JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 108, 014901 共2010兲

Sensor shape design for piezoelectric cantilever beams to harvest

vibration energy
Michael I. Friswella兲 and Sondipon Adhikari
School of Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
共Received 13 May 2010; accepted 29 May 2010; published online 6 July 2010兲
Energy harvesting for the purpose of powering low power electronic sensor systems has received
explosive attention in the last few years. A common device uses the piezoelectric effect for a
cantilever beams at resonance to harvest ambient vibration energy. However most of these devices
have a rectangular piezoelectric patch covering all or part of the beam. This paper considers the
optimum design of such a device, and in particular investigates the effect that the size and shape of
piezoelectric sensor has on the harvested energy. It is shown that significant increases in harvested
energy may be obtained by optimising the sensor design. © 2010 American Institute of Physics.
关doi:10.1063/1.3457330兴

I. INTRODUCTION allows the shape to be specified easily using a small number

of variables, and makes the optimization of the shape pos-
The harvesting of ambient vibration energy for use in sible.
powering low energy electronic devices has formed the focus
of much recent research.1–4 Energy harvesting of ambient II. ELECTROMECHANICAL MODEL OF A CANTILEVER
vibration has become important and new electronic devices BEAM HARVESTER
are being developed that require very low power. Completely The energy harvester consists of a cantilever beam
wireless sensor systems are desirable and this can only be whose support is subjected to motion from the host structure.
accomplished by using batteries and/or harvested energy. The development in this paper will assume that the motion of
Harvesting is attractive because harvested energy can be the beam support may be translational and rotational. The
used directly or used to recharge batteries or other storage system is shown schematically in Fig. 1, although only the
devices, which enhances battery life. Of the published results translational support motion, u共t兲, is shown. The beam is not
that focus on the piezoelectric effect as the transduction necessarily uniform, and discrete masses may be added to the
method, only a small part is concerned with random beam. The mechanical parts of this model, and the excitation
excitation5,6 and almost all has focused on harvesting using from the support motion, are standard.
cantilever beams and on single frequency ambient energy, We now concentrate on the electromechanical coupling.
i.e., resonance based energy harvesting. Several authors7–11 Suppose that the displacement of the beam is given by w共x兲,
have proposed methods to optimize the parameters of the where x is the position along the beam. This displacement is
system to maximize the harvested energy. the elastic deformation, that is the displacement relative to
Erturk and Inman12–14 developed the equations of motion the rigid body displacement due to the support excitation.
for cantilever beam energy harvesters. Goldschmidtboeing The constant thickness piezoelectric material is placed along
and Woias15 and Dietl and Garcia16 considered the effect of the beam, and the effective width is given by f共x兲. The vari-
different beam shapes on the harvested energy. Schoeftner able width would most likely be implemented by varying the
and Irschik17 considered shaped transducers for increasing width of the electrode while keeping the width of piezoelec-
passive damping, which is closely related to energy harvest- tric material constant. The current output is then given by
ing. Kaal et al.18 considered energy harvesters with piezo-
electric transducers that only covered part of the beam. Rupp
et al.19 used topology optimization to design the shape of the
i p = − e31h 冕
0
L
f共x兲
⳵ 3w
⳵ x2 ⳵ t
dx, 共1兲

piezoelectric layers in harvesters constructed of plates and

shells. where h is the distance of the piezoelectric material from the
beam centerline 共assuming the beam is uniform and the pi-
This paper considers beam energy harvesters clamped at
ezoelectric layer is very thin兲 and e31 is the piezoelectric
one end to a support that vibrates sinusoidally. The novel
constant. This equation assumes that the material is operating
feature of this analysis is the incorporation of a piezoelectric
transducer whose width can be varied along the beam length.
Shaped piezoelectric sensors are well established for modal
control20 and applications are emerging in structural health
monitoring.21 The approach specifies the shape of the sensor
by the width and the slope at the finite element nodes; this
FIG. 1. Schematic of the cantilever beam energy harvester excited at the
a兲
Electronic mail: m.i.friswell@swansea.ac.uk. support.

0021-8979/2010/108共1兲/014901/6/$30.00 108, 014901-1 © 2010 American Institute of Physics

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014901-2 M. I. Friswell and S. Adhikari J. Appl. Phys. 108, 014901 共2010兲

in the 31 mode, which is the case for a thin layer of homo-

geneous piezoelectric material on the beam with the elec-
trodes on the top and bottom surfaces; a similar equation
may be developed for transducers with interdigitated elec-
trodes.
If the system is modeled with finite element analysis,
using standard Euler–Bernoulli beam elements, then we may FIG. 2. The two electrical circuits for the harvester 共a兲 without an inductor,
derive the free-free mass and stiffness matrices M f f and K f f . 共b兲 with an inductor.
Assuming that the beam is clamped at one end and this sup-
port motion has translational and rotational motion given by damping, then a term dependent on the support generalized
u共t兲 and ␺共t兲, respectively, then the kinetic and potential en- velocities would also appear on the right side of the equa-
ergies of the beam, T and U, are tions of motion.

