m • L ith iu m and biological processes. Scientists believe
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
• S u lf i d e • R u b id iu m
that the sources of salt removal and addition
PROCESSES THAT
• S i li c a • Ni t r at e
• Calc i u m Car b o n at e
cancel each other out.
REMOVE IONS IN • M ag n e s i u m
SEAWATER
PROCESSES THAT A B SO R P T I O N
ADD IONS TO SEAWATER • M ag n e s i u m
• M an g an e s e
• S u lf at e
But, where do the salts come from in the first place?

One source appears to be minerals and chemicals eroding
and dissolving into fresh water flowing into the ocean.
This means that rivers, runoff and rain percolating through
the ground into the sea bring in salts. However, the salts
in seawater differ from the salts delivered by rivers, so
there must be other sources. Waves and surf contribute by
eroding coastal rock (more about this later). Hydrothermal
vents (deep ocean hot mineral springs) change seawater
by adding some materials while removing others. Other
biological and chemical processes and reactions within the
seawater and on the seafloor tend to remove salts. Scientists
think these processes all counterbalance so that the average
salinity of seawater remains constant. In this way, the Different densities cause water to form layers. Water can form
ocean is said to be in chemical equilibrium. layers characterized by an abrupt change in salinity. The
interface between these two layers is called a halocline. This is
common where water from the land forms a layer over salt water
from the ocean. Cave divers passing through the halocline may
stir up the layers. The blurred effect comes from the mixing of the
different layers.

The temperature difference above and below the alkalinity are measured as pH, a scale that represents the
thermocline may be as great as 8°-11°C/15°-20ºF. balance between the positive hydrogen ions (H+) and the
When the water is disturbed, sometimes you can negative hydroxide ions (OH-) in a liquid.
see distortion at the thermocline, somewhat like the When a solution has a lot of hydrogen ions, it is
shimmering air that rises from a hot asphalt road or considered an acid with a pH value of 0 to less than 7.
aircraft taxiways. The mixing of two temperature layers A pH of 0 indicates a very concentrated acid that would
causes this effect. You may find thermoclines in both fresh burn your skin, whereas a dilute acid has a pH of 4.0 or
and salt water, and the thermocline rises and falls with 5.5. For example, citric acid, which gives lemons their
seasonal temperature. sour taste, is a dilute acid. The pH scale is logarithmic,
Salinity differences overlap temperature differences meaning that a fixed number multiplies every number
and the transition from low-salinity surface waters to in the scale. In the case of pH, the fixed number is 10,
MORE
H y d r o c h lo r i c A c i d ( H CI )
B at t e r y A c i d
H u m an S t o m ac h A c i d s pH of common substances. Acidity and alkalinity
ACIDIC
are measured as pH, a scale that represents the

L e m o n J u ic e balance between the positive hydrogen ions (H+)
and the negative hydroxide ions (OH-) in a liquid.
On a pH scale, 0 is most acidic, 14 is most basic,
W i n e , V i n e g ar , A p p le s , and 7 is neutral. For a familiar reference to acidity
O r an g e s and alkalinity, shown here is the pH of common
items and substances found in everyday life.
T o m at o e s , B an an as
B r e ad , B lac k Co f f e e
S o d iu m
H y d r o x id e
M i lk ( NaO H )
P u r e W at e r ,
H u m an B lo o d O v e n Cle an e r
E g g W h ite s , H ai r R e m o v al
D e te rg e n ts ,
NE
S e aw at e r , S o ap A m m o n i a, P ro d u c ts S IC
UT B ak i n g S o d a S t o m ac h No n -P h o s p h at e BA
RA A n t ac i d s D e te rg e n t RE
L MO
high-salinity deep waters is known as the halocline. In so that each step in the scale represents a tenfold change.
the ocean, the thermocline and halocline together make Therefore, going from a pH of 6 to a pH of 7, for
the pycnocline, the zone in which density increases with example, represents a tenfold decrease in acidity.
increasing depth. Below the pycnocline, temperature and Solutions with lots of hydroxyl ions are considered
salinity tend to be uniform. alkaline, also called basic, solutions. The pH is higher than
7, with anything over 9 considered a concentrated alkaline
pH – Acidity and Alkalinity solution. Sodium hydroxide, for example, has a pH of 14
and is dangerous to touch. Baking soda, by comparison,
The relative concentration of positively
has a pH of about 8.
charged hydrogen ions or negatively
Pure water has a pH of 7, which is neutral. Have you
charged hydroxide ions determines the
ever wondered why you can open your eyes comfortably
water’s acidity or alkalinity. Acidity and

in most freshwater lakes, but that your eyes burn a lakes are part of the ocean and the water in the lakes
little when you open them in the ocean? This is because changes with the tides. Several of these lakes, however, are
seawater pH typically ranges from 7.8 to 8.3, which is completely isolated from the surrounding ocean and water
very mildly alkaline. Recall that the difference between flows from the ocean into the lakes through cracks in the
a pH of 7 and a pH of 8 is a tenfold change. The slight limestone typical of the islands in this region. Fissures in
alkalinity of the seawater (caused by the dissolved salts) the limestone islands allow for the transfer of saltwater
The Ocean Planet

irritates your eyes. from the ocean, yet exclude other forms of aquatic life.
Freshwater bodies may not always be neutral and These isolated lakes lack predators and the favorable
can have a very broad pH range, from highly acidic to conditions have made the lake at Eil Malk home for some
highly alkaline. The pH of a freshwater body can change unique marine life. Two species of non stinging jellyfish
radically due to both natural and human-produced causes. (Moon Jellyfish and the Mestiga) inhabit the lake by the
However, the ocean’s pH remains relatively stable due to millions. They don’t sting to hunt prey, but instead use
buffering. A buffer is a substance that reduces the tendency algae cells inside their clear bodies to capture the energy of
of a solution to become too acidic or too alkaline. the sunlight to grow their own food. The jellyfish follow
Seawater is buffered primarily through its carbon dioxide the rise of the sun and at night, descend into a deeper
content. Carbon dioxide combines with water in several water layer with dissolved hydrogen sulfide (a toxin that
chemical reactions that either free up or release hydrogen doesn’t affect them) starting at 18 metres/60 feet. Here
ions. When the water is too basic, the reactions release they replenish themselves in the depths of bacteria in the
hydrogen ions, making it more acidic. Alternatively, when lower layer of their lake.
the water is acidic, other reactions bind with hydrogen
ions, making it more basic. The carbon cycle is a vital but Al Hornsby
complex process that tends to keep ocean pH relatively
stable (more on this later).
Although seawater pH is relatively stable, it changes
with depth. It does this because the amount of carbon
dioxide tends to vary with depth. The upper, sunlit depths,
called the photic zone, have the greatest density of photo-
synthetic organisms. These organisms use the carbon
dioxide, making the water slightly less acidic. Also, surface
water is relatively warm, which tends to reduce carbon
dioxide in solution. Generally, warm productive water
(water with a lot of organism growth) has a pH around 8.5.
In the ocean’s middle depths, pH can change slightly.
There may be more carbon dioxide present from the
respiration of marine animals and other organisms. This
makes the water somewhat more acidic with a lower pH. The inland lake jellyfish in Palau illustrate the effects of pH on an
At about 1000 metres/3280 feet depth, there’s less organism’s survival. These jellyfish thrive in a pH well above the
organic activity. This results in a decrease in respiration ocean’s typical pH.
and, consequently, carbon dioxide, so that midlevel
seawater tends to be more alkaline. At about 3000 Snorkelers swim and mingle with the jellyfish in
meters/9840 feet and deeper, the water becomes more the top layers of the lake where the pH is an average
acidic again. This is because the decay of sinking organic 8.5. Snorkelers are cautioned against surface diving to
material produces carbon dioxide, but there are no much more than 9 metres/30 feet deep as at this depth
photosynthetic organisms to remove it. The transition the lake becomes more alkaline due to the decrease in
between less acidic and more acidic water is known as the respiration (owing to the lack of other marine organisms)
calcium compensation depth (CCD). Water below the CCD and, consequently, carbon dioxide, making for a very
is acidic enough to dissolve the sinking shells, which are concentrated alkaline solution.
made of calcium carbonate, of dead organisms.
The pH of water also affects marine life’s ability to Non Salt Dissolved Compounds
thrive. A perfect example can be found in the marine Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are the most
lakes of Palau in the North Pacific Ocean. Palau’s marine abundant gases found dissolved in water; the amounts

vary with environmental and biological factors. One factor animals produce wastes at all depths. Consequently, this
affecting the solubility of gases in water is temperature. As depletes nutrients at the surface and concentrates them in
you’ll learn more about in Chapter Four, cold water can deeper water. This is opposite to the vertical distribution
hold more gas than warm water. The metabolic activity of of oxygen and reflects an important biological cycle:
plants and animals also determines the amounts and kinds primary production of plant material, consumption of this
of gases in water. Plants produce oxygen and use carbon material by aquatic animals and finally, excretion of waste
dioxide during photosynthesis while animals use oxygen products, which releases nutrients.
and produce carbon dioxide during respiration.
Although the sea salts – the dissolved inorganic solids CARBON
in seawater – account for the majority of dissolved solids, Carbon is the basic building material of all life because it
there are others that are organic or that interact with is unparalleled in its ability to provide complex molecular
organisms on a significant scale. These elements are crucial structures for forming very different compounds. This
to life and differ from salts in several ways. property of carbon is so distinct and important that many
One difference is that the principle of constant biologists argue (science fiction notwithstanding) that
proportions (principle that the proportions of dissolved there is no other known element upon which life could be
salts in seawater are constant) does not apply to these based – i.e., no carbon equals no possibility of life. Almost
substances. These other dissolved substances change over all organic molecules consist of one or more carbon atoms.
time and vary in proportion independently of salinity Carbon exists in aquatic environments in many forms.
owing to biological and geological activity. For example, Natural mineral sources, such as carbonate rock,
some organic material may be in short supply in aquatic contribute to the ocean’s carbon as sediments dissolve
environments with a high biological density. In other into the water. Dissolved organic carbon is formed
areas, substances may be overabundant from pollution or from organisms’ excretion and from the decomposition
discharge from mineral springs of organic material. It is transported in global current
All life depends on material from the nonliving patterns. Most of the organic carbon that finds its way
part of the earth. The continuous flow of elements and into the deep sea is broken down into inorganic forms by
compounds between organisms (biological form) and the bacteria. This action creates a “biological pump” that tends
earth (geological form) is called the biogeochemical cycle. to concentrate carbon and other nutrients with depth; this
plays a central role in the global carbon cycle. This “pump”
NUTRIENTS transfers carbon from the atmosphere to the deep sea,
Aside from gases used in respiration or photosynthesis, where it concentrates and remains for centuries. Scientists
substances required for life include nutrients. The primary think this accounts for about 75 percent of the difference
nutrient elements related to seawater chemistry are between dissolved inorganic carbon concentrations at the
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, iron and a few surface and in the deep sea.
other trace metals. When organisms die, what scavengers Carbon compounds are found in air and water and
do not consume sinks, eventually reaching the bottom within rocks and minerals. They exist in the air as carbon
at depths below the photic zone. Bacteria and other dioxide, which is a by-product of respiration. Carbon
microorganisms decompose the organic material as it sinks dioxide also enters the atmosphere from volcanic activity
to the seafloor. Decomposition leaves inorganic nutrients. and fires, particularly forest fires. Humans increase the
Upwelling, which is an upward water flow, is one force amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by burning
that returns inorganic nutrients to shallow water. Once in fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is found in the fossil fuels
the photic zone, photosynthesis returns the nutrients to because plants and animals absorb it. When the organisms
the food chain. die, the carbon dioxide is buried with them and remains
Not all elements and compounds cycle at the with them as they are transformed into fossil fuels.
same rate. Some cycle rapidly, whereas others may be Burning these fossil fuels then releases the carbon dioxide
isolated or trapped on the seafloor for long periods. The into the atmosphere. Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
biogeochemical cycle of the various nutrients affects the the carbon dioxide concentration in the air was an
nature of organisms and where they live in estimated 280 ppm (parts per million). Today it averages
the sea. about 365 ppm and is increasing rapidly. Carbon dioxide
Nutrient distribution depends is a greenhouse gas and many scientists think it is a major
partly on depth: plants take up contributor to the increase in temperatures seen around
nutrients in shallow water, while the globe, known as global warming.

O X Y G E N
C O M B U ST I O N
PHOTOSYNTHESIS F O SSI L
FIXATION F U E L S
The Ocean Planet

RESPIRATION
The carbon cycle. Carbon is the
fundamental element of life and
this figure shows the major steps EXCREMENT
of the carbon cycle. In addition
to the 700 billion tons of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, D E C O M P O SI T I O N
approximately one trillion tons
are dissolved in the oceans. The
movement of carbon between the D I SSO L V I N G
biosphere and the nonliving world D I SSO L U T I O N SE D I M E N T S
is called the carbon cycle.
Carbon dioxide must be transformed into other carbon use it. Only specific types of nitrogen fixing bacteria can
compounds for use by heterotrophs (organisms like us combine nitrogen from the air into other compounds.
that rely on digesting plant or animal matter to obtain This happens in the nitrogen cycle, during which gaseous
the chemical energy necessary for life). In terrestrial and nitrogen is fixed into nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), and
aquatic environments, plants, prokaryotes, algae and other ammonium (NH4+).
autotrophs (organisms that can create organic chemical These bacteria take up the nitrogen and incorporate
energy compounds from inorganic compounds and an it into their systems as protein. The nitrogen passes up the
external energy source) with chlorophyll, convert carbon food web through trophic feeding and returns through
dioxide into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. the cycle after death. At this point, the nitrogenous
Photosynthesis uses light to convert inorganic carbon compounds break down during decomposition, becoming
from carbon dioxide into carbohydrate – an organic ammonia. Plants take up some of the ammonia, and
compound high in usable chemical energy. Photosynthesis the rest either dissolves into water or remains in the soil.
returns carbon from carbon dioxide to the biosphere by Microorganisms convert the ammonia into nitrates and
converting into these more complex carbon compounds. nitrites (nitrification). Nitrates from decomposed material
It is this process that allows the sun’s energy to directly can be buried into sediments on the ocean floor or they
or indirectly power almost all the life on earth. Without can go through denitrification, during which the nitrogen
photosynthesis, life as we know it would not be possible. returns to the water column as a gas.
The movement of carbon between the biosphere and the An important point illustrates the connection
nonliving world is described by the carbon cycle. between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems: Although
marine organisms rely on biological compounds with
NITROGEN nitrogen, biologists think very little nitrogen fixing occurs
Nitrogen is another element crucial to life. Organisms in the sea. Instead, nitrogen fixing bacteria create the
require nitrogen for organic compounds such as protein, compounds in terrestrial environments, which then reach
chlorophyll and nucleic acids. Nitrogen makes up about aquatic environments through runoff, bird droppings and
78 percent of air and 48 percent of gases dissolved in other means.
seawater. However, gaseous nitrogen must be converted
to a chemically usable form before living organisms can

DENITRIFICATION
V O L C A N IC
P O L L U T IO N F R O M A C T IV IT Y
T R A N SP O R T A T I O N
A N D I N D U ST R Y
L IG H T N IN G
The nitrogen cycle. Bacteria carry out many COMBUSTION

of the important steps of the nitrogen cycle, A N I M A L WA ST E
A N D D E C A Y
including the conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen into a usable form (ammonia), and FERTILIZERS
denitrification (returning nitrogen to the air
and water). Even combustion (from fossil
fuels and forest fires), lightning and volcanic
activity can form nitrogen oxides and nitric
NITROGEN R U N O F F ,
acid that return nitrogen to the soil and E U T R O P H IC A T IO N
FIXATION A N D SE D I M E N T A T I O N
water. The nitrogen cycle has four important
stages: 1) Assimilation: the absorption and D I SSO L V E D
U P WE L L I N G
N IT R O G E N
incorporation of nitrogen into living systems, G A S
2) Decomposition: the production of ammonia F I SH WA ST E
A N D D E C A Y
by bacteria during the decay of animal urine,
3) Nitrification: the production of nitrate from A B SO R P T I O N
ammonia, 4) Denitrification: the conversion of
nitrate to nitrogen gas.
OXYGEN carbonate as the primary component of bones and teeth.

Most (but not all) organisms rely on oxygen for In the marine environment, some microscopic
respiration, which is the process in which the chemical organisms called diatoms and radiolarians similarly
energy in carbohydrates gets used for the processes of life. use silicon for their shells and skeletons. Within these
Oxygen is a highly reactive element (meaning it combines organisms, silicon exists as silicon dioxide, commonly
readily with other substances) that’s central to this called silica. In addition, most sand is made of silica
chemical reaction. Even autotrophs that release oxygen because it is a common component of rocks and minerals
during photosynthesis use oxygen for respiration. and does not break down easily. Phosphorus and silicon
Oxygen dissolves into water either as a by-product convert relatively rapidly into phosphate and silica,
of photosynthesis from aquatic autotrophs, or, to a small respectively, for consumption by phytoplankton and
degree, from the atmosphere. The result is that the surface bacteria. When they become part of shells and skeletons,
of the world’s ocean is rich in oxygen, while the ocean however, the cycle can be considerably longer because they
depths tend to be low in oxygen, demonstrating the sink into marine sediments. Once in sediment, it takes
critical role plants and algae play in oxygen distribution. a long time for these elements to return to the biosphere
The deeper depths lack sufficient light for photosynthesis, for further availability to organisms. However, in the
so predictably they also have much less oxygen and sediments benthic organisms rely on them for survival.
correspondingly less density of life.
IRON AND TRACE METALS
PHOSPHORUS AND SILICONE Iron, along with several other trace metals, fits into the
Phosphorus is another element important to life because it definition of a micronutrient. Micronutrients are nutrients
is used in the ADP/ATP cycle, which is part of the process that are essential to organisms, but in very small amounts.
needed to convert chemical energy into the Organisms use iron for constructing specialized proteins,
energy required for life. Phosphorus is including hemoglobin (see Chapter Five for more about
also part of DNA and other nucleic hemoglobin) and enzymes. In addition, plants need iron
acids, the molecules that pass genetic to produce chlorophyll, although iron is not part of the
information from parent to offspring. chlorophyll molecule. Other trace metals used in enzymes
Phosphorus also combines with calcium include manganese, copper and zinc.

