Early Chinese military strategy texts:

Jiang Ziya's Six Secret Teachings (六韜) and the Three Strategies of Huang Shigong (三略)

In general, it can be said that true organized martial arts began to develop in Japan after the arrival of
Sun Tzu’s military strategy classic, The Art of War. This work and the other Seven Military Classics started
to arrive from China via the Korean kingdom of Baekje ( 百 済 Kudara) in 516 CE.1 The Seven Military
Classics ( 武 經 七 書 ), or more specifically, the seven important military texts of ancient China, were
canonized as a set during the 11th century. 2 For most of Chinese imperial history, throughout the
dynasties, it was required study for promotions and merit within the political system. Chinese Emperor
Shenzong ( 宋神宗 ), the sixth emperor of the Song dynasty, was the mastermind that determined which
military texts would compose the Seven Military Classics anthology in the year 1080 CE.

According to Ralph D. Sawyer and Mei-chün Sawyer, authors of The Seven Military Classics of Ancient
China, the set of seven includes the following texts:3

 Jiang Ziya (Taigong)'s Six Secret Teachings (六韜)

There are no other known lists of the Seven Military Classics with alternate texts, but the individual texts
themselves have gone through multiple versions and translations especially in the last 200 years as
western interest took hold.

The first text on the list, the Six Secret Teachings ( 六韬 ) or Rikutō in Japanese, is a masterpiece on civil
and military strategy traditionally attributed to Lü Shang or "Jiang Ziya", a General of the army of King
Wen of Zhou around the eleventh century BCE. But, based on archaeological evidence, today modern
researchers date it to the Warring States period (c.475-221 BCE) and not before the 3 rd century BCE.4
Many of the same scholars though, do believe that it preserves large portions of more ancient military
knowledge and strategic thought. Because it is written from the point of view of a political leader or
statesman attempting to overthrow the ruling government of the time, it is the only one of the Seven
Military Classics that is clearly and descriptively written for revolutionary purposes with a heavy slant
towards guerrilla warfare. This is what makes it so noteworthy to ninjutsu researchers and illuminates its
own importance in the development of ninjutsu as an independent military science, distinct to Japan.

1
Sun Tzu, The Art of War, translated by Samuel Griffith, (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), P. 169
2
Sun Tzu - Wu Qi - Wei Liao - Sima Rangju - Jiang Ziya, The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China, Translated by
Rory Weaver, George Fleming, Mengchen Wang, Anjie Cai Anderson, Stefan Harvey. Contributor: Dr. Justin
Winslett, (Arcturus Publishing, 2017), P. 3 of introduction.
3
Sawyer, Ralph D.; Mei Mei-chün Sawyer (1993). The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
4
Sawyer, R. D. (2020). The Seven Military Classics Of Ancient China. United States: Basic Books. P. 33
But before going further it may be best to have a short explanation on what is and what is not
considered ninjutsu or ninja in this course. This can be a highly debated topic so please allow me to
entertain you with my translation of what I believe to be the best explanation of what ninjutsu is and the
various terms used by regional daimyo lords for their “ninja”, from Nakano Ginrō’s 1939 Iga history
book, the Shinpen Iga Chishi;

