CHAPTER 11

LESSON
Cell Growth, Division, and
1 Reproduction
READING TOOL Compare and Contrast As you read, identify the similarities and differences
between sexual and asexual reproduction. Include the advantages and disadvantages of each
method. Take notes in the Venn diagram below.

Asexual Reproduction Both Asexual Sexual Reproduction

and Sexual
Requires 1 parent to Reproduction Requires 2 parents to
make an offspring make an offspring
Both make an
offspring

In the space provided, describe an organism that uses both asexual and sexual reproduction.

Lesson Summary
Limits to Cell Size
KEY QUESTION What are some of the difficulties a cell faces As you read, circle
as it increases in size? the answers to each Key
Question. Underline any
As a cell becomes larger, it is less efficient at moving nutrients
words you do not understand.
into the cell and waste material out of the cell because the
surface area does not grow as quickly as the volume. In
addition, as a cell grows, it places increasing demands on its
own DNA. Therefore, complex living things grow in size by
producing more cells rather than by increasing cell size.
Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.1 Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction 127
READING TOOL A Problem of Size The larger a cell becomes, the less
Cause and Effect efficient it is in moving nutrients and wastes across its cell
Cells can only grow so big until membrane. Food, oxygen, and water enter through the cell
they become inefficient.  Using membrane, and waste products leave the cell the same way.
a cause-and-effect statement, The total area of the cell membrane, known as the surface
explain the cause of limited
area, determines how fast this transportation of materials
cell size.
occurs. The volume of the cell determines how much food
material is needed and how much waste is produced. As the
cell gets larger, both the surface area and the volume of the cell
increase, but not at an equal rate.

Ratio of Surface Area to Volume Imagine that a cell is

cube shaped. The surface area and volume can be calculated
as the cell grows, and the surface area and volume amounts
can be compared as a ratio. The growth of the cell membrane
(surface area) does not increase as fast as the inside of the cell
(volume) and the cell cannot function well as a result.

Traffic Problems One problem resulting from the volume

increasing faster than the surface area of a cell is the decrease
of “traffic flow” of nutrients and waste. The surface area of the
cell membrane is the “road” into the cell. If the membrane is
not large enough, proper passage of enough nutrients and
wastes cannot occur.

Visual Reading Tool: Surface Area to Volume Ratio in Cells

1. For a cell to function efficiently, the surface-area-to-volume ratio needs to be large. In

the table below, determine the surface area to volume ratio and write the ratio in the box
provided. Don’t forget units, and make sure the final ratio is in relation to 1.

Ratio of Surface Area to Volume in Cells

1 cm 2 cm 3 cm
1 cm
1 cm
2 cm
2 cm
3 cm
3 cm

Surface Area
(length 3 width) 3 3 5 3 3 5 3 3 5
3 6 sides
Volume
(length 3 width 3 3 5 3 3 5 3 3 5
3 height)

Ratio of Surface
Area to Volume
/ 5 : / 5 : / 5 :

2. What happens to the surface-area-to-volume ratio as the cell increases in size? Will the cell
continue to function efficiently as the cell size gets larger and larger?

128 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Information Overload Referring to the town analogy in
Figure 11-3, access to information is critical to run the town
efficiently. If the town grows quickly but its library stays the
same, there will not be enough information to serve the
population. Cells store critical information in a molecule known
as DNA. The information in DNA directs all the cell’s functions,
but it does not increase in size as the cell increases in size. The
cell solves this “information crisis” by creating a duplicate copy
of the DNA and dividing it among two new cells so that each
new cell has its own copy of the DNA.