WE A T H E R I N G
The Ocean Planet

R U N O F F A N D
L E A C H IN G
C O N SU M P T I O N ,
D E C O M P O SI T I O N
R U N O F F F R O M
The phosphorus cycle. Phosphorus G U A N O
is another element important
to life because it is used in the M A R I N E WA ST E
ADP/ATP cycle, by which cells A N D D E C A Y
convert chemical energy into the CONSUMPTION
ANIMAL
energy required for life. Dissolved
WASTE,
phosphorus is carried to the sea by URINE,
runoff and leaching from land. The DECAY
phosphorus is used by plants, then D I SSO L V E D
P H O SP H A T E S
recycled through animals until it is
released from waste and decay. P L A N T
D E C A Y
Bird guano is also a primary source
of phosphorus in seawater.
Iron is essential to aquatic life, especially LIGHT

phytoplankton, and is one of the most abundant metals Light only penetrates the upper regions of most bodies
on earth. However, it’s not readily available in the sea of water – an area called the photic zone. Light only
because it does not dissolve well in seawater. The small reaches the bottom where water is relatively clear and
amount that does dissolve readily reacts with other shallow. In the clearest conditions, light cannot penetrate
chemicals and tends to bond with particles that sink to in significant amounts much deeper than about 600
the bottom. Scientists have found that a lack of iron limits metres/2000 feet; penetration to 100 metres/330 feet is
phytoplankton productivity in some parts of the ocean. typical. Significant light reaches no more than about two
Thus, adding iron to seawater on a large scale could, in percent of the ocean because water scatters and absorbs
theory, trigger a phytoplankton bloom that would draw light as discussed in detail in Chapter Four. Freshwater
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This could help bodies often have proportionately more photic zone
reduce global warming, which is thought to be caused primarily because they’re so shallow.
by rising carbon dioxide levels resulting from burning How deep light penetrates depends on the clarity of
fossil fuels. the water. In coastal areas with lots of runoff, penetration
If this controversial proposal were enacted, it would may be limited to less than 3 metres/10 feet. In the
probably be in the southern hemisphere, which you clearest water, a spectrophotometer (an instrument
have already learned has less landmass than the northern used to measure the intensities of radiation in different
hemisphere. Land is the source of iron in the ocean, so parts of the spectrum) may detect light as deep as 590
the southern seas have less iron because there is less land metres/1900 feet. However, as mentioned, significant light
for it to run off of or blow off of as dust. Levels of other penetration is limited to about 100 metres/330 feet, but
nutrients are high there, and it is sometimes iron that there can be enough visible light from the surface at 150
limits phytoplankton populations. Therefore, it appears metres/500 feet for the human eye to see by.
one could expect a proportionately greater phytoplankton Although the photic zone may reach as deep as
growth through the introduction of iron. 200 metres/650 feet in the ocean, the most biologically
productive region is the upper, shallow portion. This
upper subzone of the photic zone is called the euphotic
zone. The euphotic zone comprises only about one percent

NE
ZO
IC ITIC
AG NER
PEL H ig
h T
L o w id e
IC
EAN
T id LITTORAL
e
OC (INTERTIDAL)
F
EL
GIC SH
P H O T IC ELA
EU EPIP
Z O N E PH
OT LAG
IC
DY IC OPE
SP /2 3 0
ft MES
HO
L
7 0 m 0 ft
YA
TIC /6 5
2 0 0 m
TH
/2 0 0 0 ft AGIC
6 0 0 m PEL
BA
0 0 0 f
t HY
m /3 BAT
Ocean zones by light penetration. 1 0 0 0
APHOTIC ZONE
Significant light penetration is
E
N
limited to about 100 metres (330 0 0 0 f
t
O
m /1 3 IC
LAG
Z
feet). The photic zone is the area
L
4 0 0 0 LPE
A
SSA
S
ABY
YS
IC
where light penetrates, whereas
H
A
the aphotic zone is one of total
T
N
E
darkness. The photic zone is 0 0 ft B
2 0 0
0 m / IC
6 0 0 LAG
divided into the upper euphotic AL P E
HAD
and lower dysphotic zones.
L
DA
The vast majority of marine life
A
H
exists in the euphotic zone. Light
reaches the dysphotic zone, but
there’s not enough for abundant 0 0 ft
3 6 0
0 m /
1 1 0 0
photosynthetic life.
of the oceans, yet the vast majority of marine life exists use different portions of the spectrum for photosynthesis,
there, thanks to the light it directly or indirectly depends depending upon the type of photosynthetic pigments they
on for survival. This is the zone where photosynthetic use. For example, red algae use the green and blue ends of
organisms bring light energy into the biological cycle. the spectrum, allowing them to survive at greater depths
The lower region of the photic zone is the dysphotic zone. than the green and brown algae, which use the red end of
Light reaches this region, but there’s not enough for the spectrum. Red algae appear red because they absorb
photosynthetic life in any significant abundance. the greens and blues, and reflect the reds – the color that
The aphotic zone lies below the photic zone. The the eye sees.
aphotic zone is where light doesn’t reach. It actually makes Ocean life distribution depends, in part, on the
up the vast majority of the oceans, though only a fraction need for photosynthesizing organisms to remain in the
of marine organisms live there. Although this zone of shallow sunlit regions. Typically, these areas are along
permanent darkness is too deep to reach as a recreational coasts where the seafloor is shallow and can provide a
diver in most ocean environments, you can reach this zone place of attachment for larger species such as kelp, as well
easily in many freshwater environments with constant as a supply of nutrients running off from the adjacent
reduced visibility, such as in reservoirs and quarries. In landmass. Coral is also found in shallow water because
many of these, there is little or no light deeper than 18 it relies on sunlight for survival, though as you’ll see,
metres/60 feet. it actually needs the water to be nearly nutrient-free to
Of all factors, turbidity determines the vertical survive.
distribution of aquatic autotrophs the most. The
maximum depth at which photosynthesizers can survive Coastal Characteristics
(based on the minimum amount of light needed for
Let’s shift our attention from the physical characteristics
photosynthesis) increases as turbidity
of water to the physical characteristics of coastlines and
decreases. Autotrophs do not usually
shores. Although we think of the ocean as huge water
live below 190 metres/600 feet in the
expanses, many of its processes and effects take place at
ocean, and not even that deep in most
the edges – that is, at the coasts. It’s a common conception
freshwater bodies. Certain organisms
that the coastlines are fragile, but with respect to nature,

Color and Concealment
Bob Wohlers In both terrestrial and aquatic systems, some animals enhance their
survival by being less visible to predators or prey. Their natural
camouflage uses color and often shape to blend in with the background.
You can find several types of camouflage in the aquatic environment.
The Ocean Planet

The most common is coloration and patterns on the animal that
match its environment. If the animal remains motionless, it’s difficult
for a predator to spot.
Al Hornsby
Likewise, prey may wander
within striking range of a
concealed predator and
The North American, west coast sculpin fish never know what hit it.
(Scorpaena sp.) uses its reddish and brown Fish that live in the
color along with skin patterns, appendages open tend to be darker
and shape to hide from predators. on top, concealing them
against the bottom when
seen from above, and
silvery underneath, concealing them against the surface when seen from
below. This is called countershading.
Other organisms combine color and shape. For example, trumpetfish Found on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef,
have a color and long slender shape the stone fish (Synanceia sp.) is a master of
Bob Wohlers that resemble soft corals. They orient concealment. A benthic dweller, it sits quietly
themselves vertically among these waiting for its next meal to swim close to its
soft corals, disguised as a branch, large mouth.
waiting for unwary prey.
Some organisms have vivid colors that, to the human eye, seem to make them
conspicuous. However, nature is smarter than that. Several species of nocturnal
(active at night) fish have red or orangish coloration. Water absorbs these colors
very rapidly, however, so at night or in
dark crevices, where they usually hide OAR/NURP/North Carolina State
University/NOAA
during the day, these species blend in
with dark backgrounds.
Squirrel fish (Holocentridae sp.) Some of the most complex
are nocturnal hunters. Their red concealment occurs in animals that
color helps them blend in with can change their color and patterns
dark backgrounds. to match the sea floor. Some species
of flounder have this ability, as do
several mollusks, such as the octopus
and cuttlefish. Cephalopods
OAR/NURP/NOAA with this ability have
chromatophores in their The octopus is a master of rapid color
skin. Each chromatophore change, capable of mimicking almost any
contains a colored pigment pattern or color. Some species not only
that the animal can reveal change color to hide themselves, but as
by constricting a muscle part of mating, to appear threatening, or
around it. The different when frightened.
chromatophores have
different colors. So, by revealing the colors in some chromatophores
and not others, the animal can change both its skin color and pattern.
Another concealment strategy is to have no color at all, like jellyfish
and comb jellies. These organisms have translucent tissue, allowing
Comb jellies have transparent bodies that
light and color to pass through them. This makes them harder to spot
help them hide while floating in their mid
because from any angle they tend to blend in with what is behind them.
water habitat.

they’re anything but fragile. The coastlines stand up to the Courtesy of Chesapeake Bay Program
ocean’s waves and currents. These areas exist in a constant
state of change, yet here organisms live in some of the
most productive and demanding environments on earth.
With respect to human effects, though, the coastlines
are fragile. Some of the most ecologically important
environments are vanishing or dying due to pollution and
development. While coastlines stand up to the horrific
bombardment of natural processes, seemingly trivial
human processes often produce widely damaging effects.
Drowned river valleys are thought to result when an ancient
COASTAL CLASSIFICATION river forms a valley, which then floods when the sea level rises.
Chesapeake Bay, USA, is an example of a drowned river valley.
Just as scientists classify the seas into regions depending
on physical characteristics, they also classify the coasts in since sea level rose after the last ice age.
various ways. Similar to the systems used to classify ocean
Erosion Coasts. Coasts formed by land-based erosion are
zones and lifestyles the systems used to classify coasts
among the most dramatic. These include fjord coasts and
drowned river valleys. Scientists theorize that these occur
Personnel of NOAA Ship Rainier
from erosion cutting into the land during periods of low
sea level. Then the sea level rises, flooding the eroded area.
Scientists explain that fjord coasts form when glaciers
moved toward the coastline during the last ice age. The
glaciers cut large, deep grooves in the land, which then
flooded when the sea level rose. Norway and Alaska, USA,
are known for having many fjord coasts.
Drowned river valleys are thought to form similarly,
but the erosion comes from a river. The river forms a
valley, which floods when the sea level rises. Chesapeake
Tracy Arm is a fjord with two glaciers near Juneau, Alaska, USA.
NASA
depend on what you’re studying. Scientists classify coasts

many ways, but we’ll consider the one most related to
diving, which uses long- and short-term dynamics thought
to cause coasts to form.
In this system, scientists classify coasts into primary
coasts and secondary coasts. Geologic processes not directly
related to the ocean form primary coasts. Secondary coasts
are formed by marine action. Primary coasts form over
more extended periods than secondary coasts. A coast
can therefore be both primary and secondary. This is
sometimes called a combination coast.
PRIMARY COASTS
Scientists attribute primary coast development to
nonmarine forces. These include land-based erosion (from
running water, wind or land ice), sedimentation, volcanic
activity and the movement of tectonic plates (the large Sedimentation coasts. Sedimentation coasts form when materials
plates that make up the earth’s surface carried by rivers flow into the ocean, deposit and accumulate.
and float on its molten interior). This happens most readily where there’s a wide continental
Scientists think that primary coasts shelf for accumulation and no drowned rivers to form estuaries.
Two of the most famous are the Nile delta in Egypt and the
have remained relatively unchanged Mississippi delta in the United States, shown here.

Bay in the US is cited as an example of a drowned river Volcanic Coasts. The coasts most recognizable as
valley. Both fjord coasts and drowned river valleys can having been formed by volcanic activity occur in the US
form estuaries. Hawaiian Islands. Volcanic coasts result when volcanoes
Estuaries are partially enclosed water bodies where build on the seafloor, eventually breaking the ocean
fresh and salt water mix. They’re important ecosystems surface. Continued lava flow adds to and enlarges the
with a constant flushing and exchange of nutrients carried island coasts. This process continues in Hawaii.
The Ocean Planet

into the estuary by a river or rivers. The daily tide flushes Fault Coasts. Coasts thought to be formed by tectonic
seawater to and from estuaries. This allows a steady flow of activity primarily include fault coasts. These coasts form
the nutrients to adjacent marine environments. Scientists as plates collide, with the collisions forcing the plates to
classify estuaries based on circulation patterns and flow. move upward, downward, or side-by-side. A fault coast
Sedimentation results when the collision uplifts a section of seafloor
Coasts. above the water surface or when a fault opens and spreads,
Courtesy of National Park Geology Service
Sedimentation allowing the sea to flood a new area. Tomales Bay in
forms coasts California, USA, is a good example of the latter.
when materials
carried by rivers SECONDARY Fernando Arraya, NOAA Ship
Miller Freeman
flow into the COASTS
ocean, deposit
and accumulate. Secondary coasts
This happens result from marine
most readily processes. These
where there’s a include wave
wide continental erosion, material
shelf for deposited by
accumulation seawater motion,
and no drowned and marine
rivers to form life. The coastal
estuaries. dynamics that
The area of change the
accumulated shoreline in
sediment often relatively short
Volcanic coasts. Volcanic islands have
some of the most recognizable coasts forms a wide periods relate
triangular shape, primarily to Sea caves are examples of wave
formed by volcanic activity.
erosion coasts.
so this type of these processes.
coast is called However, some
a delta. It gets its name from the triangle-shaped Greek secondary coast formation processes, such as coral reef
letter delta (Δ). building, are thought to be quite long.
Deltas form flat expanses with very fertile ground. Wave Erosion Coasts. Constant pounding by waves
Two of the most famous are the Nile delta in Egypt, and erodes and changes a coastline over time. Geological
the Mississippi delta in the United States. processes are thought to give coastlines an irregular shape,
Mr. David Sinson, NOAA, Office of Coast Survey
with wave action straightening them over time. Generally,
this happens as wave energy focuses on areas that
protrude. This wears away at the coastline and can result
in spectacular formations where the coast rises well above
the sea. Sea caves, arches, and sea stacks, common along
Fault coasts. many of the world’s coastlines, are good examples.
Scientists
attribute the
Deposition Coasts. Deposition coasts form when sea
formation of action causes ocean sediments to accumulate in one place.
fault coasts to Barrier islands, beaches, salt marshes, and mud flats are
tectonic plate all types of deposition coasts. Note that although both
movement.

secondary deposition coasts and primary sedimentation flats is a salt marsh, which is an intertidal grassland that’s
coasts involve sediment accumulation, they differ. usually biologically diverse and productive. The salt marsh
Secondary deposition coasts involve ocean sediments leads into the lagoon, which is relatively shallow water
moved by water motion in sea. Primary sedimentation enclosed between the island and the mainland.
coasts involve sediments carried from land into the sea by Globally, barrier islands form in relatively few
rivers. places, but you commonly find the typical sand beach.
Barrier islands are a type of deposition coast thought This is also a type of deposition coast. There are many
to form when material accumulates parallel to shore, types of beaches, but generally a beach is defined as an
forming a barrier between the sea and the existing coast. accumulation of loose sediment near the edge of a large
These islands are important because they protect the water body.
main coast from the energy of storm waves. Barrier Salt marshes and mud flats form along coastlines
islands tend to move over time, but the migration is slow where the bottom topography prevents large waves from
from a human standpoint. Many barrier islands are well breaking. This allows sea sediments to accumulate on
developed and inhabited. shore. Salt marshes and mud flats flood with the tides and
A “typical” barrier island has five features: an ocean tend to be rich environments full of life.
beach, ocean dunes, a barrier flat, a salt marsh and a Coasts Built by Aquatic Organisms. Many coasts emerge
lagoon. The ocean beach differs little from other beaches. from biological activity. Scientists think marine organisms
Behind the beach, ocean dunes accumulate as the wind build coasts by providing a structure that reduces the
blows sand inland. Grasses and other vegetation grow effects of waves and current. Perhaps the best known are
in the dunes, stabilizing them. These dunes protect the the barrier reefs built by coral. Successive generations of
islands from storms and tides by dissipating storm energy. coral polyps in colonies grow and build on the calcium
Although large storms penetrate the dunes, they help skeletons of previous generations. Over time, this can
create massive reefs, including the largest barrier reef in
Hope Alexander, EPA Documerica/NOAA Corps Collection the world, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.
Other organisms can build coasts. Oysters leave
behind shells that can accumulate into coasts. Marine
plants help hold sediment and dampen waves and current,
forming coasts. These include seagrasses and marsh grass.
Mangrove plants form mangrove swamps. These are
environmentally important coasts that you’ll read more
about shortly. We’ll look more closely at the dynamics
that build and change secondary coasts in the next
section.
FORCES SHAPING COASTS

Many physical and biological forces combine to create
secondary coasts. All of these affect you as a diver because
they create many of the environments in which you dive.
However, effects are pronounced and ongoing to the
Barrier islands. Barrier islands form on deposition coasts when
material accumulates parallel to shore, forming a barrier extent that you notice them while you’re diving.
between the sea and the existing coast. These islands are Longshore Drift. One of the most significant forces
important because they protect the main coast from the energy shaping the coast is longshore drift, which is the tendency
of storm waves.
for material to move along the coastline due to a
longshore current. You may recall from your dive training
preserve the island and reduce the energy reaching the
that longshore currents result from waves approaching the
main coastline behind the barrier island.
beach at an angle, generating a current that moves parallel
Beyond the dunes is the barrier flat,
to the coast.
which is a broad, relatively level area with
As waves approach a beach from an angle, sand and
vegetation ranging from grasses to
sediment carried toward shore move along the same angle
woodlands. Winds create the flats as
as the approaching waves. As the waves reach shallow
they sweep over the dunes. Beyond the
water, the shallower part of the wave closer to shore drags

on the bottom more than the deeper part away from waves, longshore drift tends to move sand and sediment
shore. This slows the side of the wave closer to shore, primarily with the prevailing winds.
causing it to turn or bend so that it’s more parallel with Sand Formation. Most sand comes from erosion. Erosion
the shoreline. may be the effect of waves pounding the shoreline or it
When the water from each wave recedes, it does so may be inland erosion. In the latter case, streams and
at nearly a 90° angle thanks to the slowing and bending rivers carry the sand to the ocean. Sand can accumulate on
The Ocean Planet

that occurs. Sand and sediment flow back with the water a beach extremely long distances from where it forms. As
at this angle. The net motion of this backwash combines an example, the primary sand source for the US east coast
with the net motion imparted by the waves to cause a and the Gulf of Mexico is erosion of the US Appalachian
longshore current. When scuba diving or snorkeling a Mountains (a mountain ridge in the eastern US reaching
Longshore current and longshore drift

result when waves arrive on shore at
W av e s
L o n g s h o re somewhat of an angle, but the water
T r an s p o r t recedes at nearly a 90° angle. Sand
and sediment flow back with the
water at this angle. The net motion of
this backwash combines with the net
motion imparted by the waves to move
sand and sediment down the coast.
from Quebec to Alabama). However, not all sand comes

longshore current tends to push you down the beach – from a long distance away. The only sand source for some
away from your intended exit area if you didn’t know to islands is erosion of the local rock. The distinctive black
account for it. When diving in a longshore current, you sand found on volcanic island beaches, for example, comes
can begin your dive up-current from your exit point, or from eroded volcanic rock.
dive into the current so you can drift back to the exit at In tropical regions, much sand comes from biological
the end of the dive. sources, such as corals. Erosion wears away at the
Longshore drift is the movement of sand and sediment nonliving portions of coral reef, creating coral sand.
that occurs as the current moves material down the coast. A few species, such as parrotfish, eat coral polyps and their
Because the longshore current flows with the approaching limestone skeletons, excreting sand as digestive waste.
Co as t li n e
L o w -T i d e
Scientists divide a beach into t e r r ac e
the foreshore, backshore and
offshore. The foreshore is the T ro u g h
part of the beach between the B e ac h
high-tide mark and the low- B ar
B ac k s h o r e
tide mark. The backshore is B e ac h
the region rarely touched by F o re s h o re
water. The offshore is the region
beyond the low-tide mark. B e ac h
O ffs h o re
H i g h -w at e r
m ar k L o w -w at e r
m ar k