冦 冧冦 冧
 Using the finite element displacement functions, the
u̇ u̇
charge on the piezoelectric material may be estimated for
␺˙ ␺˙ each element and the total charge obtained by summing the
charge over the elements. This is exactly the same as the
q̇1 + u̇ + x2␺˙ q̇1 + u̇ + x2␺˙
T= Mf f development for shaped sensors for control or structural
q̇2 + ␺˙ q̇2 + ␺˙ health monitoring.20,21 For a beam element with cubic shape
functions,20 the current generated by the piezoelectric is the
q̇3 + u̇ + x3␺˙ q̇3 + u̇ + x3␺˙
time derivative of the charge produced, and is
] ]
i pe共t兲 = − f 共6兲

再冎再冎 再冎
e C peq̇e ,

u̇ u̇ u̇ where
= q̇Mq̇ + 2q̇B M + EM 共2兲

冤 冥
␺˙ ␺˙ ␺˙ 36 33ᐉe − 36 3ᐉe
and e31h 3ᐉe − 3ᐉe − ᐉ2e
4ᐉ2e
C pe = , 共7兲

冦冧 冦冧
 30ᐉe − 36 − 3ᐉe 36 − 33ᐉe
0 0
U= 0 K f f 0 = qKq, 共3兲 3ᐉe − ᐉ2e − 3ᐉe 4ᐉ2e
q q ᐉe is the element length, qe are generalized displacements for

the element, and fe is the piezoelectric shape defined at the
where q = 关q1q2. . .兴 are the nodal generalized displacements element nodes. Adding the contributions for all nodes gives
of the beam model, not including the node at the support, and

再冎
the total current produced as
are defined relative to the rigid body motion of the beam.
The dot denotes the derivative with respect to time and xi is u̇
the distance of the ith node from the support. M and K are i p = − fC pqq̇ − fC ps , 共8兲
␺˙
the standard mass and stiffness matrices for the beam with
cantilever boundary conditions. The matrix B M is obtained where C pq and C ps are matrices that are easily assembled
from the columns of the free-free mass matrix, and is given from element coupling matrices, Eq. 共7兲, and f is a vector
by that defines the sensor shape.20,21 The last term in Eq. 共8兲

冤冥
arises because of the imposed motion at the beam support. f
1 0
actually gives the transducer width and slope at the nodes of
0 1 the finite element model, and the shape within the elements
1 x2 is approximated using the beam shape functions.
B M = 关0 I 兴M f f , 共4兲 The force on the beam from the piezoelectric material is
0 1
given by
1 x3
] ] Q p = C
pqfv p , 共9兲
where v p共t兲 is the voltage across the piezoceramic. Thus

再冎
where 0 is the n ⫻ 2 zero matrix and I is the n ⫻ n identity
matrix, where n is the number of degrees of freedom 共length ü
of the vector q兲. Mq̈ + Dq̇ + Kq − C
pqfv p = − B M . 共10兲
␺¨

再冎
We then obtain the equations of motion as
ü
Mq̈ + Dq̇ + Kq = Q p − B M , 共5兲
␺¨ III. SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS FOR THE
ENERGY HARVESTER
where Q p is the force arising from charge on the piezoelec-
tric material. Note that a damping matrix, D, has been in- Figure 2 shows two simple electrical circuits that will be
cluded which represents internal damping in the beam; if modeled to investigate the performance of the energy har-
other damping mechanisms were included, for example, air vester. The governing equations are obtained using Kir-

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014901-3 M. I. Friswell and S. Adhikari J. Appl. Phys. 108, 014901 共2010兲

choff’s laws, where the current generated in the piezoelectric ␪r = ␾rC

pqf. 共17兲
material is given by Eq. 共8兲. Thus, without the inductor 关case
共a兲兴, the governing electrical equation is The base excitation coefficient matrix is

 
f C pqq̇ + f C ps 再冎u̇ 1
+ C pv̇ p + v p = 0, 共11兲
B Mr = ␾rB M /mr . 共18兲

再冎
␺˙ Rl The equations governing the electrical circuit become,

where the load resistance is Rl, and the capacitance of the 1 u̇

␪r ṗr + C pv̇ p + v p = − fC ps , 共19兲
piezoceramic is C p. Rl ␺˙
When an inductor is included 关case 共b兲兴 the governing

再冎
without the inductor, or

再冎
equation is
ü 1 1 1 1 ü
fC pqq̈ + fC ps + C pv̈ p + v̇ p + v p = 0, 共12兲 ␪r p̈r + C pv̈ p + v̇ p + v p = − fC ps , 共20兲
␺¨ Rl L Rl L ␺¨

where L is the inductance of the circuit. with the inductor.