Cell Division To function efficiently, the cell divides into two

new daughter cells through a process called cell division. First, Build Vocabulary
DNA is copied through a process called DNA replication, resulting
cell division process in which a
in a complete set of the DNA for each new daughter cell. Then the cell divides into two new identical
cell splits in two. Cell division reduces the cell volume, resulting in daughter cells
efficient exchange of materials between the cell membrane and its asexual reproduction process
environment. Cells easily obtain nutrients like oxygen, water, and of reproduction involving a single
food and quickly eliminate cellular waste products. parent that results in offspring that
are genetically identical to the
parent
Cell Division and Reproduction sexual reproduction type of
reproduction in which cells from
KEY QUESTION How do asexual and sexual reproduction two parents unite to form the first
compare? cell of a new organism

Both sexual and asexual reproduction result in new individuals. Word Origins The word divide
is based upon the Latin word
Asexual reproduction produces offspring identical to the parent dividere, which means ”to force
by cell division. In sexual reproduction, reproductive cells from apart or remove.”  What needs
two parents are fused to form a new individual. to be duplicated before a cell
To form new individuals, all organisms must be able to can go through cell division?
reproduce. There are two types of reproduction, asexual and
sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction is the

production of genetically identical offspring from a single
parent. Asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms occurs
through cell division.

Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction involves

the fusion of two reproductive cells from each of two parents.
Offspring produced by sexual reproduction inherit some of their
genetic information from each parent.

Comparing Asexual and Sexual Reproduction The

advantages of asexual reproduction include quick and
successful reproduction when conditions are ideal, which allows
offspring to survive when in competition with other organisms.
The lack of genetic diversity may prevent them from surviving if
conditions change.
Sexual reproduction produces genetic diversity. If an
environment changes, genetic diversity in a species may help to
ensure that the individual members of the population contain
the right combination of characteristics needed to survive.

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.1 Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction 129
CHAPTER 11
LESSON

2 The Process of Cell Division

READING TOOL Sequence of Events In the cell cycle diagram below, each section represents
the relative time the cell spends in each stage. In the following diagram, write in each of the
following phases:

a. Interphase
b. G1 phase
c. S
d. G2
e. M phase
f. Mitosis
g. Cytokinesis
h. Cell division

Lesson Summary
Chromosomes
As you read, circle the KEY QUESTION What is the role of chromosomes in cell
answers to each Key division?
Question. Underline any
Cells must divide to function efficiently. Each new daughter cell
words you do not understand.
needs a complete set of genetic information for cell growth
and function. The genetic information is bundled into packages
of DNA called chromosomes. When DNA is organized into
chromosomes, it is easier for the cell to divide the genetic
material equally between the two daughter cells.

BUILD Vocabulary Prokaryotic Chromosomes The circular chromosome

found in prokaryotic cells contains almost all of the genetic
chromosome threadlike structure
within the nucleus that contains information and is not enclosed in a nucleus.
genetic information that is passed
on from one generation to the next Eukaryotic Chromosomes The DNA strands in eukaryotic
chromatin substance found in cells are tightly bound to proteins called histones, creating a
eukaryotic chromosomes that complex called chromatin. Histones and DNA coil tightly together,
consists of DNA tightly coiled forming beadlike structures called nucleosomes, which condense
around histones
to form thick fibers called chromosomes. The X-like chromosome
is actually a duplicated chromosome connected together.
130 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
The Cell Cycle
KEY QUESTION What are the main events of the cell cycle?
During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and
then divides to form two daughter cells. There are 4 main
phases of the cell cycle: G1, S, G2, and M.