Before discussing the origins of the "Ninjutsu of the Iga people", it is first necessary to talk a bit
about what kind of ninjutsu it was when it got started and the fact that the origin of ninjutsu is
not clearly understood. Rather than saying that it came from China like other military sciences,
as there were such techniques in China, it may be more appropriate to say that ninjutsu
developed and gained independence (as a military science) in Japan. In China these techniques
are said to have started in the ancient times of Fuxi 5 and Shennong6 and then later became in
popular use during the times of the Yellow Emperor, but unfortunately today the writings of
those ancient ways do not remain. A little later, there is the chapter on the use of spies in Sun
Tzu’s Art of War. This is definitely ninjutsu, the art of war is to rule the inside and to know the
outside. This is no different from knowing the circumstances of the enemy’s inner plans. In
other words, what kind of technique is used to know the state of the enemy’s condition? Its
reconnaissance (scouting) skills to learn the terrain, their patterns of advance and retreat and
number of people. Or to sneak into the enemy’s castle or camp to clearly know the
surroundings and the “in-and-outs” of their preparations. To defeat the enemy based on this
gathered knowledge is within the scope of ninjutsu. Therefore, it is part of the military and the
most important thing is to not be seen. In ancient and current times, in the east and the west,
it is no different, but the (specific) name “ninjutsu” was first used in Japan and it seems to not
be found anywhere else. In the earliest kingdoms of China, they (spies) were called Kan ( 間 ).
During the Spring and Autumn period (of Chinese history 771 – 476 BCE) they were called Cho
( 諜 ) and after the Warring States period (of Chinese history 475 - 221 BCE) they were called
Saisaku ( 細作 ), Yutei ( 遊信 ), Kansai ( 姦細 ), etc. In the Rikutō or the Six Secret Teachings ( 六韬 )
they are called Yūshi ( 遊士 ), in General Li Quan’s text titled the Yīnjīng ( 陰經 ) they are called
Gyōnin ( 行人 ). Depending on the time period and the General’s will, the name would change.
In our country (Japan) they are also called, Kusa ( 草), Kamari (かまり), Shinobi (忍), Suppa (水破),
Rappa ( 乱破 ), Toppa ( 突破 ), Nokizaru ( 瘡猿 ), Mitsumono ( 三ッ者 ), Kyōdan ( 饗談 ) and Denuki ( 出
7
抜).

Accordingly, based on Nakano’s passage above, it can be said that ninja or shinobi as they are
traditionally referred to had a wide variety of names and responsibilities, all pertaining to different
functions and activities related to espionage and the art of war.

5
Fuxi (伏羲), also known as Paoxi, is a culture hero in Chinese legend and mythology, credited along with his sister
Nüwa with creating humanity and the invention of hunting, fishing, domestication, and cooking as well as the
Cangjie system of writing Chinese characters around 2,000 BCE. (Wikipedia)
6
Shennong, also known as the Wugushen or also Wuguxiandi, is a mythological Chinese deity in Chinese folk
religion and venerated as a mythical sage ruler of prehistoric China. Shennong has at times been counted amongst
the Three Sovereigns, a group of ancient deities or deified kings. (Wikipedia)
7
中野銀郎、新編伊賀地誌、伊賀地誌編纂會, 1939、P. 126~127
According to Chinese historian and author, Mr. Li Shi, Hán traditions state that in ancient times one of
the "Three Heroes of the Early Han Dynasty", known as Zhang Liang,8 the famous Chinese military
strategist and statesman, received a secret set of scrolls called The Three Strategies ( 三略 ) and the Six
Secret Teachings (六韬) from Huang Shigong,9 a legendary Taoist hermit and military strategist of the Qin
dynasty (221 -206 BCE).10

Let us look at the history and legends behind this.

Zhang Liang is known in Chinese military history as having been a wise commander who displayed great
talent in military strategy. He was also highly regarded for his tolerance of others and a sincere respect
for the elderly. Legends say that he preferred a simple and somewhat plain way of life. Different from
the typical stereotype of the usual military hero, Zhang Liang was said to be a slim man with a
“feminine” face, born into an aristocratic family in the state of Han ( 韓國 ) during the Chinese Warring
States Period (475–221 BCE),

For five generations, Zhang’s ancestors served the Han rulers as chancellors.

But, in 230 BCE, the Han were invaded and taken over by Qin Shi Huang, the founder of the Qin Dynasty.
Zhang went into hiding and spent the remainder of his entire family fortune on planning and funding an
assassination attempt on Qin’s life. But in the end his ill-fated attempt failed, and Zhang was forced to
flee and to continue to hide under other identities.

The story goes that one day, when walking down a road, Zhang saw up ahead an elderly man sitting on a
bridge. When the old man saw Zhang, he intentionally dropped one of his shoes over the side of the
bridge, and immediately asked Zhang to go down to the riverbank and get it. Even though he was not
happy about it, Zhang not only fetched the shoe, but also knelt and respectfully put it back on the old
man’s foot.