This is called bioerosion. There are several bioeroding have more powerful waves and tend to carry sand offshore.
invertebrates also, including sea urchins. During the summer, gentler waves prevail, moving sand
Beach Dynamics. Beaches are very dynamic because onshore.
water motion constantly shapes and changes them. If you Ultimately, the dynamics of moving sand to and
shore dive from a beach regularly, chances are good from a beach must balance. Otherwise, beaches would
that you’ve seen significant changes in the same beach disappear or build up beyond reason. The accumulation
over time. and dispersion of sand is generally controlled through
Scientists divide a beach into three basic sections, a coastal cell. A coastal cell is a local region of material
each with differing characteristics related to these changes. transport mechanisms that, when combined, form an area
The foreshore and backshore are the two sections we with no net sand gain or loss. As an example, sand may
normally think of when we think “beach.” The foreshore is continuously enter a coastal cell through river runoff and
the part of the beach that water sometimes covers. It is the wave erosion. The sand accumulates offshore, moving
region from the high-tide mark to the low-tide mark. The down the coast with longshore drift. Eventually it meets
low-tide terrace is the flat portion of the foreshore which is a submarine canyon or the edge of the continental shelf.
flattened by the waves. The backshore is the region rarely From there it falls off into deep water, leaving the system.
touched by seawater. It includes dunes or grasses that help
stabilize this section, and extends all the way to “non-
beach” ground.
S p it
Offshore is the area beyond the low-tide
terrace. It typically includes a slightly deeper Q u i e t W at e r o rt
n s p
longshore trough and, further out, a shallow T ra W av e s
re
hs o
sandbar. Both are parallel to shore. Beyond S e d im e n t
n g
d e p o s itio n L o
this area is not considered beach because
sediment movement ceases, at least with respect to
beach dynamics.
The shape and appearance of a beach depend on
many interacting factors. These include the size of beach
sediments (grain size), wave energy and the degree of
beach slope. Grain size can range from very small (clay A spit is a length of accumulated sand attached to land at one
and silt) to large cobble. As the grain size increases, so end, pointing in the direction of the longshore drift.
does the beach’s slope and wave size. This is because it
takes more wave energy to move large grain up onto the Large-Scale Sand Features. Sand movement and
beach. It also takes more energy to move a given grain up accumulation form significant coastal features. These
a steeper beach. High-energy waves tend to sort the grain features affect water flow and shape the environment.
by carrying large sediment high onto the beach. There’s
less energy in the backwash, so the heavier grains tend
to stay behind while the smaller ones rush Tombolos are spits
that extend between
back to sea with the water. In very
two islands or from
heavy waves, the smallest an island to the
particles may not be able mainland. They form
to settle at all due to T o m b o lo when the longshore
I s lan d
constant wave action and current slows around
two sides of land,
backwash.
accumulating sand
A flat, low-energy beach has on both sides until
the opposite effect. This type of beach the two spits grow
provides a large area over which wave energy together.
dissipates. This allows small particles to
settle, forming a typical sandy beach.
Because wave energy varies with A spit is a length of accumulated sand attached to land at
season in many areas, the beach tends one end, pointing in the direction of the longshore drift.
to change seasonally. Winter storms It forms when a longshore current turns a beach corner

into the relatively calm water of a bay. The current slows landmass eventually slips below the surface. Corals keep
and can’t carry as much sediment. Sand settles out of the building the reef as the land sinks, eventually leaving only
water, forming the spit. Spits often have a hook shape due the circular reef near the surface.
to wave refraction as the waves bend around it. When a Plant Communities. Coral reefs can grow in areas
spit grows large enough, it may form a bay mouth barrier. with relatively high wave energy, but in areas where the
Natural and human-made inlets often cut through the waves have generally low energy, plant communities can
The Ocean Planet

barrier, providing boat access to the bay. dominate the coast. Seagrasses can live entirely under
Tombolos are spits that extend between two islands or water in the ocean, but most marine plants live partly out
from an island to the mainland. As with spits, they form of the water. In both cases, plants provide structure that
when the longshore current slows. In this case, current helps hold sediment in place and absorb energy.
slows around two sides of land, accumulating sand on Among the most important of the plant-dominated
both sides until the two spits grow together. shorelines are the mangrove swamps. Mangrove swamps
Coral Reefs. Coral reef growth is perhaps the most provide a biologically important environment. Mangroves
significant of all the biological processes that affect the provide a habitat for many juvenile organisms to survive
coast. A coral reef can be massive, but only the outside until they’re large enough to compete on adjacent
layer, the coral polyps, is alive. Individual polyps create a coral reefs.
calcium carbonate external skeleton as they grow. It is this Mangroves affect the coast directly by holding
part of its structure that creates coral reefs. As successive sediment in place and absorbing wave energy. Mangroves
generations of polyps live and die, each generation grows and coral reefs commonly coexist. The coral reef absorbs
on the skeleton of the previous. Although each generation much of the wave energy. This provides water calm
adds only a fraction to the reef, given enough time enough for the mangroves to grow. The mangroves further
(hundreds of years), enormous reefs emerge. absorb wave energy and hold sediment with their roots.
Like other forms of coast, scientists divide coral reefs This slows erosion. By trapping sediment, mangroves limit
into different types with respect to how they affect the the amount of nutrients that flow over near adjoining
coastline. Charles Darwin created one of the first coral reef coral reefs, which is critical because corals only survive in
classification systems. He divided coral reefs into fringing low-nutrient water. Nutrients kill coral by allowing algae
reefs, barrier reefs and atolls. to grow, which reduce the light reaching the coral and
Fringing reefs lie along an island or mainland coast. compete for resources and space in the environment.
That is, they form the fringe of the coast, hence the name. Many tropical islands would not exist if it weren’t for
Fringing reefs have a fore reef, which is the outer, ocean the combination of coral reefs and mangroves protecting
side with most of the biological activity. The reef crest is them from erosion by waves and current. Likewise,
the top of the reef that takes most of the wave energy. The many coral reefs could not survive without the adjacent
back reef is on the land side and has less biological activity. mangroves – and equally important, many times the
A barrier reef has a similar structure to a fringing reef,
but it is further from shore. Whereas a fringing reef is part Courtesy of US Geological Survey
of the main coast, as you read earlier a barrier reef has a
lagoon between it and the main coast. Barrier reefs are
usually much larger and occur where there’s rock or other
large substrate for the reef to begin growing on. It’s called
a barrier reef because it creates a barrier between the open
ocean and the main coastline.
An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef that encircles a
shallow lagoon. Darwin was one of the first scientists
to ponder how atolls could form. They stand in deep
water with no other landmasses nearby. With depths
too deep for corals to grow, atolls could not simply grow
up from the bottom. Darwin theorized that atolls form
on the remains of volcanic islands. A volcanic island in
tropical water will naturally acquire a fringing reef. After
Groins are artificial protrusions that jut out into the water
the volcano becomes extinct, it sinks over hundreds of perpendicular from shore. They are often built to create an area
thousands of years. The reef continues to grow as the protected from longshore current or for recreational purposes.

destruction of a mangrove for development has led Rick Crawford/NOAA National Estuarine Research
directly to the decline or complete loss of a nearby Reserve Collection
coral reef.
Human Activities. Just as we shape other environments
to our purposes, we also alter the coastline. There are two
primary motivations for humans to modify the coastline.
The first is to create new coastal structures such as harbors.
The second is to protect buildings or other structures on
existing coast from natural coastal changes, such as putting
up a protective wall so that high tide and seas can’t destroy
a condominium community built just above the beach.
Human-built coastal structures include groins, jetties,
breakwaters and seawalls, many of which are popular
dive sites. A groin is an artificial protrusion jutting out
perpendicular to the shore. These may be built to create
an area relatively protected from longshore current, or for Jetties. Jetties are built to protect or reinforce a harbor entrance.
recreation, such as fishing. They’re commonly built from Dana J. Seagars, NMFS, NOAA, Fisheries Collection
piles of boulders and stone, though they can be made from
sand bags, concrete and other materials.
A jetty is essentially the same as a groin, except that it
is built to reinforce a harbor entrance. A breakwater runs
parallel to shore or starts on shore and curves into the
sea. Its purpose is to create an artificial lagoon to use as a
harbor or beach. A seawall stands either at the water along
the shore or at the top of a beach. It acts as a barrier to
block waves from coming ashore and eroding the land.
It’s easy to understand why a hotel owner would want
a seawall to protect an expensive investment in a high-
rise building, or a developer would want a harbor where
tourists can anchor their boats. However, human coastal
structures interfere with natural coastal processes. This
particularly includes sand flow. Breakwaters. Breakwaters are built to create an artificial lagoon
Jetties and groins block longshore drift. This tends for a harbor or beach.
to cause sand to accumulate on the upside drift and to
Mr. William Folsom, NOAA, NMFS
become depleted on the downside drift. Spits may form
at the tops of jetties. Seawalls effectively absorb energy
but create problems at their ends. Deflected energy tends
to concentrate at the end of the wall. Unprotected land
next to the seawall therefore tends to suffer from increased
erosion.
The result of these and other structures is that beaches
may erode away from where they used to naturally exist.
This unintended effect often leads to more human action.
In this case, the response may be beach renourishment.
Beach renourishment is bringing in sand or sediment from
somewhere else to replenish eroded sand.
Beach renourishment has several
problems, unfortunately. First, it’s
expensive. Second, it’s not really a
solution but a temporary fix. If the
Seawall. Seawalls are used to block waves from coming ashore
structure that’s causing the erosion
and eroding the land.

remains in place, the beach will continue to erode. more effective and less costly to work with nature instead
Eventually, the beach will need to be renourished again. of against it.
Third, taking sand from somewhere else affects that The Ups and Downs of the Seas
environment also. Dredging sand from offshore may
Today’s scientists realize that the air, land and sea
damage biological communities. Also, offshore sand has
constantly exchange material and energy. This is
finer grain than onshore sand due to natural sorting.
significant because wind can pick up dry Sahara desert
The Ocean Planet

The same sorting action carries offshore sand away
soil and drop it in the Caribbean Sea, changing the
more quickly than the original sand eroded. The likely
underwater environment. The dynamics of these energy
solution to problems created by human structures is a
interactions cause water to move in many ways over the
change in coastal attitudes and management. Attempting
earth’s surface, causing erosion, moving soil and affecting
to protect the beach with artificial structures and using
human activities.
renourishment provide only a short-term benefit. A policy
A primary cause of water motion is wind energy,
change that emphasizes coastal development that accepts
which transfers to the water as it blows across its surface.
natural coastal processes instead of trying to change them
This results in two primary types of water motion:
appears a better answer. It will be inconvenient in the short
currents and waves, both of which can result from forces
term, especially in established coastal communities that
other than wind as well.
depend on artificial structures. But, in the long term it is
Global wind patterns are divided into six

regions (three in each hemisphere) called
atmospheric circulation cells. These
atmospheric circulation cells produce the
trade winds, the westerlies, and
P o lar E as terli es P o lar C ell
the polar easterlies in
both hemispheres. P o lar H ig h
P o llar C ell
Wes terli es
F errel C ell
N E T rad e Wi n d s
H o rs e L ati tu d es
H ad ley C ell SE T rad e Wi n d s
D o ld ru m s ( I T C Z ) P o lar C ell
Wes terli es
H ad ley C ell
H o rs e L ati tu d es
F errel C ell P o lar H i g h
P o lar E as terli es
P o lar C ell

SURFACE CURRENTS ocean currents travel along their edges according to the
When winds blow over large areas with reasonable Coriolis effect. These circular water movement patterns are
consistency of direction and strength, significant volumes called gyres and play major roles in global heat and marine
of water move horizontally across the oceans. In the life distribution.
northern Hemisphere, the trade winds (near latitude Currents occur in oceans, but also in large lakes, seas
15°N) blow from northeast to southwest; the westerlies in and even smaller water bodies to some extent. However,
the mid-latitudes blow primarily from the southwest. At the smaller the water body, the stronger the wind must
very high latitudes, the polar easterlies blow from east to be to develop a current of a given strength because there’s
west. A mirror image set of these wind belts exists in the less surface area across which to transfer energy. However,
southern hemisphere. many large lakes have sufficient area to generate significant
currents (and waves).
WAVES
Waves range in size from a fraction of
an inch for small, surface capillary waves
to towering storm waves more than 30
metres/100 feet high. They are more
complex than they appear.
A wave is the transmission of energy
through matter. When energy moves
through matter as a wave, the matter
moves back and forth or rotates, but
then it returns to its original position. It
transmits the energy to adjacent matter,
allowing the energy to continue. For
instance, imagine dropping a stone in
a pond. Waves ripple away from the
The major surface currents of the world’s oceans.
splash. The water doesn’t move away, only the energy.
As you watch the rippling, you can see the energy
The energy from these wind systems drives the major move as a series of waves away from the disturbance as a
surface ocean currents. Some of these currents transport progressive wave. It’s called a progressive wave because you
more than 100 times the volume of
water carried by all of the earth’s rivers
combined. As with a wind-driven wave,
surface current speed diminishes rapidly
with depth, becoming negligible at depths
around 190 metres/600 feet.
The earth’s rotation also affects the
major ocean currents. This is termed the
Coriolis effect, and explains why objects
in the northern hemisphere deflect to the
right of the direction of the force acting
on them (in this case, the wind is the
force and the object is the water’s surface).
The opposite is true in the southern
hemisphere. There, objects deflect to the
left of the direction of force.
The result is that water
Major ocean gyres. The Coriolis effect causes the major currents to deflect to the
tends to pile up in the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. In this
middle of the ocean way, the Coriolis effect creates circular airflow and current patterns, including the
basins as the major major ocean gyres.

can see the energy progress from one point to another. concern us. They occur when the energy moves the fluid
There are three types of progressive wave – longitudinal, in a circular motion as it passes. Imagine a floating buoy.
transverse and orbital. As the wave approaches, the buoy moves forward on the
A longitudinal wave occurs when the matter moves wave face. It rises, goes over the crest, and slides backward
back and forth in the same direction that the energy down the rear of the wave.
travels. This type of wave can move through all states Although the water (fluid) travels through orbital
The Ocean Planet

of matter, transmitted through the compression and motion, it returns to its original place. Only the energy
decompression of particles, much like a spring. Sound is a moves on. Looking at the buoy in the illustration, it looks
longitudinal wave like the orbital motion occurs only in a single plane.
When transverse waves occur in matter, the motion of Actually, the orbital motion continues in progressively
the matter is perpendicular to the direction in which the smaller orbits down to a depth of about half the wave’s
wave as a whole is moving. For example, when you shake wavelength – the horizontal distance between the identical
one end of a taut, horizontal rope up and down, the rope point on two waves, such as crest to crest.
moves vertically, but the You can express wave characteristics mathematically.
wave travels horizontally This is useful because it allows you to calculate wave
along the length of the behaviors based on the information you have. H:L is the
rope. ratio of the wave height to wavelength. If you know the
Orbital waves wavelength (L: distance in metres) and the period (T:
only transmit through time in seconds), you can determine the speed (S: speed
fluids. With respect in metres per second) of ideal deepwater waves, i.e. waves
to the ocean, these are in water deep enough that the bottom doesn’t affect them
primarily the waves that (more about these shortly).
This results in the formula:
speed = wavelength ÷ period
or
Orbital wave motion. As
the wave approaches, the
S=L÷T
buoy moves forward on the However, keep in mind that this equation, while
wave face. It rises, goes
useful, doesn’t account for other factors that influence
over the crest, and slides
backward down the rear deepwater wave speed, nor the speed of a wave when it
of the wave. Individual reaches shallow water.
particles of water move in Wave Causes and Characteristics. Let’s look at what
circular patterns (shown
causes waves and how they behave in the real world.
by curved arrow) as the
wave’s energy moves Disturbing forces cause waves and restoring forces resist
through the water. them. The intensity and duration of a disturbing force
and the interaction of restorative forces give waves their
characteristics.
Major wave components and orbital
pattern. The wavelength is the horizontal
Wav e M o v em en t
distance between the identical points
on two waves—in this illustration the
C res t C res t A C res t B horizontal distance from A to B. The
Sti ll Water Wav elen g th
L ev el crest is the highest wave point above
the average water level. The trough is
the lowest point, and the height is the
T ro u g h T ro u g h vertical measurement from the trough
to the crest. Period is the time it takes
for the same spot on two waves to pass
a single point, while frequency is the
number of waves that pass a fixed point
in one second. Note the orbital wave
pattern tapering in intensity down to a
N eg li g i b le Water M o v em en t B elo w 1 / 2 Wav elen g th
depth equal to one half the wavelength.