Prokaryotic Cell Cycle The prokaryotic cell cycle takes

place very quickly when conditions are ideal. As the cell grows
and functions, it reaches a certain size and begins to copy its BUILD Vocabulary
DNA. When DNA replication is complete, the cell divides by cell cycle series of events in which
binary fission, which is a form of asexual reproduction. The a cell grows, prepares for division,
and divides to form two daughter
two copies of the DNA attach to different regions of the cell
cells
membrane. The cell membrane then pinches inward between
interphase the longest period of
the two regions to divide the cytoplasm. The two resulting the cell cycle, where the stages G1,
daughter cells have identical copies of the DNA and equal S, and G2 take place
amounts of cytoplasm. mitosis part of eukaryotic cell
division during which the cell
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle The four stages of the eukaryotic nucleus divides
cell cycle are G1, S, G2, and M. The longest period of the cell cytokinesis division of the
cycle, called interphase, includes the G1, S, and G2 phases. cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells
G1: Cell Growth Cell Growth is the period of cell growth in Prefixes The prefix inter- means
which the cell increases in size and makes new organelles. “between” or “among.” Interphase
during the cell cycle takes place
between cell divisions and is when
S: DNA Replication DNA replication is the stage of the the cell grows in preparation of
cell cycle that results in two complete sets of DNA ready to be cytokinesis.  What other words
divided between the daughter cells. do you know that begin with
the prefix inter- that describe
G2: Preparing for Cell Division The preparation time for something that is between
other things?
cell division is when the organelles and molecules needed to
carry out cell division are made.

M phase: Cell Division Mitosis is the division of the cell

nucleus, and the division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.

Mitosis
KEY QUESTION What happens during the phases of mitosis?
Mitosis is the segment of the cell cycle during which the division
of the cell nucleus occurs. Mitosis is divided into four phases:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
During prophase, the duplicated chromosomes become
visible. In metaphase, the centromeres of the duplicated
chromosomes line up. In anaphase, the chromosomes separate
and move to opposite ends of the cell. During telophase, the
chromosomes spread out into a tangle of chromatin.

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.2 The Process of Cell Division 131
 Visual Reading Tool: Mitosis

Label the diagram above with the four stages of mitosis. Then, in the space provided below,
describe what happens in each stage of mitosis.

Prophase:

Metaphase:

Anaphase:

Telophase:

132 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Prophase The genetic material inside the nucleus condenses
and the duplicate chromosomes become visible during the first BUILD Vocabulary
stage of mitosis called prophase. At the beginning of prophase,
prophase first and longest
the sister chromatids, or strands of condensed chromosomes, phase of mitosis in which the
become visible. They are attached to each other at a point genetic material inside the nucleus
called the centromere. In the cytoplasm, two tiny organelles, condenses and the chromosomes
called centrioles, are involved in developing spindle fibers that become visible
span across the cell. chromatid one of two identical
“sister” parts of a duplicated
chromosome
Metaphase During metaphase, the spindle fibers move
the centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes to the center centromere region of a
chromosome where the two sister
of the cell. These spindle fibers are connected to the two chromatids attach
poles near the centrioles and are ready to separate the sister
centriole structure in an animal
chromatids. cell that helps to organize cell
division
Anaphase During anaphase, the chromosomes separate metaphase phase of mitosis in
and move along the spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell. which the chromosomes line up
Anaphase ends when the sister chromatids, now considered across the center of the cell
individual chromosomes, are completely separated into two anaphase phase of mitosis in
groups and the spindle fibers have almost disappeared. which the chromosomes separate
and move to opposite ends of the
cell
Telophase During telophase, the chromosomes, which
were distinct and condensed, begin to spread out into a tangle telophase phase of mitosis
in which the distinct individual
of chromatin. This is the final stage of mitosis. The nuclear chromosomes begin to spread out
envelope is reconstructed and the nucleolus becomes visible in into a tangle of chromatin
each new cell. Prefixes In biology, the prefix
telo- means “end” or “completion.”

Cytokinesis  What occurs during

telophase that signifies the end
of mitosis?
KEY QUESTION How do daughter cells split apart after
mitosis?
In plants, cytokinesis separates the cells by forming a cell plate
between the divided nuclei. In animals, cytokinesis draws the
membrane inward to separate the cells.
During the M phase of the cell cycle, mitosis forms two
nuclei, each with a complete set of the DNA. The last segment
of the M phase is cytokinesis. Cytokinesis completes the
process of cell division by dividing one cell into two. READING TOOL
Compare and Contrast
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells The cell membrane is drawn
 How do chromosomes differ
inward and pinched into two new daughter cells. Each cell in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
contains the new nucleus formed during mitosis and an equal
amount of cytoplasm.