Seeing Zhang’s respect for elders, the old man smiled and told him that he would be worthy of his
teaching. He then told Zhang to meet him at the same bridge five mornings later for a lesson. On the
fifth morning, he went to the bridge just before dawn. Unfortunately, he found the old man already
there sitting and waiting.

The old man gave him an earful for keeping an elderly person waiting and told Zhang to come back again
earlier five mornings later. On the fifth morning, he went even earlier than the first time. But the old
man was already there again. The third time, five mornings later, Zhang Liang went to the bridge at
midnight the night before and waited until the old man arrived in the morning.

This time satisfied with the young man’s manners, the old man gave Zhang a set of scrolls and told him,
“When you fully understand these scrolls, you will be able serve as a tutor to the emperors. If you need
more help from me, I am the “yellow rock” at the foot of Mount Gucheng.” 11

8
張良 Zhang Ryo in Japanese, 262–189 BCE
9
黃石公 Ko Sekiko in Japanese
10
The Military History in Qin and Han Dynasty, Li Shi, Published by Deep Logic, 2019
11
From: Liu Hou Lun, by Shu Shi, 留侯論)
According to legend, the old man in this story was Huang Shigong ( 黃石公 ), or the “Yellow Rock Official”,
and the set of scrolls that he gave the young Zhang Liang were titled The Records of Huang Shigong (now
known as The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong) and The Six Secret Teachings. Both sets of texts
historically attribute authorship to Chiang Shàng, 12 also commonly known as the T’ai Kung, the famous
general, military strategist and political thinker of the 11 th century BCE. But both texts in their present
form display linguistic styles, subject matter, etc. suggest that they date from the Chinese Warring States
period to the end of the first century BCE. According to Ralph D. Sawyer, possibly the western world’s
most leading authority on the Chinese Seven Military Classics, the transmission of the teachings for
nearly 1,000 years was “probably performed by Ch’i’s official court historian, with the work thereafter
being secretly preserved by successive generations because of its great military value.” 13

One decade after receiving and studying these scrolls, Zhang Liang took on the position of counsel to Liu
Bang who became the first emperor of the Han Dynasty. Due to his advice on political policy and military
strategy, Liu Bang won many battles and became well respected.

During his lifetime, Zhang endured great extremes. Going from extraordinarily rich to extremely poor,
from a statesman to a fugitive on the run, and from being a hereditary official to a lowly commoner. But
this did not stop Zhang. He was not discouraged by his unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qin Shi
Huang. After deep strategizing, he decided to join the forces of Liu Bang and assisted him in defeating
the Qin, thereby avenging his native Han state. Once he accomplished this he stepped back from
politics. He was not attached to power, fame, or luxury. Once his goal was achieved, he retired from his
official positions to spend the rest of his life in search of enlightenment.

Later in life, to pay his respects to the old man that changed the course of his life, Zhang went to the
foot of Mount Gucheng and found the yellow rock there just as he said it would be. At that place, Zhang
built a Taoist shrine dedicated to Huang Shigong. After this he secluded himself on White Cloud
Mountain ( 白雲山 )14 to the southwest of present-day Lankao County, Henan to spend the rest of his life
as a hermit studying the mysteries of the Tao, and late in life when he passed away, he was buried with
the Yellow Rock.

Zhang Liang was not attached to power, fame, or luxury. Once his goal was achieved, he retired from his
positions to spend the rest of his remaining life in search of enlightenment.

In time, The Six Secret Teachings ( 六韜 ) and the Three Strategies of Huang Shigong ( 黃石公三略 ) made
their way to Japan. I would like to discuss two of the most well-known occasions in this chapter. The first
was in the 7th century CE and the second in the 9th.

The first occasion I would like to discuss begins in the year 622 CE when Shotoku Taishi, the well renown
politician that served under Empress Suiko during the Asuka period (538~710 CE) and the son of
Emperor Yōmei, died at the temple he had founded in Nara, Ikaruganomia ( 斑鳩宮 ). It was around this
time in Japanese history where we begin to see the recorded activities of a Buddhist monk named Hōdō
( 法道 ) in the Harima no Kuni region (today’s Hyogo prefecture area). While Hōdō’s life is surrounded by

12
Also known as Jiāng Zǐyá and Jiāng Shàng
13
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China, Ralph D. Sawyer, Basic Books, 2007, P. 281
14
Hakuun-zan in Japanese
mystery from beginning to end, thanks to the legends that have been recorded he is not out of reach of
the imagination and speculation.