Fluids tend to remain at rest on the earth. They only weight of the wave – takes over, so we call large waves
move when something imparts energy to them – disturbs gravity waves. For practical purposes, most of the waves
them. Disturbing forces that cause ocean waves include that concern us while diving are gravity waves.
wind, changes in gravity, and seismic activity. Wind is Although disturbing forces can be somewhat random
the most common disturbing force through the friction in their intensity, duration, and place of origin, waves tend
of air passing over the water’s surface. Changes in gravity to organize themselves into patterns. Waves that are not
cause a wave you probably don’t think of as a wave – the so organized travel at different speeds. The longest waves
tides. These have characteristics that distinguish them outrun the smaller ones. Eventually only waves of similar
significantly from what we normally think of as waves, wavelengths are left traveling together. They are called
so we’ll look at them separately. Seismic activity includes swell, which is simply the rise and fall of a uniform wave
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which can cause pattern on the sea.
tsunamis. Groups of swells with similar characteristics tend to
Each kind of disturbing force tends to produce travel together in wave trains. The first wave in the train
waves with distinct wavelengths. Wind commonly creates gradually loses energy, which is picked up by new waves
wavelengths of about 60 to 150 metres/200 to 500 feet. forming in the trailing portion of the train. As the leading
The wavelength of the tides is about the size of the ocean waves dissipate, the trailing waves form and join the train.
basins, and tsunamis have wavelengths of about 200 The entire train moves at half the speed of individual
kilometres/120 miles. waves through this process of dissipation and reformation.
Gravity is the main restoring force for large waves When the wave train reaches shallow water, the individual
and seismic waves. It tends to flatten waves by pulling and group speeds become the same. This is because depth
water back to level. Gravity and the Coriolis effect are affects wave characteristics, leading to the concepts of
the primary restoring forces for the tides, because their deepwater waves and shallow-water waves.
wavelengths are so long. Surface tension is an important Deepwater waves occur in water that is deeper
restoring force for the tiniest waves, called capillary waves, than half their wavelength. Water motion in orbital
which have wavelengths of about 1.7 centimetres/0.7 waves decreases very quickly with depth. If the water
Wavelengths and Disturbing Forces and Restoring Forces

of Important Ocean Waves
Primary Primary
Wave Standard Disturbing Restoring
Type Wavelength Force Force
Wind wave (capillary) Less than 1.73 centimetres Wind Surface tension
Wind wave (gravity) Up to 150 metres Wind Gravity
Seismic wave 200 kilometres Seismic activity Gravity
Tide Up to 17,000 kilometres Sun and moon Gravity and Coriolis effect
Wavelengths and disturbing forces of important ocean waves.
inches or less. Surface tension is caused by the strongly is deeper than half the wavelength, then no interaction
polar nature of bonds in water, which resists surface with the bottom can affect the wave characteristics. A
disturbances. You’ll learn more about surface tension in fish swimming at 20 metres/66 feet wouldn’t notice
Chapter Four. effects from a wave passing overhead if the wavelength
You can classify waves based on which restoring force is 40 metres/130 feet or less. Because the bottom doesn’t
has the most effect. Capillary waves are classified as such affect deepwater waves, their orbital motion progresses
because the primary force countering them is surface unaffected.
tension. Capillary waves are the first to form When the water is shallower than one-fourth the
as wind blows across still water. As waves wavelength, the bottom creates drag that affects the
grow larger, however, surface tension orbital motion. This tends to flatten the circular motion
becomes relatively insignificant as a into an ellipse. When the depth is about one-twentieth
primary restoring force. Gravity – the of the wavelength, the wave becomes a shallow-water

wave. In depths between one-half and one-twentieth so the wave’s heights are constructive and combine to
the wavelength, waves are transitional, progressing from make larger waves. Also, anomalously large waves can
deepwater to shallow-water characteristics. result when waves go against the direction of a current,
Deepwater and shallow-water waves can exist at the which makes the waves steeper. This second mechanism is
same time. A good example is the giant wave created by probably a more important cause of rogue waves.
the tides. By definition, this is always a shallow-water wave If wave trains are out of phase, so that the crests of one
The Ocean Planet

because the wavelength is about the size of its ocean basin. train coincide with the troughs of the other, the waves
For a tide to be a deepwater wave, the ocean would have cancel each other out. Neither constructive nor destructive
to be deeper than the diameter of the earth! The wind interference can act over distances greater than a few wave
creates waves, which can be deepwater waves on top of the lengths. Therefore, for example, destructive interference
tides. Capillary waves are almost always deepwater waves cannot result in a relatively calm sea during strong winds.
because the water only needs to be 0.85 centimeters/0.35 It’s relatively rare for trains coming together to have
inches deep. exactly the same wavelength and to be synchronized.
As previously mentioned, wind waves grow due to They’re usually timed slightly differently, and interacting
friction with the air transferring energy to the water. As a trains tend to alternate between being constructive and
wave grows, it presents a larger surface area to the wind, destructive. This results in a mixed sea with periods of
allowing more energy to transfer. The three factors that large and small waves. You’ve probably seen surf patterns
affect the growth of a wind wave are wind speed, wind that cycle from periods of calm, build to large waves, then
duration, and fetch. regress to calm again, and so on. This is the effect of two
Wind speed is important because the wind must slightly different wave trains coming together.
be blowing faster than the wave to give it energy. Wind
duration is the length of time the wind blows in a single SURF AND BREAKING WAVES
direction. Even a high-speed wind won’t cause large waves If you’ve ever been to the beach, you’ve seen waves break
when the duration is short or the direction makes frequent and spill their energy as surf. Have you ever thought about
significant changes. Fetch is the surface area over which how a wave breaks?
the wind blows. A small pond will never have huge waves, In deep water, a wave breaks when its H:L ratio
even with a high-speed wind blowing for hours, because exceeds 1:7. That is, when the height exceeds one-seventh
there’s not enough surface area to transfer the required of the wavelength, the wave breaks as whitecaps. The same
energy to form a big wave. ratio applies in shallow water, though through a different
The combination of these three factors yields a process.
maximum theoretical wave size. Above this theoretical Deepwater waves become transitional when they
maximum, the disturbing forces and restoring forces enter water that’s shallower than half their wavelength.
counterbalance so waves can’t grow any larger. When an At this point, the bottom begins to affect the wave. As it
area has reached the maximum size, it is called a fully moves shoreward, the orbital motion flattens, becoming
developed sea. With wind speed, duration, and fetch all elliptical. Interaction with the bottom slows the wave,
acting as independent variables, a fully developed sea decreasing the wavelength and packing the wave’s energy
isn’t necessarily a large sea. Average wave heights for fully into a tighter area. This causes the wave height to rise.
developed seas range from about a quarter of a metre
(almost a foot) to about 15 metres/50 feet.
As in the example of the small pond, these three
factors also influence the largest waves that an ocean
can have. Remember that an ocean often has large,
unobstructed stretches of water over which wind waves
can develop.
Perhaps surprisingly, at times a wave can be larger
than the maximum theoretical size for a fully developed
sea. Scientists believe such a rogue wave results from the
interaction of two closely related wave trains. When wave
trains come together from different areas, they affect each
other in the form of constructive or destructive interference.
If the waves are in phase, the crests and troughs coincide Plunging breaker.

As the wave continues moving shoreward, the you onto shore for your exit. Before diving in unfamiliar
wavelength continues to decrease and the height continues surf conditions, get an orientation to the appropriate
to increase, moving the wave closer and closer toward techniques from your local PADI Dive Center or Resort.
an H:L ratio of 1:7. The wave passes the 1:7 ratio when Refraction, Diffraction and Deflection. The previous
the depth is 1.3 times the height. Because the crest of description of surf is somewhat idealized because it
the wave is now traveling faster than its trough, and assumes that waves hit the shore squarely. In reality, that
because its height is more than 1.7 times its length, the rarely happens. Refraction, diffraction, and deflection affect
wave becomes unstable. The instability causes the wave to wave behavior.
break, and its crest topples forward. As you learned in reading about longshore currents
There are three basic types of wave break. Plunging and longshore drift, waves approaching shore from an
breakers are characterized by a curl as the top of the wave angle tend to turn until they’re parallel with the shore.
pitches through the air before splashing into the bottom. Drag on the shallower, inshore side of the wave causes
These occur on moderately steep beaches that decelerate this, and is known as wave refraction. When the shoreline
the wave quickly, so the top of the wave literally flies is irregular, refraction tends to concentrate wave energy
ahead of the bottom. Spilling breakers occur on gently toward headlands because the wave crest nearest to the
sloping beaches. The top of the wave tumbles and slides headland slows first, turning the wave toward it.
down the front of the wave as it decelerates slowly. Surging Wave diffraction occurs when waves pass an obstacle,
breakers occur on very steep beaches that are almost like such as a jetty. Energy shifts within the wave, allowing a
new wave pattern to form past the obstacle or through an
opening. Diffraction is what allows very heavy seas to rock
an otherwise well protected harbor. Waves diffracted after
passing through island channels can alter swell patterns
well off shore.
Reflection occurs when waves hit an abrupt obstacle
that is nearly perpendicular in the water, such as a seawall.
The wave retains most of its energy and bounces back
toward the open water. Reflected wave energy can bounce
around the inside of an enclosed area, creating complex
wave patterns. A good example is the pattern that you get
with a single splash in a still swimming pool. At first a
single wave set travels from the splash, but when it reaches
a wall, it reflects in a new direction as a new set of waves.
Surging breaker. Meanwhile, the other side of the wave reaches another
wall, doing the same thing. Soon, there’s no discernible
walls rising out of deep water. Since there’s little or no pattern as the reflected waves interact and continue to
bottom contact, the waves don’t slow down, but surge reflect.
virtually unbroken. Surging waves can be very destructive Reflection can also cause a standing wave. A standing
because they don’t lose much energy. wave is a vertical oscillation in which water rocks back
Different types of waves require different techniques and forth, rising and falling at the ends but relatively
if you’re diving through surf, and the characteristics of
each have advantages and
Antinode Antinode
disadvantages. Plunging
breakers can be difficult because Node Node Node
they crash down on you, but
the advantage is they usually
have a short surf zone that you Antinode Antinode
can move through

quickly if you A standing wave is a vertical oscillation in which water rocks
time it right. Surging waves are very back and forth, rising and falling at the ends but remaining
relatively motionless near the center. The point in the wave that
strong and can slam you against walls
is stationary is called its node; the antinodes occur where there’s
and rocks, yet you can use them to lift maximum vertical change.

motionless near the center, like coffee sloshing back phenomenon. All the US Great Lakes have seiches
and forth after you bump the cup. A standing wave isn’t regularly. When combined with storm waves, seiches
orbital, but has a trough and crest that alternate in a single sometimes cause waterfront property damage.
position. The point in the wave that is stationary is called A tsunami results from sudden water displacement
its node; the antinodes occur where there’s maximum caused by a landslide, an iceberg falling into the sea
vertical change. from a glacier, a volcanic eruption, or, most commonly,
The Ocean Planet

DESTRUCTIVE WAVES No d e
On the open sea, sometimes even very large waves can
seem harmless. A ship rides up and over them. When they
Water D i rec ti o n
reach shallow water and unleash their energy, however,
their power becomes visible. Waves driven by storm winds
E n c lo s e d B ay
can be dangerous to coastal areas. There are three distinct
types of wave noted for their destructive power: storm
surge, seiche, and tsunami.
Storm surge is a destructive wave that forms when No d e
high winds push water against the shore, where it piles
up. The shallower the water, and the further it extends
Water D i rec ti o n
offshore, the greater the surge. This is why the US Gulf
Coast has the biggest storm surges, which can exceed 9 E n c lo s e d B ay
metres/30 feet for a Category 5 hurricane.
When the storm moves ashore, the storm surge builds
on top of the tide. The damage to low-lying coastal areas
can be tremendous when storm surge and an extremely A seiche is the sloshing of a closed body of water. The back-
high tide coincide. Although hurricane winds cause the and-forth water movement can be caused by a local earthquake
most structural damage, about 90 percent of deaths in a or when a strong wind blowing in one direction suddenly stops.
hurricane result from the storm surge. Storm surge is not a
progressive wave and exists only in a cyclonic storm. a seaquake. Tsunamis get their name from the Japanese
word for harbor wave, thanks to their particular
Historic NSW Collection/NOAA
destructiveness in harbors and bays. You may have also
heard them called tidal waves, though this is a misnomer
because they’re not caused by the tides or directly related
to the tides in any way.
Initially it may seem strange, but all tsunamis are
shallow-water waves in the same way that the tidal
bulge is a shallow-water wave. The typical tsunami has a
wavelength of about 200 kilometres/120 miles, yet the
deepest point in the oceans (Mariana Trench) is about 11
kilometres/6.8 miles deep. There’s no ocean deep enough
to make a tsunami behave as a deepwater wave. Although
Storm surge. 3.3 metres/16 feet of storm surge struck the Florida they are waves, when they hit they usually seem to behave
panhandle in September 1975. more like a flood rushing ashore.
Tsunamis are fast-moving waves that can travel
Seiche is a form of standing wave that can be thousands of kilometres/miles. They’re not much of an
destructive. Seiches, which form in large bays and lakes as issue in the open sea. They have very long wavelengths and
a wave that rocks back and forth, can result from a strong are nearly imperceptible as they travel. Vessels may rise
wind that pushes the water level up on one side of a basin. and fall about one metre/three feet when a tsunami passes,
When the wind abates, the water rocks back and forth at a but they do so very gradually. Japanese folklore relates an
frequency determined by the basin size and depth. incident in which fishermen at sea all day sailed home to
Lake Geneva, Switzerland, is known for seiches find their village wiped out by a tsunami. The fishermen
and is, in fact, where scientists first described the were unaware it had passed under them.

When a tsunami reaches shore, it becomes much higher.
The wave surges ashore, breaks and hurls tremendous water The 2004 Tsunami
mass and energy onto land. If the trough precedes the crest On 26 December 2004, more than 140,000
to shore, the wave water recedes as if a massive low tide were people were killed across southern Asia in massive
in progress. The building period can take several minutes sea surges triggered by the strongest seaquake in
and has accounted for some fatalities. Curious beachgoers, the world in 40 years. Hundreds of thousands more
unaware of the danger, have wandered out onto the drained people were left homeless, their lives all but wiped out
seabed caused by the preceding trough, only to be drowned by the disaster.
The magnitude 9.0 seaquake struck off the
by the wave a few minutes later. History records a tsunami
western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia at 07:58:50
surging up a hillside 530 metres/1740 feet high in Lituya
local time. It was the strongest in the world since the
Bay, Alaska, USA, in 1958. 9.2-magnitude seaquake which struck Alaska, USA
in 1964, and the fourth largest since 1900. The
largest recorded seaquake was the Great Chilean
Clocking a Tsunami Earthquake of 1960, at magnitude 9.5.
Care to outswim a tsunami? Just how fast are tsunamis, Deaths in this quake were caused by resulting
anyway? If you know the depth, you can figure it out tsunamis, which in Thailand were up to 10
for yourself. The velocity of a shallow-water wave is metres/33 feet, and struck within three hours of the
determined by this equation: initial event. Multiple tsunamis struck and ravaged
V = √gd coastal regions of nine countries in the Indian Ocean,
where: devastating regions including the Indonesian province
V = velocity of Aceh, the coast of Sri Lanka, coastal areas of the
g = the acceleration of gravity Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the resort island of Phuket,
(9.8 meters per second squared) Thailand, and even as far away as Somalia, 4100
and kilometres/2500 miles west of the epicenter.
d = the water depth. About 80 percent of all tsunamis occur in the
That is, velocity = square root of gravity times depth. Pacific and many cities around the ocean – mostly in
Suppose a tsunami originates in water that is Japan, but also in Hawaii – have warning systems
4000 meters deep. and evacuation procedures for serious tsunamis. One
V = √ (9.8 m/s2) x (4000m) of the best ways to predict tsunamis is to monitor
earthquakes, which set off most of the waves.
V = √ 39,200 m2/sec2
Seismograph networks, wave gauges (such as those
V = 198 m/sec
operated by International Tsunami Warning System)
Therefore, the velocity of the tsunami would be
and satellite measurements of sea level changes can
198 meters per second. That works out to 712.8
help warn of tsunamis.
kilometres/442.9 miles per hour until the wave hits
shallower water.
A tsunami results from sudden water displacement caused by

a landslide, iceberg, volcanic eruption, or, most commonly, a
Giant seaquake. The long period and wavelength make them nearly
Wave unnoticeable at sea.
Shallow
Water
Deep
Water
T SU N A M I
F O R C E
F A U L T Sea fl
oor
D I SP L A C E M E N T

TIDES there are several tidal bulges. This is because, in addition to
Tides are waves responsible for the, usually, twice-daily lunar and solar gravity, the imperfect sphere of the earth,
rise and fall of the sea surface that alternately covers the season, the time of the month, the shape of the ocean
and exposes marine life along the shore. They play an basin, and the Coriolis effect all influence the tides. Tides
important role in determining when certain locations rotate around more than a dozen amphidromic points.
will experience strong currents, changing depth and These are points where the water doesn’t rise and fall with
The Ocean Planet

changing visibility. Therefore tides affect dive conditions the tides. The tides occur in a pinwheel-shaped, standing-
– sometimes improving them, and sometimes worsening wave pattern. There is no vertical tidal movement at an
them. Tides also affect aquatic life, principally in marine amphidromic point, but away from that point there may
environments where tidal currents affect the distribution be magnified tidal motion as the tides change throughout
of planktonic organisms. Tidal movement results from the the day.
gravitational interaction of the earth, moon and sun. As a Tidal Patterns and Currents. Because there are multiple
general guideline, the best diving conditions occur at high tidal bulges and other influences, tidal patterns vary with
tide. location. Some places have a single high and low tide
The cyclical nature of the orbits and planetary motion daily. This pattern is called a diurnal tide. Semidiurnal
of the earth, moon and sun make the tides predictable. tides means having two roughly equal high and low tides
Tide duration, number and range depend on the relative daily, as predicted by Newton’s model. Mixed tides means
position of these three bodies and the local topographical a pattern that consists of two unequal high and low tides
features. By using this information, people can generate daily.
accurate tide and current tables to predict both the times Hours HIGH TIDE
and heights of tides anywhere in the world. Aquatic
organisms – particularly those living in the intertidal zone
+
– simply rely on biological clocks to regulate their activity
to the tides. Before a dive, check local tide tables and Height
become familiar with how tides affect local conditions and 0

aquatic life.
The Causes of Tides. Tides result from the gravitational
-
pull of the moon and, to a lesser degree, the sun. They pull HIGH TIDES D I U R NA L T I D E
ocean water into a huge wave with a wavelength the size of LOW TIDE
Hours
an ocean basin. In principle, the sun and moon create two
bulges on opposite sides of the earth. The relative positions
of the sun and moon change slowly, so the bulge rotates +
around the earth. As a coastline rotates into the bulge, the

Height
tide rises. As it rotates out, the tide falls. 0

Isaac Newton proposed this simplistic explanation of
the tides. It is called the equilibrium theory, which assumes
that the earth is perfectly uniform, that water is very, very -
S E M I D I U R NA L T I D E
deep, and that there are no landmasses. The problem with
HIGHER
the equilibrium theory is that the earth isn’t perfectly HIGH
Hours
LOW TIDES
uniform, the water isn’t always very deep and there are TIDE
many landmasses. This is why Newton’s theory is too + LOWER

simple to explain the actual tides on the earth. Some places HIGH TIDE
have two tides in a day, others have one. In some places
Height
0
the tides are very extreme, in others they’re not. Because of
LOWER
landmasses and varying depths, the tides don’t move like LOW
an unobstructed wave in the open sea. They are waves that TIDE
-
are forced through and around obstacles. Understanding M IX E D T ID E HIGHER
LOW TIDE
this requires a more complex model.
Pierre-Simon Laplace modified Newton’s model to Tidal patterns vary with location. Some places have a single
high and low tide daily. This pattern is called a diurnal tide.
account for tidal variations. His model, called the dynamic
Other areas have semidiurnal tides – two roughly equal high
theory, shows that there aren’t only two tidal bulges; rather, and low tides daily. A mixed tide is where there are two
unequal high and low tides daily.