Cytokinesis in Plants Because of the rigid cell wall

surrounding the cell membrane in plant cells, pinching from
the outside inward cannot occur. A cell plate forms halfway
between the two nuclei and gradually expands toward and
fuses with the existing cell membranes. A new cell wall then
forms to separate the two daughter cells.

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.2 The Process of Cell Division 133
CHAPTER 11
LESSON

3 Regulating the Cell Cycle

READING TOOL Make Connections In the graphic organizer below, fill in each box with
headings from this unit to help you understand the concepts.

Controls on
Cell Division

when not functioning

properly causes

Lesson Summary
Controls on Cell Division
As you read, circle the KEY QUESTION How is the cell cycle regulated?
answers to each Key
Question. Underline any The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory proteins both inside
words you do not understand. and outside the cell.
How do cells know when it is time to divide? Cell growth and
cell division are highly controlled in multicellular organisms.
Some cells grow and divide very quickly, like skin and blood
cells, whereas other cells grow to a certain size and never
divide, like muscle and nerve cells. Without precise regulation
of cell growth and division, serious diseases like cancer can
result. Controls on cell growth and division can be influenced,
and scientists have identified many of these controlling factors.
134 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Regulatory Proteins For many years, biologists searched
for a signal that might regulate the cell cycle—something that
would “tell” the cell when it was time to divide, duplicate its
chromosomes, or enter another phase of the cell cycle. They
found out that there is not just one signal, but many. Scientists
have identified dozens of proteins that help to regulate the cell
cycle.The cell cycle is controlled by many different regulatory
proteins located inside and outside of the cell.

Internal Regulators Internal regulatory proteins control

events of the cell cycle by responding to events inside the cell.
These “checkpoint proteins” assure that cell activities, like DNA
replication or spindle fiber production, are completed before
the next phase is triggered.

External Regulators External regulatory proteins control

events of the cell cycle by responding to events outside the
Build Vocabulary
cell. Growth factors are proteins that stimulate the growth and
growth factor one of a group of
division of cells. Some regulatory proteins, found on the surface
external regulatory proteins that
of neighboring cells, encourage slowing or even deactivation of stimulate the growth and division
the cell cycle to ensure that excessive growth does not occur. of cells
cyclin one of a family of proteins
Cyclins Biologists had been searching for years for the signal that regulates the cell cycle in
that regulates the cell cycle because they realized that it could eukaryotic cells
help them treat diseases. Learning that there is not just one apoptosis the process of
signal but many has made that job more complicated. Cyclin is programmed cell death
a kind of internal regulatory protein that regulates the cell cycle. cancer disorder in which some of
When this protein is present, the mitotic spindle forms and the the body’s cells lose the ability to
mitosis phase of the cell cycle is activated. control growth
tumor mass of rapidly dividing
Apoptosis The process of programmed cell death is called cells that can damage surrounding
apoptosis. The steps include shrinking chromatin, cell membrane tissue
fragmentation, and cell debris clean up by neighboring cells. Root Words The root of cyclin,
This process is important in growth and development because cycl, is the Greek word for “circle.”
it shapes and restructures the developing parts of the organism.  How does the concept of a
Uncontrolled apoptosis leads to diseases like AIDS and Parkinson’s. circle relate to cyclins?

Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Growth

KEY QUESTION How do cancer cells differ from other cells?
Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the
growth of most cells. As a result, the cell cycle is disrupted, and
cells grow and divide uncontrollably.
Cancer is a disorder in which body cells lose the ability to
control growth. Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that
regulate the growth of most cells. As a result, the cell cycle is READING TOOL
disrupted, and cells grow and divide uncontrollably. Consequently, Prefixes
a mass of cells forms, called a tumor. Benign tumors, or The prefix bene- means “well”
noncancerous tumors, do not spread to surrounding tissues. or “good,” and the prefix mal-
Malignant tumors, or cancerous tumors, spread to surrounding means “bad” or “evil.”  Which
type of tumor, benign or
tissues and destroy the healthy functioning of those tissues. As malignant, causes more damage
cancerous cells spread, they interfere with the other cells by to the body?
absorbing necessary nutrients, blocking nerve connections, and
preventing the organs they invade from functioning properly.
Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.3 Regulating the Cell Cycle 135
 What Causes Cancer? All cancerous cells have lost
control over the cell cycle because of defects in the genetic
material that regulates cell growth and division. The defects
in the DNA can be prompted by smoking, chewing tobacco,
radiation exposure, and viral infections. Some cancer cells do
not respond to external regulatory proteins, and others stop
responding to internal regulatory proteins.

Treatments for Cancer Some cancerous tumors can

be removed by surgery, but others need to be treated with
radiation and/or chemotherapy. The most severe form of skin
cancer, melanoma, can be treated by surgery, especially when
detected early. In radiation therapy, high-energy, carefully
targeted beams of radiation are used to kill the cancerous cells
because the radiation damages the genetic material of these
cells. Chemotherapy is the use of chemical compounds that
target and kill rapidly dividing cells, but a side effect of these
drugs is the interference with division of normal, healthy cells in
parts of the body such as hair or the stomach lining.

Visual Reading Tool: Cyclin Levels

The MPF (mitosis-promoting factor) enzyme is present during the entire cell cycle. When MPF
cyclin is also present, mitosis occurs. View the chart and answer the questions below.

Cyclin Levels in Fertilized Clam Eggs

MPF Enzyme
Concentration

n
cli
Cy
PF
M

G1 S G2 M phase G1 S G2 M phase G1 S G2 M phase G1 S

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Minutes After Fertilization

1. About how long does one cell cycle last in fertilized clam eggs?

2. What occurs when MPF cyclin levels are highest?

3. What are the four steps that occur during the M phase?

136 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER 11
LESSON

4 Cell Differentiation

READING TOOL Main Idea and Details In the chart below, fill in the details
that support the main ideas from this lesson.

Main Idea Details

From One Cell to Many
Defining Differentiation

Mapping Differentiation

Differentiation in Mammals

Stem Cells and Development

Human Development

Stem Cells

Frontiers in Stem Cell Research

Ethical Issues

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Regenerative Medicine

Lesson Summary
As you read, circle the

From One Cell to Many answers to each Key

Question. Underline any
KEY QUESTION How do cells become specialized for words you do not understand.
different functions?
Multicellular organisms start as one cell, and then grow through
BUILD Vocabulary
the developmental stage called an embryo, which gradually
embryo developing stage of a
becomes the adult organism. As this process proceeds, cells
multicellular organism
become different from one another and perform different
functions for the organism.
Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.4 Cell Differentiation 137
 Defining Differentiation During development, cell
Build Vocabulary differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized
for specific functions.
differentiation process in
which cells become specialized in
structure and function Mapping Differentiation Biologists have determined
totipotent cells that are able the pathway of cell differentiation in a microscopic worm,
to develop into any type of cell C. elegans. The identity of each cell from the point of
found in the body (including cells fertilization to the 959-celled adult has been mapped and
that make up the extraembryonic identified.
membranes and placenta)
blastocyst stage of early Differentiation in Mammals Differentiation in mammals
development in mammals that
is more complicated and influenced by many interwoven
consists of a hollow ball of cells
factors. However, there is a specific point in the development of
pluripotent cells that are capable
of developing into most, but not
the organism when cell differentiation is complete.
all, of the body’s cell types
stem cell unspecialized cell that
can give rise to one or more types
Stem Cells and Development
of specialized cells KEY QUESTION What are stem cells?
multipotent cell with limited
potential to develop into a certain
Stem cells are the unspecialized cells from which differentiated
type of cell within a tissue cells develop.
Prefixes The prefix toti- in How the differentiated cells develop from the single cell
totipotent means “entirely.” The made from the fertilized egg is one of the secrets of developing
prefix pluri- in pluripotent means organisms that biologists are still investigating. The zygote, or
“several.” Totipotent cells can the fertilized egg, is totipotent because it is the single cell that
develop into any type of body cell.
Pluripotent cells can develop into
is able to develop into any type of cell in the body.
many different types of cells, but
not all types.  There are other Human Development Human development begins as a
words that use the prefix toti- zygote, then after a few cell divisions, the embryo is formed.
that mean “entirely.” What is The blastocyst is formed next, which is a hollow ball of cells
an example?
with another group of cells in the center. The outer cells of the
blastocyst will eventually become the tissues that attach to the
placenta of the mother, and the inner cell mass will become the
actual embryo. The inner cells are pluripotent because they can
develop into any of the cell types of the body, but they cannot
form the tissues surrounding the embryo like the totipotent
zygote.