According to these legends, from the 6th to 7th centuries CE, Hōdō made his way from his homeland in
India through China and the kingdom of Baekje before finally arriving to Japan. It is said that when Hōdō
arrived on Japan’s shores, the Buddhist deity Gozu Tennō ( 牛 頭 天 王 ) was with him and was then later
enshrined with great ceremony at Hiromine Shrine in Himeiji and Yasaka Shrine in Kyoto.

During his ascetic practice at Kumoga Iwa Rock ( 雲ヶ岩 ) on Mt. Rokkō, Hōdō is supposed to have been
visited by another Buddhist deity, Bishamonten, riding on purple clouds in the sky. This is what inspired
Hōdō to build Tamon-ji Temple in Hyōgo Prefecture. In traditional stories told, Hōdō would often fly
through the air with food and money in a special treasure begging bowl made of iron and offer
assistance to those in need. This earned him the name Hihatsu no Hōdō ( 飛 鉢 の 法 道 ) meaning "Flying
Bowl Hōdō".

It is also said that on one occasion, while flying with his bowl, Hōdō landed upon a wooden boat carrying
rice across a river. The rice was tax money that had been collected for the lord for use of the land. Hōdō
asked the tax collector for a bowl of rice but was refused. In return, as Hōdō flew away, the bags of rice
also started to rise into the air. Immediately humbled, the tax collector begged Hōdō for forgiveness and
sincerely apologized for being so cold, promising to provide Hōdō with a bowl of rice in exchange for the
bags back.

He was also known as Kūhatsu Sennin ( 空 鉢 仙 人 ) or the "Empty Bowl Sage", because he always gave
away whatever he had in his iron bowl to those that were in need.

Tradition holds that around the year before the above mentioned Shotoku Taishi died, Hōdō had a son,
Muka. At the age of six the boy became a pupil of his father and by the time he was twelve years old he
had earned his place among six other followers to be sent to the old kingdoms of the Korean peninsula,
mainland China and then finally on to India to further their spiritual training and understanding.

Not too many factual details or documents about Hōdō’s son remain but there is a record that states
that at the time of the death of the prince of Kudara 15 (an old kingdom in Korea), Muka was two years
old, placing his birth around 582 CE. Twenty years later another record shows that Hōdō, and 6 other
monks appear at Ichijō-ji Temple on Mt. Hokke in modern day Kasai City. They then moved on to settle
at Mt. Tanjō where there was a very large population of foreign people from the Korean Kudara
kingdom. When Hōdō arrived the Kudara people received him with great honor and respect and made
him their Chief (族長). The Kudara people all anxiously waited for Hōdō’s son, Muka, to return to Japan to
teach and spread the recently acquired Buddhist teachings and other knowledge, including military
science, from overseas. Unfortunately, there is no record of his return, but the legends say that he
eventually became a great Sage and ascended to heaven while still in human form.

But what does this have to do with ninjutsu?

During the time of Shotoku Taishi (approximately 574 to 622 CE), ninjutsu had not yet been fully
developed as an independent school of thought or military science. It had always been a subset or part
of a larger systems of military strategy known as Bugei ( 武 芸 ), Gunpo ( 軍 法 ) or Heiho ( 兵 法 ) and very
15
Kudara (百濟 18 BCE – 660 CE) is the Japanese name for Baekje, a kingdom located in southwestern Korea. It
was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
closely associated with magic. It will still be a few hundred years before the first ryū or “style/school” of
ninjutsu would be formed as an autonomous specialization, starting with the Asuka ( 飛鳥 ) and Hakuun
(白雲) schools of the Nara and Iga regions.