Different areas have different tidal patterns depending differently, depending on the positions of the sun and
upon the location of amphidromic points. For this reason, moon relative to the earth.
a very long stretch of coastline can have more than one When the sun, the moon, and the earth are aligned,
tidal pattern. their gravity works together, raising the height of the tidal
The shape and depth of the ocean basins affect tidal water bulges. You can tell when this happens by the phases
patterns. The range – the difference between high and low of the moon. When there’s a new moon (no moon visible),
tides – depends mostly on the basin shape and size. Large, both the sun and the moon are aligned on the same side
wide basins tend to have a smaller tidal range than narrow, of earth, and during a full moon the sun and moon are
shallow basins. aligned on opposite sides of earth. Both positions create
the highest and lowest tides, called spring tides.
When the moon is in a quarter phase, the lines from
it and the sun to the earth form a right angle. The sun’s
gravitation pulls to the side of the moon’s tidal bulge. This
tends to raise the low tide and lower the high tide. These
weaker tides are called neap tides.
Ecology, Ecosystems
and Diving
Diurnal
Semidiurnal
Now that you have a basic understanding of the physical
Mixed characteristics and processes in the oceans and other
aquatic environments, let’s look at ecology, which studies
Tidal patterns of the United States demonstrate how even the intricate processes that connect organisms with each
relatively close areas (globally speaking) can have different other and the environment.
tides. On the west coast and in parts of the Gulf of Mexico,
mixed tides predominate. Other parts along the Gulf of Mexico
have diurnal tides. The east coast of the United States is The Science of Ecology
dominated by semidiurnal tides. With the rise of environmental awareness, the term
The daily tides create a current that flows into and ecology has become a buzzword thrown about by the
out of bays, rivers, harbors and other restricted spaces. The media and politicians. For this reason, many people
inflow is called a flood current and the outflow is called a are surprised to learn that ecology isn’t the same thing
slack current. The midpoint between high and low tides as environmentalism. You may already have a general
creates slack tide, when there is little water moving. These idea of what ecology is, but to discuss ecology clearly it’s
tidal variations are important to people who work on and important to be precise and specific.
around the sea. Large ships may only be able to enter or Ecology is the science that studies how organisms
exit a harbor during high tide to ensure sufficient water relate to each other and their environment. Ecology
depth for travel. Sailing ships often use the slack current embraces the broad range of disciplines, including biology,
to take advantage of the flow carrying them seaward. physics, geology, climatology, oceanography, paleontology,
In some instances, a tidal bore can form. This is when and even astronomy. Beyond biotic (living) factors, the
the incoming tide produces a wave that flows into a river, study of ecology considers the abiotic (nonliving) aspects
bay or other relatively narrow area. This is a true tidal of the environment. These include temperature, wind,
wave (i.e., a wave caused by a tide) and can be several pH, currents, minerals, and sunlight that you have
metres/feet high. On the Amazon River in South America just read about. Ecology also examines the biological
and the Severn River in England, surfers can take long factors, such as the quantity and type of organisms in
rides on the tidal bore. an environment. Ecology studies the relationships and
Spring Tides and Neap Tides. The influence of the moon interactions of the abiotic and biotic aspects of the
on the tides is about twice the influence of environment. The goal is to understand how, through
the sun. The sun has much more gravity relationships and interactions, changes in an environment
but affects the tides less than the moon will affect those organisms in the environment. In marine
because it’s so much farther away. ecology, the four branches of biological oceanography,
Solar and lunar gravity affect the tides chemical oceanography, geological oceanography, and

Lunar Effects on Life
Capt. Albert E. Theberge, NOAA Corps There may not be life on the moon, but there are certainly types of
organisms affected by the moon. As you may recall, the littoral zone is
the sea bottom area that is sometimes, but not always, underwater. This
is the seafloor that the tides cover and uncover daily.
The Ocean Planet

Tide pools harbor organisms adapted to the rise and fall of the
ocean. These can
William Hootkins/Grunion.org
include hardy algae and
crustaceans that can
survive several hours out
of water during low tide.
Other littoral organisms
survive in tide pools –
places that trap water
when the tides recede.
Non-littoral
organisms also have
adaptations related to
The annual tidal cycle triggers spawning in
the tides. Grunion, a
Grunion.
12–15 centimetre/4.7-5.9 Emma Hickerson, FGBNMS
inch fish, congregates at
Tide pools are one example of how lunar night to spawn just after
gravity influences life on earth. the highest spring tide on
the south western beaches
of North America. Taking advantage of the unusually high water, they
deposit their eggs in the sand and return to sea. Although the annual
grunion run is a predictable event enjoyed by beachgoers, scientists still
aren’t sure how the fish know when to come ashore.
Interestingly, it was discovered in 1981 that corals time their
spawning with the tides. The corals release their sperm and eggs into the
water column together during the neap tide when there’s minimal tidal
Corals time their release of sperm and eggs
variation. The calm water appears to benefit reproduction by letting the
into the water during neap tides when there’s
sperm and eggs mix and fertilize more effectively. minimal tidal variation. The calm water
appears to benefit reproduction.
physical oceanography come together. The same sciences A community is a collection of different organisms
apply when you study freshwater ecosystems as well. living and interacting in an ecosystem. This includes
all species and types of organisms. A population is a
ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY group of the same species living and interacting within
Ecologists use specific terms shared by biologists and a community. The interaction is part of the definition
other scientists. You may be familiar with some of these. because sometimes two populations of the same species
However, it’s useful to keep some of the precise meanings live in a single community. An example of this exists off
of these terms in mind as you continue to read this Vancouver Island, Canada. In those waters, orca pods
chapter. live relatively closely together, yet maintain separate
At some level you’re probably familiar with the populations that rarely interact. These pods don’t even
concept of an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a distinct entity interbreed as far as scientists can tell. Therefore, separate
usually with clearly defined physical boundaries, distinct pods would be considered separate populations within the
abiotic conditions, an energy source, and a community of community.
interacting organisms through which energy is transferred. A habitat includes the area and conditions in which
No ecosystem exists entirely in isolation (except under you find an organism. Some species are adapted to or
artificial conditions). The ocean is composed of interacting occur in very specific habitats, whereas others range over a
ecosystems. variety of habitats. Chitons, for example, live in the rocky

intertidal zone, whereas octopuses live in a wide
depth range and in many different parts of a
reef. The chiton has a narrowly defined habitat
compared to the octopus. A microhabitat
exists on a very small scale. For example,
tiny crustaceans and worms live in the spaces
between sand grains on the sea floor.
An organism’s role in its habitat is called
its niche. Very different species can occupy
the same niche. On coral reefs, for example,
cleaner-shrimp and cleaner-fish both survive
by feeding on the parasites and dead or injured
skin of reef fish. To avoid confusing habitat
and niche, think of the habitat as an organism’s
address, and the niche as its job.

ENERGY FLOW AND NUTRIENT CYCLES
The energy flow through the food web affects
an ecosystem by determining how much
energy transfers from one level of organisms
to the next as they consume each other. In all
ecosystems, there are fewer high-level predators
than low-level prey. The amount of primary
production (how much food autotrophs
Shifting Baselines
Oceans cover more than 71 percent of the earth’s surface until relatively recently, has been able to take care of
and profoundly influence all life – they feed people, itself. However, it is now demonstrating that humans
drive weather systems, provide transportation and natural are overtaxing its resources and ability to recover.
resources, and support economies. But, the oceans Unfortunately, today’s society doesn’t realize how dire the
are being steadily degraded in hard-to-notice ways, situation has become – from coral reef death to kelp forest
jeopardizing places of rare beauty and threatening basic overfishing to global fisheries depletion – the problem has
food security for millions. To raise awareness of ocean become serious.
decline and implement solutions to restore our ocean’s lost Although the ocean’s problems are at the global and
vibrancy, society must first recognize how much we’ve ecosystem level, all is not lost. Several prominent marine
already lost. Restoring the oceans to the state they were in biologists and filmmakers have launched a campaign to
a few decades ago will not be enough. The baseline by educate the public about ocean decline. These scientists
which ocean health is measured has drastically changed and organizations believe that the public simply doesn’t
from abundance and beauty, two or three generations understand that the ocean is seriously deteriorating
ago, to a vastly diminished baseline today. because communities accept the degraded health of the
According to the Shifting Baselines Ocean Media ocean as normal.
Project supported by Project AWARE Foundation, a An example of a shifting baseline is the condition of
baseline is a reference point from the past – how things the beaches themselves. Youngsters of all ages used to surf
used to be. If we allow these reference points to shift, we the wild aqua blue, crystal clear waters off California and
lack a standard against which to compare the health of Hawaii without concern. Today, before entering the water
today’s ocean with what it was in the past. The risk is that a tetanus shot and an inquiry into the coliform count are
we eventually accept a currently degraded state as essential prerequisite procedures prior to surfing. But, this
being normal. is accepted practice because the youth of today are not
Shifting baselines has everything to aware of the pristine ocean of yesterday. People today
do with bringing attention to the severity lack a reference point (baseline) for understanding how
of ocean decline. The ocean is vast and much healthier oceans were just a few generations ago.

produce for consumption over a period of
time) shapes the ecosystem. High primary Example of how
production creates the potential for more energy flows through G r e at
W h ite
organisms at high trophic levels (levels of a functioning S h ar k
consumption), and the potential for more ecosystem. K i lle r FOURTH-LEVEL

W h ale CARNIVORES
trophic levels. THIRD-LEVEL
CARNIVORES
The Ocean Planet

Similarly, anything that affects energy
SECOND-LEVEL
flow will also affect the ecosystem. For CARNIVORES
example, if pollution causes a substantial S e al P e n g u in B ir d s

decline in an ecosystem’s primary
S p e rm
consumers, it disrupts energy flow to B u ll W h ale
S h ar k
higher trophic levels. Therefore, even with
PRIMARY
ample primary production the ecosystem CARNIVORES
would lose many of the high-level
organisms in its community. B e n th ic
Energy flows through an ecosystem, B ale e n A n ch o vy
F i sh e s
S q u id
eventually being lost as heat into the W h ale
P r o t o zo an s
water, atmosphere and space. Nutrients, T u b e
A n e m o n e Clam
on the other hand, aren’t lost. Carbon, Co p e p o d s K r i ll
HERBIVORES
nitrogen, phosphorus and other crucial
elements cycle through the earth’s
PRIMARY
ecosystems. The carbon nutrient cycle is Organic/Inorganic PRODUCERS
Decomposed Debris
the basis for most of the biomass in all P h yt o p lan kt o n B act e r i a
ecosystems. As you read earlier, carbon is

fundamental for all life.
A substantial decline in an ecosystem’s primary consumers disrupts energy
flow to high trophic levels. Notice the reduction in the amount and types
of prey available to killer whales. The whale population will suffer in this
ecosystem unless they move on to a more productive area.
G r e at
W h ite
S h ar k
K i lle r FOURTH-LEVEL
The nitrogen nutrient cycle is thought
W h ale CARNIVORES to be more limited in aquatic ecosystems
THIRD-LEVEL
CARNIVORES
than in terrestrial ecosystems. This is
because, as you learned earlier, inorganic
SECOND-LEVEL
CARNIVORES nitrogen must be fixed into organic
S e al
P e n g u in
compounds before organisms can use it.
B ir d s
S p e rm The nitrogen-fixing bacteria that do this live
B u ll W h ale
S h ar k primarily in terrestrial ecosystems. (However,
some scientists now suspect that nitrogen-
PRIMARY
CARNIVORES fixing bacteria may be more common in
marine ecosystems than previously thought.)
S q u id
B e n th ic
Seabird droppings, erosion and runoff
B ale e n A n c h o v y
F is h e s carry organic nitrogen compounds (and
W h ale
phosphorus) from terrestrial environments
P r o t o z o an s
T u b e
A n e m o n e
Clam into the marine environment.
Co p e p o d s K r i ll
HERBIVORES
The ecological significance of nutrient
cycles is usually greater than that of energy
flow. This is because nutrients rather than
Organic/Inorganic PRIMARY energy usually limit how many organisms
Decomposed Debris PRODUCERS
P h y t o p lan k t o n B ac t e r i a can live in a given ecosystem. You can

DENITRIFICATION
V O L C A N IC
P O L L U T IO N F R O M A C T IV IT Y
T R A N SP O R T A T I O N
A N D I N D U ST R Y
L IG H T N IN G
COMBUSTION
A N I M A L WA ST E
A N D D E C A Y
FERTILIZERS
NITROGEN R U N O F F ,
E U T R O P H IC A T IO N
FIXATION A N D SE D I M E N T A T I O N
D I SSO L V E D
U P WE L L I N G
N IT R O G E N
G A S
F I SH WA ST E
Atmospheric nitrogen must be A N D D E C A Y
fixed into other compounds, such A B SO R P T I O N
as nitrate or ammonia, before
organisms can use it. Recent
evidence indicates that nitrogen-
fixing bacteria may be much more
common in marine ecosystems than
scientists first thought.
see this by comparing many warm, tropical marine NEUSTON ECOSYSTEMS

ecosystems with cold, temperate marine ecosystems. The Earlier you learned that the neuston are plankton that
tropical ecosystems generally have more energy (sunlight) live afloat on the sea surface. This community makes up
available, yet oceanic conditions don’t supply as many an ecosystem that’s very thin – only a few millimetres
nutrients to tropical regions. Only few highly productive deep in many instances. Despite this, the neuston form a
marine ecosystems (coral reefs) exist in tropical waters. major ecosystem. This is because it receives the maximum
Temperate coastal waters, by comparison, have less overall sunlight and because it covers about 71 percent of the
sunlight, but receive far more nutrients and produce far earth’s surface. The cyanophyte, diatom and dinoflagellate
more biomass (mass of living organisms). populations – all forms of phytoplankton – in the neuston
ecosystem may be 10,000 times more numerous than
Ecosystems in the Open Sea in the water just a few millimeters deeper. This makes
Let’s look at ecosystems found in the open ocean and the neuston zone an important ecosystem for worldwide
some of the main groups that account for the majority primary productivity.
of marine organisms that live there. You may not think Marine algae are the ocean counterparts of plants,
of these as ecosystems that you would typically see while accounting for as much as 90 percent of the earth’s
diving, and to some extent that’s true. On the other hand, primary productivity and oxygen production. From giant
some of these ecosystems interact closely kelp to phytoplankton, algae are the foundation for all
with coastal ecosystems, and all have marine life. The algae are probably the most significant
important roles in supporting the organisms in understanding the neuston ecosystem.
global ecosystem all life relies on. Diatoms (phylum Bacillariophyta) are common in

Phytoplankton Guide
C h aeto c ero s C h aeto c ero s C o s c in o d is c u s C o s c in o d is c u s
The Ocean Planet

C erati u m C erati u m N o c ti lu c a
Phytoplankton Guide
Zooplankton
Permanent
Is o p o d D o li o lu m A m p h ip o d E u p h au s i d F latw o rm
Si p h o n o p h o ra O i k o p lu era A rro w Wo rm C lad o c era O s trac o d L ep to m ed u s a
C o p ep o d ( s i d e v i ew ) C o p ep o d ( to p v i ew )
Zooplankton
Temporary
C o p ep o d ( larv a) P o ly c h aete Wo rm M eg alo p s L arv a o f C rab Sea U rc h i n L arv a T ro c h o p h o re L arv a N au p li u s L arv a o f B arn ac le
Z o ea L arv a o f C rab B ry o z o a L arv a C y p ri s L arv a B arn ac le T u n i c ate L arv a F is h E g g L arv a G as tro p o d
Although the organisms that make up the neuston ecosystem are some of the smallest creatures in the world’s oceans, they are
also some of the most important. Because you cannot generally see them, they are easy to overlook. It was for this reason that
this community went undiscovered until someone dragged a fine mesh net through the water and examined the contents under a
microscope.
both marine and freshwater environments. There are cell wall made mostly of silica and their olive or yellow-
between 5000 and 50,000 species. They are either free- brown coloration, caused by their primary photosynthetic
floating, attached to the substrate as a thin growth or pigment – chlorophyll. The silica cell wall takes a variety
found in filaments similar to blue-green algae. Because of shapes, depending on the species. Often these include
most are microscopic, they generally go unnoticed. The ribs, pits, pores, tubercles, spines and other features.
two outstanding features of diatoms are the presence of a

Because they’re photosynthesizers, diatoms Budd Riker
are relatively dormant during the winter
months. When sunlight levels rise in the spring,
they photosynthesize, grow and reproduce
rapidly. During peak growth, in two weeks more
than a million diatoms can result from a single
parent diatom. Because of this, diatoms are
thought to account for about 25 percent of all
the photosynthetic biomass on earth. Fish and
other plankton feed on diatoms during these
blooms.
Diatoms are one of the plankton species
that can cause Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs).
Some diatoms produce toxins that become
concentrated in fish and other species during
HABs, and may cause poisoning when people The red tint of certain Dinoflagellates gives harmful algae blooms the name
eat them. “Red Tide.”
Dinoflagellates are the second most productive
group of primary producers (another name for
in their flesh. When a person eats a clam or other shellfish
autotrophs, so called because they are the first, or primary,
with these accumulations, illness and even death may
means by which energy becomes available to life). Of
occur. This condition is called paralytic shellfish poisoning
the approximately 1100 species known, the majority are
(PSP). During summer months in temperate regions,
marine (93 percent). This is a particularly interesting
certain beaches may be closed to clamming if red-tide
group of organisms because they have characteristics
conditions have been observed.
common to both plants and animals. Like other true
Another phenomenon caused by population
plants, the majority contain photosynthetic pigments and
explosions of dinoflagellates is what is commonly (and
can make their own food. Like animals, however, they can
erroneously) referred to as “phosphorescence” of the water
also propel themselves through the water by the use of a
at night. You may see this as tiny whirling flashes at night
long whip-like appendage called a flagellum. Because of
when an oar dips in the water or a powerboat creates a
this, their relationship to other organisms is unclear. Some
wake. This is, in fact, bioluminescence and is caused by
scientists think they’re aligned more closely with animals
a tiny dinoflagellate that can create its own “cold” light
than with plants.
Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually by splitting in
two. Under the right environmental conditions, they
Al Hornsby
can reproduce rapidly, doubling their population with
each division. The result is that they can become the
dominant species in localized plankton assemblages,
which is another form of HAB. This phenomenon results
from a rapid increase (or bloom) in the population of
certain dinoflagellate species that have a red tint and
can drastically reduce your visibility underwater. This is
where HABs get the name “red tide.”
In addition to coloring the water and reducing
visibility, as with diatom HABs, red tides can cause
serious illness and even mortality for other forms of
marine and terrestrial life — even people. Species of
the dinoflagellate genus Gonyaulax produce a
toxin called saxitoxin. During red tides,
this species is so plentiful that filter- Bioluminescence is caused by a tiny dinoflagellate. Many
feeding organisms, such as clams and nocturnal and deep water species use bioluminescence to
oysters, begin to accumulate the toxin attract prey.