Stem Cells Stem cells are unspecialized cells from which

differentiated cells develop. They are found in the developing
embryo and also in specific places of the adult body.

Adult Stem Cells Adult stem cells are multipotent because

the types of cells that they form are restricted to the tissue type
in which they are found.

Embryonic Stem Cells Embryonic stem cells are

pluripotent because they are able to produce any cell in the
body.

138 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Frontiers in Stem Cell Research
KEY QUESTION What are some possible benefits and issues
associated with stem cell research?
Stem cells may be useful to repair cell damage from heart READING TOOL
attacks, strokes, or spinal cord injuries. Human embryonic stem Pros and Cons
cell research involves ethical issues. People have many different
Basic research on stem cells takes on a special urgency in light opinions on stem cell research,
of the importance it might have for human health. Heart attacks including whether or not it is
destroy cells in the heart muscle, strokes injure brain cells, and spinal ethical.  Determine the benefits
and issues regarding stem cell
cord injuries cause paralysis by breaking connections between nerve
research.
cells. Not surprisingly, the prospect of using stem cells to repair such
Benefits:
cellular damage has excited medical researchers.

Ethical Issues Human embryonic stem cell research is

controversial because the arguments for it and against it both
involve ethical issues of life and death. Adult stem cells are
harvested from people who are willing to go through the
process of donating the cells. However, obtaining embryonic
stem cells involves the destruction of a human embryo.
Issues:
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Shinya Yamanaka, a
Japanese Nobel Prize–winning stem cell researcher, converted
human fibroblasts, cells that make proteins in skin, into induced
pluripotent stem cells. These modified fibroblasts may be able
to replace embryonic stem cells, potentially solving the ethical
problems.

Regenerative Medicine Some organisms regenerate lost

body parts. Scientists continue to study the steps of regeneration
and hope to replicate the steps in the human body.

Visual Reading Tool: Future Treatment for Heart Disease

The diagram below shows how stem cells can be used to repair damaged heart tissue. Fill in
the three steps doctors would take.

1 2

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.4 Cell Differentiation 139
 11 Chapter Review

Review Vocabulary
Match the vocabulary word with the corresponding definition.

1. a disorder in which cells do not respond to regulatory a. cell division

factors, resulting in uncontrolled growth and division

2. the process by which cells become specialized b. cancer

3. 
the process by which a cell divides into two new c. tumor
daughter cells

4. 
a mass of cancerous cells that can be benign or d. cell differentiation
malignant

Review Key Questions

Provide evidence and details to support your answers.

5. Describe the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

6. List the four phases of mitosis in the order in which they occur and describe what happens in each.

7. Describe two types of tumors, and indicate which type is harmful and which is not.

8. What are the benefits and issues regarding embryonic stem cell research?

140 Chapter 11 Cell Growth and Division Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.