Therefore, the reason I bring up Hōdō in my discussion on the origins of the Gyokko Ryū is that he and
his six attending monks, two Indian and four Chinese, were said to have been in possession of the above
mentioned Rikuto manuscript as passed down by Zhang Ryo. Due to its underground resistance and
guerrilla warfare theme, this was a document that later became one of the foundation stones of the
“ninjutsutsukai” or the first true ninja. More than just monks these men were magicians ( 呪術者 ) with
large amounts of training in both Chinese and Indian methods of military science, spiritual practices and
medicinal knowledge.

It is generally thought that Kobo Daishi (Kukai), a Japanese monk, was the first carrier to bring the Seven
Military Classics from China to Japan in the 9 th century. But it is also known that some of the knowledge
made it to Japan much further back in time due to the prolific amount of information going back and
forth between the educated people of the mainland and the elite ruling families of Japan, even if it was
incomplete and in pieces.

The 13th volume of Sun Tzu’s “Art of War” was solely focused on the use of spies and I believe it could
have very easily been brought to Japan by the various immigrating Korean and Chinese families starting
to immigrate to the Yamato state as early as the 5 th and 6th centuries. The reason I think this is possible is
because some of these early immigrating people, such as the founder of the Yamato no Aya clan, Achi
no Omi, were of strong imperial and military backgrounds. Reiner H. Hesselink, in his published paper
titled The Introduction of the Art of Mounted Archery into Japan, states the following about the Yamato
no Aya clan that immigrated to Japan around the end of the 3rd century CE;

The special craft of the Aya headship concerned the martial arts, and it was most likely that
this was the main reason why they were invited to Japan in the first place, and why it was
necessary to supervise their immigration so closely, to settle them in the heart of the Yamato
homeland...16

So, I personally find it very plausible that the Yamato no Aya clan and other clans like them that entered
the country could have been carrying copies of some or even all of the Seven Military Classics and, of
course, in the interest of protecting their livelihood as warriors, would have most likely kept these texts
to themselves as long as possible.

A little later in history there is plenty of evidence and recorded occasions where the Sakanoue clan
members are in possession of the Six Secret Teachings and other secret military science documents. For
example, Fujiwara Toshihito received transmission in the Six Secret Teachings in a dream from
Bishamonten at the Kurama Temple in Kyoto and he used it’s strategies to defeat the kishin ( 鬼 神 ) or
demon of Dewanokuni in Okushu ( 奥州出羽国).17 Kishin was the term often used for Emishi18 leaders who
rebelled against the imperial court. It was a way to demonize a people and make it easier to feel justified
16
Reiner H. Hesselink (1991), The Introduction to the Art of Mounted Archery into Japan, Transactions of the
Asiatic Society of Japan, Fourth Series, 6, pp. 39
17
小松和彦（2003）、異界と日本人: 絵物語の想像力、角川学芸出版、P. 115
18
An ancient ethnic group that lived in parts of Honshū, especially the Tōhoku region.
in subjugating or even destroying them. Then Toshihito passed the teaching on to Sakanoue
Tamuramaro who brought it back to Kurama where it was passed on for several generations until it
came to be possessed by Kichi Hogen19 whom we will discuss in a later chapter.

According to historical novel author and the 1959 recipient of Kodansha Publishing’s honorable mention
award,20 Moriyama Yū, in his book Ninja no Keifu, the ascetic Hōdō and his attending monks were in
possession of the Rikutō, Sun Tzu’s text the “Art of War” and the esoteric Mikkyo Buddhist sutras known
as the “Kujyaku Myo-Ō Kei”. These treasured texts later came to have a great influence on the
development of the military science of the Yamabushi ( 山 伏 兵 法 ) and what the author called “Gyoja
Ninpo” (行者忍法), a type of proto-ninjutsu, within the clans of Izumo. As Harima no Kuni (the province
that was ruled by the Izumo tribe) was so close to the Korean peninsula and the Chinese mainland, the
early inception of these manuscripts changed the future of the clan’s network of yamabushi and
Shugenja ascetic monks and spurred the development of ninjutsu as an independent school of military
science.