when disturbed or agitated, such as by your fins on a NOAA, Ocean Explorer The Sargasso Sea and
night dive. Members of the genus Noctiluca are generally other neustonic ecosystems
responsible for this. around floating debris
The neuston ecosystem is under much recent scrutiny provide another example
because many pollutants appear to affect it profoundly. of how ecosystems interact.
There have been surprisingly few studies comparing the Predatory fish hide under
The Ocean Planet

neuston layers to the water layers below. Those that have Sargassum or debris, feeding
been made find that the first few millimeters to a few on fish and other neustonic
centimeters of water differ substantially from the water organisms that live there.
below. Generally, neuston layers hold significantly more These predators in turn
nutrients and carbon compounds among other substances. provide food for pelagic
Surface tension supports eggs, larvae and microscopic life fish, sharks, dolphins and
on the top film of the water. other large predators.
This isn’t true globally, however. In some places,
photosynthesis and primary productivity are higher
below the neuston ecosystem. One reason may be
photoinhibition, which is exposure to so much sunlight
that it reduces primary productivity. Photoinhibition NOAA, Ocean Explorer
seems to be prevalent in tropical seas. Because there’s little
water to protect neuston organisms, ultraviolet light may
account for some of the photoinhibition. If this is true,
ozone depletion may make photoinhibition worse as even
more UV light makes it to the earth’s surface.
A second factor reducing primary productivity in the
neuston ecosystem may be pollutants. Lead, iron, nickel,
copper and petroleum often concentrate in the neuston
layers, just like beneficial nutrients. How pollutants affect
the neuston ecosystems concerns scientists with respect
to global warming. The ocean may be reducing global
warming by absorbing carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
dissolves from the atmosphere into seawater through the The largest neustonic community is the Sargasso Sea,
neuston layers. Pollutants that affect this may create a which is found in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean.
barrier that slows or stops carbon dioxide (and other gases)
from dissolving into the water below.
Floating debris, whether natural or human-produced, The Continental Shelf
acts as potential shelter and attracts marine life. This
As you learned earlier, the neritic zone consists of the
creates distinct neustonic ecosystems that thrive around
water between the low-tide mark and the edge of the
floating material in the water. The world’s largest floating
continental shelf. This zone can range from only a few to
ecosystem is the Sargasso Sea. Strands of Sargassum sp.
several hundred kilometres/miles wide. It’s a significant
(“sp.” is short for “species”) brown algae accumulate
marine ecosystem because it is the most biologically
in the middle of the North Atlantic gyre (the circular
productive region in the ocean, and one of the zones in
flow of currents in an ocean basin due to the Coriolis
which we do a lot of diving.
effect), floating in massive mats that support a complex
The continental shelf depth seldom exceeds 200
community. This brown algae forms huge drifting rafts
metres/650 feet. This tends to keep nutrients in the
that support entire communities of neuston. Sargassum
shallow, photic zone and helps retain heat from the
mat organisms include tiny fish of many species,
sun. By being near the shoreline, in many regions the
crustaceans and other organisms. These include species
neritic zone benefits from nutrients in river runoff also.
you normally associate with ecosystems close to the
Nutrients rising with currents from deep water at the shelf
shoreline. On the other hand, the Sargassum fish is a
edges also make this zone biologically rich. All of these
species of frogfish adapted specifically to this ecosystem. It
factors combine to make coastal ocean ecosystems highly
blends in with the Sargassum, preying on small crustaceans
productive, as well as excellent dive sites.
and fish.

NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE

ACTIVE PASSIVE
MARGIN MARGIN
The neritic zone is the water column above the continental shelf. The North American plate has
a wide eastern continental shelf and, therefore, a larger neritic zone than the west coast.
UPWELLING upwelling brings nutrients from deep water to shallow,

Upwelling plays a significant role in the biological more productive depths. This is especially significant
productivity of coastal ocean ecosystems. This is because with respect to nutrients that sink to the relatively less
NE
ZO ITIC
IC NER
PE LAG H ig
h T
L o w id e
IC
EAN
T id LITTORAL
e
OC (INTERTIDAL)
F
EL
C SH
PHOTIC EL AGI
ZONE EU EPIP
Because the continental shelf is PH
OT IC
DY IC LAG
relatively shallow and near the SP ft OPE
HO 7 0 m
/2 3 0 MES
L
TI 0 ft
YA
shoreline, the neritic zone benefits C 2 0 0 m

/6 5
TH
0 0 ft C
from nutrients in runoff from the shore. m /2 0 AGI
PEL
0
BA
6 0 t
m /3 0 0 0 f HY
1 0 0 0 BAT
Nutrients also rise with currents from
APHOTIC ZONE
deep water. The combination of light

E
N
t
0 0 0 f
penetration, shallow depth and high m /1 3 IC
O
4 0 0 0 LAG
L
LPE
Z
A
nutrients make the continental shelf SSA

S
ABY
YS
IC
B
high in aquatic life and one of the

H
A
T
N
0 0 ft E
main ecosystems visited by divers. 6 0 0
0 m /
2 0 0
IC
B
AG
AL PEL
HYD
L
A
D
A
H
0 0 ft
3 6 0
0 m /
1 1 0 0

C ali f o rn i a
C u rren t
U p w elli n g C an ary
The Ocean Planet

C u rren t
U p w elli n g
So m all
B en g u ela C u rren t
P eru C u rren t U p w elli n g
W. A u s trali a
C u rren t C u rren t U p w elli n g
U p w elli n g U p w elli n g
Upwelling brings nutrients from the deep ocean to the shallow and well-lit continental shelf.
productive bottom in the deep ocean abyssal zone. ecosystems live in the upper photic zone, instead of the
Wind causes upwelling by creating a current that bottom as in the open sea. Salt-tolerant plants can grow
pushes surface water near shore out to sea or down the in the well-lit shallows, providing shelter. These plants act
coast. As the surface water flows away, deeper water flows as the foundation for several different types of ecosystems
up to replace it, bringing with it nutrients. In most areas, that cannot exist in the open ocean. The combination of
you’ll readily notice an upwelling when it’s happening. nutrients, ample light and shelter make coastal ecosystems
If the upwelling has just started, typically conditions diverse and rich. While you don’t commonly find large
are clear and cool. Sometimes you see signs of related organisms in some coastal ecosystems, they provide a
biological activity, such as schools of feeding baitfish. A haven for juveniles of open-ocean species. Mangrove
few days after an upwelling, often the visibility drops swamps, for example, contribute to the health of coral
due to increased plankton growth from the nutrients in reefs in this way.
the water. Human activities have wide-ranging potential effects
The role of upwelling is unmistakable because areas on coastal ecosystems. The effects are both varied and
with the highest upwelling activity also have the highest immediately at hand. Historically, people have always
nutrient levels and generally, the highest productivity. tended to live near water, putting us in proximity with
Examples include the waters offshore of Peru, the Bering these ecosystems. This means that many of our activities
Sea, the Grand Banks in the Atlantic, and the deep water potentially affect them, but it’s not always obvious.
surrounding Antarctica. Agriculture, for example, can alter these ecosystems
when excess fertilizer washes seaward with rain runoff.
The variety of human activities is so wide we can’t always
Coastal Ecosystems anticipate all the consequences to ecosystems.
Coastal ecosystems are not the ones we think of most Because the effects are immediately at hand, coastal
commonly when we think about diving. However, coastal ecosystems may experience the consequences more
ecosystems are important because of their interaction with severely. Pollutants, for example, often reach coastal
other ecosystems. And, while they’re not typical dive sites, ecosystems in concentrated form. Open-ocean ecosystems,
you may find yourself diving in some of these. by contrast, benefit from a diluting effect. Some deep,
Coastal ecosystems are generally highly productive open-ocean marine ecosystems are so far from human
for similar reasons that continental shelf ecosystems activities that human effects have been minimal (at least
are. They benefit from nutrient-rich runoff from land. so far).
Because they’re shallow, the benthic organisms in these

Upwelling and Survival
One of the most famous stories of survival is that of Ernest one of the richest areas on earth. Marine mammals,
Shackleton, Antarctic explorer. Shackleton arrived in birds, and fish would provide Shackleton and his men
Antarctica with a crew of 28 on his ship the Endurance with the food they needed.
in late 1914. His plan was to cross Antarctica on foot At first they caught seals and penguins for food.
with dog-sled teams. Antarctica, history would show, But, as winter came on, the seals and penguins became
had other plans. scarce. From their precarious position, Shackleton’s
Through January 1915, Endurance picked its way men witnessed the seasonal ebb and flow of polar
through the Antarctic ice pack, trying to make landfall. ecosystems. Antarctica explodes with life in the spring
Shackleton sought the shortest route across the continent. and summer, yet becomes nearly devoid of it in the
However, with winter approaching, the ice pack winter.
blocked Endurance repeatedly. The pack grew thicker Shackleton’s crew remained stranded through
and, despite repeated attempts to progress, on January 1915. In October, the men began finding seals and
19, 1915, Endurance was frozen solidly in the ice penguins again, but the ice flows crushed Endurance on
pack. Shackleton knew he and his men would be there the 27th. Shackleton moved his men over the ice on foot
through the long winter. The ice pack would not melt and by boat, making it to barren Elephant Island on 16
again until spring. April, 1916. After several weeks of planning, Shackleton
At first, the crew lived in Endurance, consuming the and five other men set sail in a small, open boat for
supplies brought for the expedition. A shrewd leader, South Georgia Island, the closest human habitation.
Shackleton kept his crew continuously busy with various It was more than 1289 kilometres (795 miles) away
projects. He realized that they were better off being too across one of the roughest seas on earth. They arrived
busy to worry or entertain doubts. on May 10. They reached the island’s whaling station
Thinking long-term, Shackleton realized that his more than a week later.
provisions, while ample, would not likely last the many It took until 30 August for Shackleton to outfit ships
months they faced. Having his men hunt for food would and return to Elephant Island for the rest of his men. He
keep them preoccupied and bolster their food supplies. found that every one had survived the 105 days since
However, they were in barren Antarctica, a land without his departure. They had existed primarily on seal and
forests or plants. Shackleton knew, however, that as penguin meat – bounty from one of the world’s most
barren as Antarctica appears to the eye, it is a rich productive ecosystems.
ecosystem. Far from being devoid of life, its seas are
One particular concern with coastal ecosystems is river entering the sea.
eutrophication, which is an overabundance of nutrients Estuaries tend to trap and accumulate runoff
that causes an ecological imbalance. Eutrophication is sediments, so they’re rich with nutrients and biologically
a stimulus to some species and a detriment to others. productive. Most of the major North American rivers
Fertilizer runoff can dump excess nutrients in the water, flowing into the Atlantic flow first into estuaries. This is
stimulating excessive algae growth or algae blooms. When why the North Atlantic doesn’t have as much sediment
the algae die, degradation of biomass consumes available flowing in to it as other ocean basins with comparable
oxygen. The depletion of oxygen kills fish and other sea rivers. Unfortunately, this also makes estuaries especially
life. Although there are other causes of harmful algae sensitive to eutrophication because the same process traps
blooms (HABs), eutrophication is the most prominent. excess nutrients such as fertilizer runoff.
Estuaries act as a dumping ground, filter, and
ESTUARIES absorber of nutrients (and pollutants). Some ecologists
Estuaries exist where the tides meet rivers. They’re not refer to estuaries as the “kidneys” of the biosphere because
found where all rivers enter the sea, but they’re common of their cleansing function. The continuous replenishment
where the tidal range is high. This allows high tide to push of nutrients results in ecosystems with high primary
well up river, often flooding large land areas. productivity from algae and halophytes – saltwater plants.
Estuaries may be large, complex deltas These, in turn, support a large community of organisms.
(which you read about earlier) with Some factors limit productivity in estuaries. One
multiple inlets, lagoons and islets or is that organisms in this ecosystem must tolerate wide
they may be simple wide stretches of salinity ranges. The osmotic stress – when changes in

salinity make water diffuse into or out of an aquatic water and nutrients, making them excellent nurseries. By
organism – caused by the rising and falling tides mixing providing a rich haven, larvae and juveniles of open-ocean
with fresh water proves fatal to many organisms. You species can elude predation and grow before venturing
may recall that some organisms can tolerate wide salinity out to sea. Estimates show that estuary ecosystems serve
ranges, but most can’t. Therefore, variations in salinity as nurseries for more than 75 percent of commercial
tend to reduce the variety of species that live in estuaries. fish species. This makes estuaries critical habitats for the
The Ocean Planet

The flowering plants in marine habitats are terrestrial fishing industry as well as the worldwide health of the
species with adaptations for living in saltwater estuaries, oceans.
mud flats and wave-swept rocky shores. While there are Estuaries contribute to the productivity of adjacent
perhaps a quarter of a million plant species on land, so far marine ecosystems in at least two ways. First, surviving
scientists have only identified about 200 that live in the juveniles migrate from the estuaries as they grow and
marine environment. mature. As a rule of thumb, in aquatic systems, the
NOAA/National Estuarine Research Reserve Collection NOAA/National Estuarine Research Reserve Collection
Estuaries act as a natural dumping ground, filter and absorber of nutrients (and pollutants). The continuous replenishment of nutrients
results in ecosystems with high primary productivity. Estuaries can range from simple ecosystems such as a wide stretch of river
entering the sea to large, complex deltas with multiple inlets, lagoons and islets.
Marine plants can be divided into two basic types: bigger an organism is, the safer it is because there are
submergent (plants that live entirely underwater) and fewer predators that could successfully attack and eat
emergent (plants that live with their roots submerged, it. The estuaries therefore contribute to productivity
but with a significant portion of the plant growing above by increasing the number of individuals that survive
the surface). Considering the small number of species, the small, hazardous larval and juvenile stages. Second,
however, marine plants play a surprisingly important estuaries provide a steady stream of nutrients to adjacent
role in the health of the ocean. Only two groups have marine ecosystems, while trapping sediment and other
successfully invaded the marine environment: seagrasses materials in runoff from rain and storms. This contributes
and mangroves. Seagrasses are an example of submergent to productivity by providing the nutrients, yet reducing
plants and mangroves are an example of emergent plants. eutrophication and other damage were the unfiltered
These species are so successful that they generally create runoff to reach the open sea.
their own unique habitat wherever you find them.
Both submergent and emergent plants contribute SALT MARSHES
food to the ocean’s biosphere. Both produce oxygen, Salt marshes exist in estuaries and along the coasts. They
though emergent plants generally release oxygen into the grow where there’s flat, gently sloping, nutrient-rich
air rather than into seawater. In addition, marine plants sediment washed by the tides. They’re normally associated
provide important habitats for other marine organisms. with estuaries because rivers provide a constant nutrient
Estuaries provide a region of shallow, sheltered source.

Conditions within a salt marsh vary, which affects the NOAA Restoration Center, SE Region, Mark Sramek
types of organisms inhabiting different areas within the
ecosystem. The upper marsh includes the areas only rarely
flooded by the tides. The lower marsh, however, includes
areas flooded by salt water as a regular part of the tidal
cycle. In most areas, that means twice daily. Consequently,
lower-marsh organisms must tolerate significantly more
osmotic stress than species with niches in the upper marsh.
Salt water is the greatest challenge to plants living in
salt marshes and other coastal ecosystems. As terrestrial
organisms, the vast majority of plants take in fresh water
supplied directly or indirectly by rainfall. Exposure to salt
water, however, dehydrates most plants. This is because
the low water concentration in seawater causes the fresh
water in the plant to diffuse outward. Marine plants,
Salt marsh plants include Spartina sp., known commonly as

cordgrass. A halophyte, it concentrates salts in its roots so that
the concentration exceeds that of seawater. This causes water
to diffuse into the roots instead of out. Salt glands on the leaves
Salt G ras s and stem excrete excess salt.
H i g h es t Sp ri n g T i d es
Additionally, Spartina concentrates salts in its roots, so
M ean H i g h T i d e
that the salt concentration exceeds that of seawater. This
causes water to diffuse into the roots instead of out. Salt
P i c k lew eed glands on the leaves and stem excrete excess salt.
M ars h G ras s
Plants in the upper marsh don’t have to deal with
M ean L o w
T id e seawater twice daily. In addition, the inflow of fresh water
dilutes salt water, reducing osmotic stress. Organisms
Su rf g ras s C o rd g ras s thriving in this part of the ecosystem adapt differently.
One example is Salicornia sp., or pickleweed. Pickleweed
handles excess salt by storing it in sacrificial leaves. When
Cross-section of a typical temperate salt marsh community, the salt load accumulates to a certain point, the leaf drops
showing common submergent and emergent aquatic vegetation.
away, taking the salt with it. Salicornia grows another leaf
to take its place.
on the other hand, resist dehydration through several Halophytes dominate the salt marsh, yet they are
adaptations, such as waxy coverings or other protection not food for many organisms. Salt marsh plants are tough
that reduces water loss and prevents dehydration. Thanks and salty, making them unsuitable for most herbivores.
to these adaptations, halophytes occupy a niche with little Their root systems hold sediment, which, along with
competition from other plants, and become the dominant the accumulation of dead halophytes, creates dense mats
species. of humus. Humus is any mass of partially decomposed
Halophytes in the lower marsh deal with constant organic matter that makes up a portion of soil or
osmotic stress. The hollow reed Spartina sp. (i.e., any sediments. In the salt marsh, humus provides habitats for
of several reeds of the genus Spartina; “sp.” is short huge communities of invertebrates, water birds, juvenile
for “species”), called cordgrass, is a good example of fish, larva, eggs and other organisms.
halophyte adaptation to this part of the ecosystem.
Cordgrass has stomata, which are pores in MANGROVE SWAMPS
its leaves through which it breathes. The Mangrove trees form mangrove swamps, which you’ve
stomata allow Spartina to draw oxygen already learned are among the most important coastal
into its submerged parts, some of marine ecosystems, especially when adjacent to coral reefs.
it oxygenating the anaerobic mud. Although mangrove swamps are smelly, muddy, full of

mosquitoes, and generally unappealing, their tangled root OAR/NURP/NOAA
systems provide havens for many small organisms. Their
murky waters provide nutrients for microorganisms that
are in turn food for juvenile animals.
The combination of protection and food gives young
animals a better chance for survival than they would have
The Ocean Planet

in the open sea. This is the first reason why mangrove
swamps are important to the environment: they act as
nurseries for adjacent marine ecosystems like coral reefs.
Many of the species they nurture are commercially and
economically important.
You read earlier that a second reason mangrove
swamps are important to the environment is that they filter
runoff water. By trapping runoff sediment, the mangroves
protect sensitive offshore ecosystems (coral reefs in Red mangroves (Rhizopora mangale) grow above the waterline
particular) that would be hurt or killed by settling sediment on stilt-like roots. They obtain fresh water by a form of reverse
osmosis, excluding seawater through their adapted roots.
or excess nutrients in the water. Today, many ecologists
consider mangroves transitional ecosystems – places where
marine and terrestrial ecosystems interact with and This is an example of reverse osmosis, which is the process
contribute to the health of each other. of transporting water through a semipermeable membrane
A third benefit of mangrove swamps is that they against the natural osmotic pressure gradient. This is a form
hold sediments in place. They slow waves and reduce of active transport, which you may recall is the process of
erosion while retaining the nutrients used by organisms a cell moving materials from areas of low concentration to
living there. Mangrove swamps are particularly good areas of high concentration.
for protecting shorelines from storm erosion by slowing Mangroves of the genus Avicennia (black mangroves)
down and dampening storm waves. Although a hurricane, have roots that grow in the sediment below the waterline.
typhoon or tsunami will still cause some erosion through These mangroves aerate their roots with snorkel-like tubes
a mangrove swamp, the sediment loss and erosion are called pneumatophores, which carry air from above the
negligible or at least significantly lessened compared to the surface to the roots. Some Avicennia eliminate salt through
effects on unprotected shores. sacrificial leaves, like the pickleweed. Others have special
The fate of mangrove swamps (or just “mangroves” salt glands in their leaves.
for short) has become an important issue related to urban White mangroves, such as Laguncularia sp., lack such
expansion and bioproductivity. To those unfamiliar with specialized adaptations. They’re very saltwater tolerant, but
their crucial role as a haven where juvenile organisms get a
chance to survive to maturity, mangroves may appear to be NOAA Restoration Center
useless swampland. Consequently, at one time developers
filled in mangroves and built housing and office buildings.
An even bigger threat is the conversion of mangroves into
shrimp mariculture farms. The concern is that the loss of
mangrove swamps is a loss to adjacent ocean ecosystems.
Documented effects include damage or destruction of coral
reefs to the decline of food fish populations.
Mangrove trees are not a single species, but actually
a group of more than 50 species from several families of
halophytic trees and shrubs. In many respects, mangroves
occupy similar niches as the halophytes that characterize
salt marshes, but they’re bigger, tougher and found in
tropical climates.
Red mangroves, Rhizopora sp., grow above the The roots of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) grow in the
waterline on stilt-like roots. This allows oxygen to reach the sediment below the waterline. Tubes called pneumatophores act as
snorkels to provide air to the roots in the muck. The trees eliminate
roots. Rhizopora obtains fresh water by filtering seawater
salt through special glands in their leaves.
through its adapted roots, which exclude the salt.

NOAA Restoration Center Seagrasses are the only submergent plants, meaning
they live entirely underwater except during rare, very low
tides. Some species live as deep as 30 metres/100 feet. You
may find seagrasses growing as members of a mangrove
or salt marsh ecosystem. More commonly, though,
seagrass grows in colonies spread across the bottom like
underwater pastures, sometimes adjacent to or in between
coral reef. Their root systems intertwine, forming a mat
below the sediment. While other coastal ecosystems may
not be typical places to dive, some seagrass “pastures”
often provide interesting places to snorkel because they
have abundant life and reasonably clear water.
Seagrasses do not need to have a freshwater source.
Unlike most halophytes, seagrasses have no means of
White mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) lack specialized extracting fresh water from seawater. Seagrasses have an
adaptations. They’re very saltwater tolerant, but thrive high on
the tide line where they don’t need special root adaptations.
Bob Wohlers
thrive high on the tide line where they don’t need special
root adaptations. These mangroves receive sufficient
freshwater runoff to survive.
SEAGRASSES
Seagrass ecosystems are similar to other halophyte-based
ecosystems in that they stabilize sediments and provide
shelter and habitats for other organisms. However,
seagrasses differ from other halophytes in several
important ways that make them and their ecosystems
distinct.
Seagrasses grow in underwater pastures, sometimes spreading
across vast areas of the sea bottom. Their root systems intertwine,
Mr. Ben Mieremet, Senior Advisor OSD, NOAA
forming a mat that helps to retain and stabilize the sediment.
Most species release pollen into the current to reproduce, much
like terrestrial plants release pollen into the wind.
internal salinity the same as seawater, eliminating

any need for it. The water surrounding them provides an
endless supply of all they need. Seagrasses extract oxygen
from the water and have internal air canals. Most species
even release pollen into the current to reproduce, much
like terrestrial plants release pollen into the wind.
Because of these differences, seagrass ecosystems differ
from other halophyte-based ecosystems. They do not need
to have a freshwater source and they can exist in deep
water. Unlike most halophytes, seagrasses are edible and
provide food for ecosystem inhabitants. They are heavily
grazed by microbes, invertebrates, fish, turtles and even
manatees and dugongs.
Mangroves are crucial ecosystems in
the subtropics and tropics. In addition
to their function as fish nurseries and
sediment filters, they protect coastlines
from storm damage and erosion.

R o c k L ic e
P eri w i n k les
The Ocean Planet

L i m p ets
R o c k B arn ac les
TIDAL
UPPER INTER L i m p ets
C h i to n s
TERTIDAL M u s s els
MIDDLE IN
A lg ae an d
Seaw eed G o o s en ec k
B arn ac les
TE RTIDAL
LOWER IN
Intertidal ecosystems.
A n em o n es
U rc h i n s
Starf i s h
Intertidal Zones limpets are examples of organisms adapted to life in the

Ecosystems in the world’s intertidal zones exist in areas supralitttoral zone.
that may be above the waterline at times. Other portions The rest of the littoral zone (the area between high
of intertidal zones reach depths of about 10 metres/33 and low tide) faces similar challenges. However, life here
feet. These are ecosystems you swim through when shore isn’t left above the surface for extended periods like the
diving, or in which you can spend an entire shallow dive. supralittoral zone. Organisms in littoral ecosystems also
In many places, there’s a distinct but gradual transition face the challenges of drying out, thermal stress and
you’ll notice as you swim through the intertidal zones to water motion. Progressing seaward, the environment
the deeper ecosystems beyond. becomes less stressful with respect to drying out and
The supralittoral zone, you recall, is the area thermal stress, though waves and surge remain challenges.
only submerged during the highest tides. The greatest Many supralittoral organisms also thrive here, along with
challenges facing organisms that live in supralittoral seaweeds, anemones and mussels.
ecosystems are drying and thermal stress. A constant spray The lowest part of the littoral zone is rarely exposed
of seawater that evaporates also results in high salt levels. to air – only at extremely low tides. With ample water,
Organisms with habitats in the supralittoral zone nutrients and sunlight, this is a highly productive region
have adaptations that help them retain moisture. Unlike in most coastal ecosystems. One challenge to life here,
many marine organisms, they can either obtain oxygen therefore, is massive competition.
from the air or store sufficient oxygen in their tissues to
BEACHES
endure many hours out of the water. Additionally, they
need to be hardy enough to withstand periodic motion To the untrained eye, the typical sandy beach appears
and pounding by waves. Barnacles, periwinkles and nearly devoid of life. It looks almost like a desert, with

H y d r o id
The interaction between water motion and
the meiofauna provides the second way that
beaches affect other marine ecosystems.
G as t r o t r i c h
Co p e p o d The physical and organic processes in the
beach ecosystem break down organic
and inorganic materials. This makes
the beach a giant filter that processes
G n at h o s t o m u li d compounds from runoff to the sea or
washed up from the sea.
The next time you’re diving
from a beach to visit a reef or other
structure, swim out into the sandy area
K in o r h y n c h
R o tife r and look closely. With patience and by
developing your observation skills, you’ll
begin to notice an incredible diversity that
used to be invisible to you.
Ci li at e
Kelp and Seaweed
Ne m at o d e Ecosystems
“Seaweed” refers to a diverse group of red, green and
Beach ecosystems include worms, mollusks and fish that live in
brown algae, sometimes called macro algae. All of these
the submerged beach sand. The organisms living among the provide the bases for ecosystems among their stipes,
sand grains, while tiny, are so diverse that about a third of all holdfasts and blades. Among these, kelp ecosystems are
known animal phyla have representatives in the meiofauna. probably the most diverse and directly relevant to diving.
You find kelp forests globally in cool water. This is
only an occasional shell or sea star. It’s not common to because they require the nutrients found in cool oceans.
dive from a beach where there’s no reef, wreck or other The richest and most productive kelp ecosystems exist
structure at hand. This is because underwater, like at the in coastal waters with upwellings. In clear water with
surface, the beach appears devoid of life. ample sunlight and nutrients, giant kelp (Macrocystis
The reality is that above and below water, beaches are
rich and productive ecosystems. They also have important Bob Wohlers
roles that affect other marine ecosystems.
Sand protects the coastline. As a wave comes ashore,
it picks up sand. Each sand grain dissipates a miniscule
portion of wave energy. That portion times billions and
billions of sand grains reduces the forces that wear away
the coastline. This is the first way that beaches affect
ecosystems. They reduce sedimentation caused by coastal
erosion.
Beach ecosystems are rich in organisms living on the
organic material in the sand mix. Complex organisms,
including worms, mollusks and fish live in the submerged
beach sand. The meiofauna – benthic organisms that live
in the spaces between sand grains – are so diverse that
the community of a single beach ecosystem could take
years to catalog. About a third of all known
animal phyla have representatives in the
meiofauna. Additionally, algae and The fastest growing ALGA known, giant kelp (Macrocystis
other nonanimal organisms live among pyrifera) can reach 60 metres/200 feet) in length. It provides
the sand grains. a lush habitat and supports or is an integral part of some of the
most biologically productive ecosystems.

Budd Riker Of the 1500 species of brown algae, the largest
and most impressive are the various species of kelp.
Kelp species have holdfasts, stipes, and pneumatocysts.
Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) can grow more than 30
centimetres/12 inches per day and reach the surface from
24 metres/ 80 feet deep. Kelp is important because it is
The Ocean Planet

the foundation for many temperate coastal ecosystems,
much as coral is the foundation for many tropical marine
ecosystems. Among other locations, kelp forests dominate
the coasts of British Columbia, California, Baja Mexico,
much of the Mediterranean, and New Zealand.
Because it depends on sunlight, cool water, and
nutrients, kelp responds noticeably to environmental
changes. During El Niño events, for example, the coastal
water temperatures in Southern California rise. This
often causes massive die offs of kelp, disrupting the local
ecosystems for a year or more.
Kelp ecosystems provide a clear example of why
it’s important to study ecology, not simply individual
organisms. For example, until protected, in some areas
the sea otter, which is a predator common to kelp forests,
was hunted nearly to extinction in some areas for its fur.
Amazingly, in these areas the kelp began to die off rapidly.
It turns out that while few organisms eat kelp, one
Brown algae, such as giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), are
more structurally complex than other algae. Anchored to the
that does is the sea urchin. These echinoderms graze
bottom by holdfasts, kelp stipes reach towards the surface and on the rubbery holdfasts that anchor the kelp. Sea
have blades buoyed by pneumatocysts. urchins are also one of the sea otter’s primary foods. The
energy required by a mammal living in cool seawater is
considerable, so the average sea otter eats a substantial
pyrifera) can reach 60 metres/200 feet long, providing
number of sea urchins.
habitats for a substantial ecosystem. Kelp forests and other
Killing the sea otters disrupted the kelp forest’s
seaweed-based ecosystems are among the most biologically
ecological balance by removing the sea urchin’s chief
productive. Their primary production exceeds that of
predator. This allowed the sea urchin population to rise
terrestrial forests and is almost equal to that of coral reefs.
relatively unchecked. More sea urchins meant more
Members of phylum Phaeophyta, commonly called
grazing on kelp holdfasts. In the end, the sea urchins ate
brown algae, are more structurally complex than other
the kelp faster than it could grow. This is an excellent
algae. Many species of brown algae have holdfasts, blades,
example of the interdependence that exists within an
leathery flexible stipes and gas=filled pneumatocysts.
ecosystem. It shows that each organism contributes to a
Holdfasts anchor them to rock much as roots anchor
balance that allows life to thrive there.
terrestrial plants (but holdfasts are not roots because they
don’t carry nutrients). The blades are the phaeophyte
equivalent of leaves. Many species live in the littoral zone, Coral Reef Ecosystems
so their stipes – the equivalent of stems – bend easily Of all the earth’s ecosystems, few compare to the coral reef.
to resist breakage by waves. To keep the blades close to Most scientists believe they are the most taxonomically
the surface and sun, many species have pneumatocysts. diverse ecosystems in the ocean. The Central-South
Pneumatocysts are natural gas-filled float structures that Pacific area between Papua New Guinea and the Sulu
lift the algae off the bottom. The blades also resist drying and Celebes Seas has the world’s highest marine species
out, which helps them when stranded partially or wholly diversity. More than 2000 species of fish are known, with
above surface during low tide. Brown algae get their new species discovered every year. Scientists think corals
distinctive olive-green/brown color from a pigment called and coral reefs originated here because the further you go
fucoxanthin. from this area, the less diversity you find on coral reefs.

E u ro p e
E u ro p e
A s ia
A s ia
In d ia
In d ia
A f ri c a
A f ri c a
A u s trali a
A u s trali a The area between
Papua New Guinea
and the Sulu and
Celebes Seas has the
world’s highest marine
species diversity. More
than 500 species of
SpSp ececi esi es D D i v i ers

v ersi tyi ty
coral are known.
0 1 0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0
0 1 0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0
While supporting immense diversity, coral reef overgrowing them. Coral reefs are so sensitive to this
ecosystems are also fragile. For a couple of decades now, that it has been documented, for example, that cutting
scientists, divers and others familiar with coral have trees for lumber on the interior of an island can destroy
been worried about the health of these ecosystems. The surrounding coral. This is because without the trees to
conditions coral requires for life are narrow and specific. hold the soil, more sediment runs off into the ocean when
It lives in clear water so that dinoflagellates (called it rains. The lesson is that we have to be cautious; human
zooxanthellae) coexisting in the polyps have light for activities that seem remote and unrelated to an ecosystem
photosynthesis. It also needs water that’s in moderate can, in fact, have tremendous effects there.
motion to prevent sediments from accumulating on Besides eutrophication, thermal stress threatens
the polyps. Particulate matter can clog and smother the coral reef ecosystems. A concern is that global warming
polyps. may raise temperatures above coral’s survival threshold.
Another threat comes from sedimentation resulting from
Coral ecosystems also require water that’s relatively free coastal dredging and construction. This causes sediment to
of nutrients. This may seem odd considering the high accumulate on the polyps more quickly than water motion
productivity of this ecosystem. However, coral ecosystems can remove it. Coral diseases seem to be more common.
efficiently pass on and preserve organic material. The These are “attacks” by fungi, cyanophytes, bacteria and
lack of nutrients in the water actually protects coral from other competitive algae damaging and displacing corals.
competitive organisms, such as species of algae. Scientists are still determining the likely sources and
This is why eutrophication is one of the biggest causes for many of these.
threats to coral ecosystems. A rise in water nutrient Regardless of the specific threat, it’s important to
levels allows competitive algae to overgrow and smother apply the principles of ecology to the overall picture.
coral colonies. It also allows plankton to grow, reducing The concern isn’t for the coral alone, but the entire coral
water clarity and the amount of sunlight reaching the ecosystem. Just as the loss of sea otters threatens kelp,
polyps. To some extent, these are natural the loss of the corals threatens other organisms in the
processes, but over the last several decades, ecosystem.
eutrophication levels have been rising. Parrotfish, for example, feed on coral. If the coral
Correspondingly, many reefs once dies, the parrotfish will dwindle as they lose their primary
dominated by corals now have algae food source. Predators that feed on the parrotfish may

similarly suffer. Other organisms will not survive because Marine ecosystems in the Arctic face the challenges
the competitive algae don’t provide the same habitat as a of reduced sunlight under the ice and water that’s barely
coral reef. The decline of coral is likely to have a domino above freezing. For these reasons, life is comparatively
effect throughout not just the coral ecosystem but the scarce under the permanent ice cap. Species that do live in
entire marine ecosystem. Ultimately, that means the these conditions have special adaptations. These include
loss of coral will affect the global ecosystem in ways that antifreezing compounds in their blood and extremely low
The Ocean Planet

ecologists are still trying to determine. metabolisms.
Polar Ecosystems At the edge of the cap, however, life intensifies during
the warmer months. As the sun melts ice in the spring,
Because of their nutrient-rich water, the oceans at
water flows off the ice, sinking into deep water. Warm
both poles are among the earth’s most productive
currents from the south interact with the cold water at the
seas. The extreme cold and darkness of winter reduce
continental shelf edges. This process churns up nutrients
bioproductivity, but productivity during the warm, long
from the shelf bottom.
days of summer more than offsets the winter lull. Every
Extremely high productivity occurs along an arc in
species of great whale and many other marine mammals
the North Pacific and across the North Atlantic from April
feed in the polar regions. These are the only seas capable
to August. These waters support massive fisheries, marine
of supporting large populations of these energy-hungry
mammals and other organisms. This ecosystem flourishes
giants. While coral reefs are characterized by high diversity
from the nutrients churned up from the bottom.
of relatively small populations, the polar seas are the
opposite. They have low diversity but high populations.
THE ANTARCTIC
For these reasons, a growing number of divers visit the
poles at some point in their diving careers. Antarctica has a more extreme climate than the Arctic.
This is partially because the seasons in the southern
THE ARCTIC hemisphere are more extreme than in the northern
hemisphere. However, this is also because the Antarctic
The Arctic Circle consists of a ring of shallow continental
differs geographically from the Arctic. Antarctica is a
shelf that’s unbroken except for the Bering Straight and
the upper North Atlantic. The top of the earth itself,
however, is a deep basin holding the Arctic Ocean within
this ring. Much of this sea is permanently frozen.
The southern ocean surrounding Antarctica’s continental shelf is

the world’s deepest ocean. The continental shelf area is nutrient
rich, making it one of the most biologically productive places on
earth.
continent, not a frozen sea. It’s also not enclosed by the

continental shelves of other continents, but has its own
The Arctic Circle consists of shallow continental shelf that’s continental shelf. The world’s deepest and broadest ocean
unbroken except for the Bering Straight and the upper North
Atlantic. Much of it is permanently frozen.
ring surrounds the Antarctic. For these reasons, the

Be an Educated Consumer
World populations are crazy projectaware.org to download or order the most recent
for seafood and are eating it in version.
record numbers. According to the When buying seafood, look for eco-labels such as
World Resources Institute, Dolphin Friendly or Marine Stewardship Council. The
consumption of fish and fishery Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) has developed an
products has risen by 240 percent since 1960. That environmental standard for sustainable and well-managed
equates to about 91 million tons of seafood consumed fisheries. This designation rewards environmentally
yearly – more than beef and poultry combined. responsible fishery management practices. The label
So, what’s the problem? According to the United ensures consumers that the product has not contributed
Nations (UN) approximately 70 percent of global fish to overfishing. Listings of MSC labeled products can be
populations are now depleted, overfished or on the brink found on the internet.
of being overfished. Pollution, habitat destruction and Ask your local supermarkets and restaurants if they
overfishing (fishing faster than a population can replenish) stock seafood with sustainable labels. If not, or they
all contribute to this dramatic decline. Major shifts in do not know what you are talking about, educate and
ocean temperature, such as El Niño events and decadal encourage them to add sustainable species to their
oscillations also contribute to declines in fish stocks – product line. Your consumer power can influence local
particularly when management practices do not take this businesses.
into account. Don’t assume that farmed seafood is always an
But, it’s not just the targeted seafood that’s at risk. environmentally friendly alternative. Aquaculture may
Bycatch – a result of commercial fishing practices – sound like the solution to overfishing, but it’s not without its
ensnares millions of non-target fish species as well as sea problems. Depending on the species farms can introduce
turtles, sea birds and sharks each year via hooks, lines or increase waste, toxins, disease and chemicals into
and nets. This unwanted catch is seldom reported, but is the natural environment. In addition, carnivorous species
discarded back into the ocean. Scientists estimate that like salmon and shrimp require an unsustainable amount
27 million tons of bycatch – nearly one third of the total of fish as food to reach marketable size. One pound of
world fish catch, goes unreported. And the International farmed salmon, for example, requires from one to two
Whaling Commission reports that these numbers include kilograms/two to five pounds of ocean fish as food. By
between 65,000 and 80,000 whales, dolphins, seals knowing your seafood source you can use sustainable
and other marine mammals. seafood guides and eco-labels to guide your decisions.
Seafood is vital to more than 200 million people On the other hand, farmed oysters and mussels are
who depend on fisheries for both nutrition and their environmentally better choices than wild caught ones.
livelihood. But, fish population declines can also alter Stay tuned in to fisheries management issues
the health of marine environments around the world. As and support initiatives that improve fisheries through
consumers and divers there are many things we can do responsible management, conservation, fishing practices
to contribute to solutions. We have the power to help and fishing gear. Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs), for
conserve underwater environments, improve management example, are a fishing gear modification that allows
of diminished species and preserve fisheries for future larger animals like sea turtles and sharks to pass through
generations. shrimp trawl nets.
You can help by being selective about what seafood Support the establishment of Marine Protected
you eat. Many organizations inform consumers about Areas (MPAs). Research indicates that properly designed
which seafoods to avoid to reduce overfishing and MPAs preserve biodiversity while providing refuge and
damage to the underwater environment. The Seafood nursery grounds for fish species. These MPAs also have
Watch Guide for America, The Good Fish Guide for the the potential to increase fish stocks, and therefore fishing,
UK, and The Sustainable Seafood Guide for Australia outside MPA boundaries.
are examples of guides that help make sustainable Make sure you’re well informed before starting an
seafood choices part of your lifestyle. These guides aquarium hobby. Aquarium or ornamental fisheries need
provide great information from the fishing to be carefully and responsibly managed to prevent
methods used and their effects to rating damage to coral reefs and their inhabitants. Be aware of
fish based on the status, sustainability conservation and management issues associated with the
and fisheries effects of each species. trade of ornamental species.
The list of species changes so visit
Continued on next page.