Another known documented time when some of the Chinese military classics made their way to Japan
was via the efforts of Ōe no Koretoki ( 大江 維時 888 ~ 963 CE), a Japanese lord and scholar of the early to
mid-Heian Period who tutored the emperors Daigo ( 醍醐天皇 ), Suzaku ( 朱雀天皇 ) and Murakami ( 村上天
皇 ). Besides being a teacher to the highest members of the court, Koretoki also managed the Imperial
archives at Heian-kyō (today’s Kyoto). To this end, he allegedly once voyaged to Tang China, later
returning to Japan around the year 930 CE with copies of the Rikutō ( 六 韬 Six Secret Teachings) and
Sanryaku (黃石公三略 The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong).

As attested by the research of Japanese historian and Professor Emeritus at the University of Tsukuba,
Mr. Tatsuo Inoue, the oldest legends say that Koretoki compiled and translated into Japanese all the
knowledge and wisdom he gained while studying the Sanryaku and the Rikutō in Tang China into a new
series of one hundred twenty scrolls titled the Kinetsu-Shu (訓閲集). This massive set of works written as
an Onmyōdō21 treatise became a secret military manual said to have been handed down in the Ōe family
and the Tada Genji clan. But, as Professor Inoue also explains in his book “The People of the Ōe Family, A
House of Hein Confucianism” ( 平安儒家の家大江家のひとびと ), the lineage of the Kinetsu-Shu is not clearly
known before the military strategist Ogasawara Ujitaka. Around the year 1532 CE it went from
Ogasawara to Kamiizumi Nobutsuna, the Sengoku Period samurai famous for creating the Shinkage-ryū
school of combat.22 There is no remaining evidence that can prove that the Kinetsu-Shu was written by
Koretoki or if he ever even travelled to China to study the text. All original sources and documents have
been lost in time and history. Only the legends have lived on.

As well as being the main secret text for the Kamiizumi-ryū lineage of ninjutsu ( 上泉流忍術 ) founded by
Nobutsuna's adopted heir, Kamiizumi Hidetane, 23 the Kinetsu-Shu was also employed by many of the
19
小松和彦（2003）、異界と日本人: 絵物語の想像力、角川学芸出版、P. 115
20
『講談倶楽部』 佳作賞 昭和 34 年/1959 年 12 月号掲載
21
Onmyōdō - traditional Japanese esoteric cosmology. A combination of natural science and occultism. It is based
on the Chinese philosophies of Wu Xing and yin and yang.
22
柳生 厳長(1957)、正伝新陰流、 島津書房、P. 63
23
綿谷雪(1967)、図説古武道史、(n.p.): (n.p.) P. 144
various old military traditions of the prestigious Minamoto clan. It also had a very large influence on the
pre-eminent daimyō, Takeda Shingen (1521 – 1573 CE), and his closely related Koshu-ryū ninjutsu ( 甲州
流忍術).

As all these texts dealt with revolutionary principles and warfare, they were considered highly
dangerous and not for the eyes and ears of the general public. Therefore, these books were transmitted
only within the immediate Ōe family and kept highly secret. Eventually, at the request of the emperor,
the Ōe family shared these texts with the emperor’s Generals.

So, by now I think it should be evident to the reader that in regard to the origins of martial arts and the
military sciences of Japan, there is a blur of legends, texts and archeological evidence that shows us that
the essence of ninjutsu and the martial arts seem to be two sides of the same coin and have always
coexisted. We also see that the earliest mainland military science texts to make it to Japan, such as the
Six Secret Teachings ( 六 韜 ), Sun Tzu's The Art of War ( 孫 子 兵 法 ) and the Three Strategies of Huang
Shigong ( 黃 石 公 三 略 ) are traditionally attributed to the origin of the martial arts in Japan during the
Asuka, Nara and early Heian Periods (538 – 1185 CE). These same texts also seem to have likewise been
just as important to the Yamabushi and Shugenja monks, the prototype spiritual warriors of the shinobi
or ninja that began to organize and form mountain communities from the 7th century CE.

Both the mountain-ascetic spiritual traditions of the yamabushi and the military sciences of the warrior
families, when amalgamated, very much looks like what is later defined to be ninjutsu and in the next
few chapters you will come to see that there is a very fine line between warrior and monk during these
time periods. In fact, the social class of the samurai had yet come to be.