Be sure your country has implemented the United or chicken you’re a secondary consumer, and when
Nations (UN) Code of Conduct for Responsible you eat fish you may be a fifth-level consumer. It takes
Fisheries and related International Plans of Action approximately 10,000 kilograms of primary producers to
(IPOA). These voluntary measures aim to ensure the create every kilogram of tuna. This isn’t just a biological
effective conservation and management of living aquatic curiosity. It is a significant economic and environmental
resources. A major focus of these actions is to halt illegal, issue influencing how human society feeds itself.
The Ocean Planet

unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, which can Educate your family, friends and coworkers. Tell them
cause problems for international fisheries management. If why you support sustainable fisheries and how they can
your country hasn’t implemented the Code and a national help make a difference. Consumers, through their voices
action plan, encourage the government to do so. and pocketbooks, have the power to make positive
Eat lower down on the food chain. When you eat change – but only if they make the effort.
corn you are a primary consumer. When you eat beef
Antarctic ecosystem has significant differences as well as most species are specialized and found only in the
similarities compared to the Arctic. Antarctic.
During the winter, sea ice surrounding Antarctica
almost doubles the area around the continent. This adds Deep Sea Ecosystems
an area about the size of North America. When summer You won’t be scuba diving to a deep sea ecosystem, but
comes, the melting of this sheet sets off an explosion of with submersibles and ROVs, you may at least visit
bioproductivity. them directly or indirectly. Some of the most spectacular
When the ice sheet expands, cold salty water forms. documentaries involving shipwrecks like the Titanic, the
This heavy water flows away from the continent. As it Bismarck and others involve deep sea ecosystems, so you
sinks, it mixes with deep ocean water to form the most may have seen them on television.
dense water in the ocean, the Antarctic Bottom Water, In the deep ocean beyond the continental shelves,
which is found in the deep ocean basins. Wind-driven the sun’s light and warmth never reach the bottom and
currents move water away from the continent at the the average temperature is 2°C/35.6°F. Without sunlight,
surface, causing upwelling in the area. there’s no photosynthesis; consequently, there’s no primary
This nutrient-rich deep water reaches the surface at productivity in most of the deep ocean. Without much
the Antarctic Divergence, an area located at approximately primary productivity, most of the deep ocean gets its
65° to 70° south latitude. This is the largest nutrient-rich nutrients from above, much of it as marine snow. Marine
area on earth. The Antarctic Divergence supports massive snow is the constant fall of sediment, dead organisms, fecal
phytoplankton blooms from November through the pellets and other nutrients from the productive shallow
southern summer. The copepod and krill populations are waters above. As you’ll see, the constant rain of nutrients
larger than any other species population found in any from above is the basis for almost, but not quite all of the
other ecosystem. Single krill swarms have been estimated ecosystems unique to the deep sea. Earlier you learned that
as to exceed 100 million tons, which is more than the in most aquatic ecosystems, life is limited by nutrients, not
world’s annual commercial fish catch. energy. In the deep sea, however, it’s the other way around.
The productive water zone extends northward until
it meets the warm Atlantic, Indian and Pacific waters. At THE ABYSSAL ZONE
this point, the cold Antarctic water sinks under the warm Most of the deep ocean is the abyssal zone, which covers
water. This area is called the Antarctic Convergence. It is about 30 percent of the earth’s surface. These abyssal plains
located at approximately 50° to 60° south latitude. are some of the smoothest and flattest areas on earth,
As in the Arctic, organisms living in the coldest found at depths between about 3000 and 4000 metres/
Antarctic ecosystems have special adaptations. To survive, 9900 and 13,000 feet. Without primary productivity, the
some fish have antifreezing characteristics and many abyssal zone lacks dense life concentrations. However,
organisms have slowed metabolisms. Because they have very there’s vast species diversity.
slow metabolisms, some fish have no blood hemoglobin. Marine snow makes the deep ocean rich in nutrients
Their blood carries sufficient oxygen without it. that are spread out evenly. Without photosynthesis,
Because the Antarctic is a relatively isolated ecosystem, there’s insufficient energy accumulated to support a

great abundance of multicellular organisms. Those Although called “whale falls,” bear in mind that any large
that do survive are primarily echinoderms, such as sea organism sinking to the deep-ocean bottom creates these
cucumbers, sea lilies and brittle stars. Concentrations ecosystems. Even wood, kelp and Sargassum, as well as
of large organisms are rare. However, submersibles have large fish provide a nutrient concentration that supports a
seen rattails, deep-sea dogfishes, catsharks, crustaceans, local ecosystem for several months to a year.
mollusks and many species of deep-ocean fish.
The greatest diversity in the abyssal zone is found HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND COLD SEEPS
in the meiofauna. As in beach sand, you can find Hydrothermal vents are hot mineral springs found in the
representatives from almost all the animal phyla living deep ocean. Heated ocean water flows from these vents,
in the deep-ocean mud or sediment. The concentrations loaded with dissolved minerals, providing one of the
and populations are lower than in shallower seas, but the few places of abundant primary productivity in the deep
diversity is not. sea. Chemosynthesizing bacteria that live on dissolved
sulfides form the base of these ecosystems, providing
WHALE FALLS food for several levels of organisms, resulting in a diverse
Although the abyssal plains are typical of most of the community.
deep-ocean ecosystems, there are some important
exceptions, including whale falls. A whale fall is exactly NOAA, Ocean Explorer
what the name says – a place where a dead whale comes to
rest on the deep-ocean floor.
Whale carcasses provide a massive concentration of
nutrients in areas that normally only receive diffuse marine
snow. Scientists think that the result is the development of
a distinct local ecosystem that goes through three stages.
The first stage is when the scavengers arrive. They
consume the whale’s soft tissues in a few months. Hagfish,
grenadiers, deep sea spider crabs and sleeper sharks are
some of the scavengers associated with this stage. The
second stage lasts about a year. Worms, small crustaceans,
and other small organisms feed on the remaining soft
tissue and the tissue dispersed around the whale as
detritus. Marine biologists are still trying to determine
exactly how these organisms find their way to the whale.
Whale fall in Santa Cruz basin. Courtesy of US Geological Survey
The final stage involves the decay of the whale
skeleton. This can last several years or even decades.
The bones provide a steady supply of sulfide as they’re Similar to hydrothermal vents, cold seeps are areas
broken down. Chemosynthetic bacteria live on this sulfide. where hydrocarbons and sulfide-rich fluids seep from the
These bacteria are significant because they’re autotrophs underlying rock in the ocean floor. These are called “cold”
that do not photosynthesize, but create carbohydrates seeps because they’re cool compared to hydrothermal
from inorganic chemical energy. Chemosynthesis is the vents. However, they are heated by geothermal energy
only type of primary productivity in the deep ocean. from inside the earth.
Chemosynthetic bacteria living on whale fall sulfide create Cold seeps are places where mineral-laden seawater
a food source for tubeworms, crustaceans, gastropods flows from the ocean bottom, but they’re not hot like
and bivalves. These bacteria appear to be the same as hydrothermal vents. Like the hydrothermal vents, cold
those associated with hydrothermal vent and cold seep seeps support chemosynthetic-based ecosystems. The
ecosystems (more about these shortly). It may be chemosythesizers include the same sulfide-consuming
that whale falls enable the colonization bacteria, but depending upon the minerals flowing from
of these deep-sea ecosystems, particular vent, a cold seep community may rely on
which would make whale chemosynthesizing bacteria that consume methane or
falls substantially important other hydrocarbons.
ecosystems.

THE HADAL DEPTHS – OCEAN TRENCHES Limnology, the study of freshwater ecosystems, is broadly
The hadal zone makes up the deepest ocean depths, divided into two areas: lentic – standing water habitats
found in the deep-ocean trenches where the oceanic such as lakes and ponds, and lotic – running water habitats
plates collide with continental plates. Depths in this such as rivers and streams. Some wetlands, tidal flats
zone range from about 5000 to 6000 metres/16,500 to or estuaries that contain much soil moisture, are also
19,700 feet, although some spots are deeper than 11,000 freshwater ecosystems.
The Ocean Planet

metres/36,000 feet.
We know little about the hadal zone ecosystems LENTIC ECOSYSTEMS
primarily because of the limits of technology. The Lakes and ponds are essentially inland depressions
extreme pressure makes it expensive and difficult to make containing fresh water. They vary from small ponds of less
submersibles or instruments capable of observing these than one hectare/2.4 acres to large inland seas covering
depths. Only a few submersibles have been built that thousands of square kilometres/ miles. They may be
can descend safely into the hadal zone, and only a single as shallow as one metre/ three feet or more than 2000
manned trip has been made to the deepest known spot in metres/6000 feet.
the ocean. Lakes and ponds form through glacial erosion and
deposition, rock and debris accumulation blocking
Therefore, what scientists know about life in the streams, or by earth movement that causes land to sink and
hadal zone is limited to fleeting glimpses. Most of these flood. Some freshwater bodies form through nongeological
are from ROVs (Remote Operated Vehicles) and brief activity, like when we intentionally dam rivers and streams
visits by submersibles. These brief observations have found for water storage, power and irrigation. Quarries and strip
organisms even in mines fill with water and even beavers dam up streams to
make shallow but often extensive ponds.
Temperature gradients in lakes and ponds influence
the distribution of life just as in the ocean, but on a
Hydrothermal smaller scale. The littoral zone is the area near the lake
vent communities margin where light penetrates to the bottom and rooted
are based on plants grow. Beyond this is the open water or limnetic
chemosynthesis rather zone, which is inhabited by plankton and fish. Below the
than photosynthesis.
depth of effective light penetration is the region termed
Here, specialized
bacteria act as the the profundal zone, or the aphotic zone to use the marine
base of the food term. Here the diversity of life varies with temperature
pyramid, forming a and oxygen supply.
diverse community. As in the ocean, the benthic zone may not
appear to have much life to the untrained eye, but the
bottom harbors intense biological activity created by
decomposition of organic matter. Anaerobic (no oxygen)
the Mariana Trench (the deepest known place on earth), bacteria dominate the bottom beneath the profundal
but the character and extent of the hadal ecosystems water, whereas the littoral zone’s bottom is rich in aerobic
remain largely unknown. decomposing organisms.
The food chain of many lake ecosystems depends
Freshwater Ecosystems on freshwater phytoplankton, although some lakes also
strongly depend on detritus (fine remains of plant or
While they account for only a tiny portion of earth’s animal tissue). Most lakes are subject to eutrophication
aquatic environment, freshwater ecosystems are vitally due to the addition of nutrients from sewage and
important, and perhaps most immediately important industrial wastes. Eutrophication has produced significant
to terrestrial ecosystems. There is no better example of detrimental biological changes in many freshwater
freshwater ecosystem diversity than the Amazon River. ecosystems. Because of their small size relative to the
Many scientists believe the Amazon to be the most diverse oceans, lakes and ponds typically show eutrophication
region, containing almost as many fish species as found on effects more rapidly and more severely.
all coral reefs worldwide and five times more species than While less diverse than marine ecosystems, many
found on Caribbean reefs. freshwater ecosystems are biologically rich. The earth’s

oldest and deepest lake is a good example. Lake Baikal movement, they require a constant supply of nutrients
in Siberia is thought to be 25 million years old and 1620 from land-based sources to thrive.
metres/ 5315 feet deep. It contains more than 20 percent Many rivers begin as small streams in shady forested
of the world’s unfrozen fresh water. More than 1500 regions. These streams strongly depend on detritus that
species live in Lake Baikal or the nearby area. Perhaps the is processed by a number of invertebrates – shredders,
most surprising resident of the lake is the Baikal seal, one collectors or grazers. These organisms, along with
of the few species of seals living in fresh water. algae, slow the downstream movement of nutrients. As
these streams grow and are exposed to sunlight, their
LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS dependence shifts from detritus to producing their own
Freshwater systems that flow – rivers and streams – are food from algae and rooted aquatic plants. As the river
called lotic ecosystems. These ecosystems exhibit a wide grows larger still, it shifts back to a dependence on detritus
variety of physical and ecological characteristics. Naturally, and dissolved organic matter.
Temperature gradients in
lakes and ponds influence
the distribution of life just
as in the ocean, but on a
smaller scale.
the conditions near the source of a river differ from its

mouth. There is also a gradient across a river due to Generally, downstream systems depend on the
temperature and depth changes, channel width, current inefficiencies of nutrient processing upstream. What lives
velocity and bottom topography. downstream survives on what’s left over from upstream.
However, this also means that pollutants that enter
Changes in these physical conditions the system upstream may accumulate in downstream
are reflected in the living organisms inhabitants.
that inhabit the ecosystem. Because
lotic ecosystems are subject to constant

Temperature Overturn in Fresh Water
Many lakes and ponds cycle through seasonal water lighter. This near-freezing, lighter water remains on
temperature stratification. The process begins in summer the surface and as the temperature continues to drop, it
with the sun warming the water’s surface. As the water freezes.
warms, it becomes less dense and, therefore, lighter. This Interestingly, the water immediately beneath the
The Ocean Planet

enables it to float on the colder, denser water beneath, ice may be warmed by solar radiation. Because the
which is the cause of the thermocline. water is below 4ºC/39ºF, warming actually increases
As air temperature falls in autumn, the surface its density. This heavier water now drops to the bottom
water loses heat to the atmosphere through convection, where it mixes with water warmed by heat conducted
conduction and evaporation. This causes the temperature from bottom mud. As a result, a slight inverse stratification
of the surface water to drop and sink. Over time, the may develop, in which the water becomes warmer with
temperature becomes uniform from the top to the bottom depth.
of the lake. The water can now easily circulate, carrying As ice melts in spring, the surface water again
oxygen and nutrients throughout the lake. This seasonal reaches 4ºC/39ºF and begins to sink. This mixing,
mixing is called overturn. aided by the wind circulating water, is an important
Due to water’s unique physical properties (see process because it frees bottom nutrients and mixes them
Chapter Four), ice formation has some significant and with the oxygen-rich surface waters – a result similar to
unexpected effects on thermal stratification. As water upwelling in the ocean. This creates an ideal growing
cools it becomes denser, but as the temperature reaches condition for plankton. As the season progresses, the
4ºC/39ºF the density begins to decrease, making colder summer stratification develops again.
Kristin Valette
Lentic ecosystems are those that consist of standing water habitats, such as lakes and ponds.

FRESHWATER WETLANDS
Freshwater wetlands are closely associated with lakes and
streams. They’re not ecosystems you’re likely to be diving
in, but they’re important to other freshwater ecosystems
much as mangroves and estuaries are important to
adjacent marine ecosystems.
The primary difference between wetlands and other
freshwater ecosystems is that the water is at, near or
above ground level and occupied by vegetation. Wetlands
dominated by grasses are marshes. Those dominated by
woody vegetation are swamps.
Wetlands primarily consisting of accumulated peat
(undecomposed or slightly decomposed material) are
mires. Mires fed by water moving through the mineral soil
and dominated by sedges are fens.
Wetlands dominated by sphagnum moss and
dependent on precipitation for moisture and nutrients
are bogs. Bog have blocked drainage and make nutrients
relatively inaccessible to the ecosystem. The nutrients
accumulate as peat, and you generally find low
productivity in bogs. Although marsh ecosystems also
have restricted drainage, they don’t block the flow of
nutrients. Rather, marsh grasses and other organisms draw
nutrients from the soil and make them readily available to
the ecosystem.

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Chapter 2

The Ocean Planet

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The Ocean Planet

The Water Cycle

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The Ocean Planet

The Ocean Planet 2-3

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South-polar view of the world’s oceans

oceanic extensions, partially separated by continental TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF OCEAN BASINS

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Pacific 165.2/63.8 707.6/169.8 4282/13,917 11,022/35,822

The Ocean Planet

A comparison of the major ocean basins.

CHALLENGER the characteristics of an environment determine the

10 ENVIRONMENT CLASSIFICATION METHODS

The Ocean Planet 2-5

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top layers, epipelagic and mesopelagic. The

2-6 Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

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The Ocean Planet

bathyal zone that extends down to the bottom

ocean bottom close to shore, and the outer sublittoral

The Ocean Planet 2-7

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2-8 Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

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The Ocean Planet

Uneven Solar Heating and the Seasons

The Ocean Planet 2-9

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All aquatic plants, invertebrates and most fish have

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The Ocean Planet

Sources of salt in the ocean. Salt and other

But, where do the salts come from in the first place?

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are measured as pH, a scale that represents the

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The Ocean Planet

The Ocean Planet 2-13

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The Ocean Planet

The Ocean Planet 2-15

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The nitrogen cycle. Bacteria carry out many COMBUSTION

OXYGEN carbonate as the primary component of bones and teeth.

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