One important feature of the shaped transducer is that
the capacitance of the piezoelectric device depends on the A. Power generated under resonant harmonic
area of the electrode, and therefore the shape of the elec- excitation
trode. Thus
Suppose now that the beam support is excited sinusoi-
Cp =
⑀33
tp
冕 0
L
兩f共x兲兩dx, 共13兲
dally in translation only, so that
u共t兲 = u0 cos ␻t = R兵u0ei␻t其, ␺共t兲 = 0, 共21兲
where ⑀33 is a constant, t p is the thickness of the piezoelectric where the excitation frequency, ␻, is assumed to be constant
material. If the sensor width is always positive or always and i = 冑−1. Then Eq. 共16兲 becomes
negative then it is possible to perform the integration using
␪r
the beam element shape functions to obtain p̈r + 2␨r␻r ṗr + ␻r2 pr − v p = R兵− ␻2B Mru0ei␻t其, 共22兲

mr
C p = f g, 共14兲
where B Mr is the first element of B Mr. Looking for solutions
where g is a vector calculated from the shape functions. of the form,
However if the sensor width changes sign, which usually
occurs within an element, then there is no closed form ex- pr共t兲 = R兵Pr共␻兲ei␻t其 and v p共t兲 = R兵V p共␻兲ei␻t其, 共23兲
pression for the capacitance in terms of the nodal values where Pr and V p are complex, gives
defining the sensor. Thus in the general case Eq. 共13兲 has to
be calculated numerically. Note that the change in sign for ␪r
共− ␻2 + 2␨r␻ri␻ + ␻r2兲Pr − V p = − ␻2B Mru0 . 共24兲
the sensor width denotes a change in polarity in the electrical mr
connections to the piezoceramic.
Equation 共19兲, for the electrical circuit without the in-
ductor, becomes
IV. SINGLE MODE ELECTROMECHANICAL MODEL
FOR RESONANT HARVESTER 冉
␪ ri ␻ P r + C pi ␻ +
1
Rl
冊V p = − fC psui␻u0 , 共25兲

Often the energy harvester is designed to be resonant, as where C psu is the first column of C ps.
this increases the power output of the harvester for a fixed For the case with the inductor, Eq. 共25兲, becomes

冉 冊
frequency excitation. Thus one of the natural frequencies of
the harvester corresponds to the excitation frequency, and the i␻ 1
− ␪ r␻ 2 P r + − C p␻ 2 + + V p = fC psu␻2u0 . 共26兲
deformation shape of the beam is dominated by a single Rl L
mode. Suppose the rth mode is excited, then we may ap-
The voltage may be estimated by eliminating the dis-
proximate the response using a single degree of freedom,
placement in Eq. 共24兲 and one of Eqs. 共25兲 and 共26兲, and the
namely the rth principal coordinate pr, so that
amplitude of the harvested power is obtained as
q = ␾r pr , 共15兲
兩V p兩2
where ␾r is the rth mode shape. Substituting this displace- Pout = . 共27兲
Rl
ment into Eq. 共5兲, using Eq. 共9兲 and premultiplying by ␾r,

再冎
gives the single degree of freedom mechanical model as
B. Simple approximation for the harvested
␪r ü
p̈r + 2␨r␻r ṗr + ␻r2 pr − v p = B Mr , 共16兲 power
mr ␺¨
Designing a harvester for a particular situation is diffi-
where ␨r and ␻r are the rth damping ratio and natural fre- cult because all of the parameters interact. To gain some
quency, mr = ␾rM␾r is the rth modal mass, and insight a number of simplifying assumptions will be made

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014901-4 M. I. Friswell and S. Adhikari J. Appl. Phys. 108, 014901 共2010兲

θ = 0.005 mr␻r2␪rB Mru0

r
Vp = . 共29兲
θ = 0.01
r cr/Rl + ␪r2
20
θ = 0.015
r
θ = 0.02
The voltage estimate is not affected by the capacitance of the
r
piezoelectric transducer, although the inductance has to be
Power (mW)

changed as the transducer shape changes to ensure the elec-

10
trical resonance occurs at the excitation frequency. For a
given electrical resistance there will a finite value of cou-
pling coefficient that gives a maximum voltage 共and hence
power兲 output, given by ␪r2 = cr / Rl, and the voltage tends to
zero for very low or very high coupling coefficients.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cp (pF)
V. OPTIMISING THE SHAPE OF THE PIEZOCERAMIC
FIG. 3. 共Color online兲 The effect of coupling coefficient and piezoelectric For a given system, and excitation amplitude and fre-
capacitance for the resonant harvester without an inductor. quency, the power harvested may be estimated using Eqs.
共10兲–共12兲 and 共27兲. The coefficients of these equations de-
for the system without an inductor. Suppose the load imped- pend on the shape of the transducer, which is approximated
ance is low, so that the optimum is a resonant harvester, that using the shape functions. Thus the shape is specified using
is ␻ = ␻r for some mode 共i.e., some r兲. Further, suppose that the vector f and hence the power obtained is a function of f,
the resonance condition, and other constraints such as maxi- or
mum harvester mass and maximum dimensions, fixes the Pout = Pout共f兲. 共30兲
dimensions of the beam. The excitation term on the right side
of Eq. 共25兲 will be neglected, as this will certainly be small if Unfortunately the form of the equations mean that a closed
the lengths of the beam elements are small. The output volt- form solution for the optimum vector f cannot be obtained
age may then be written as and the optimization problem must be solved numerically.
However, this numerical optimization raises a number of is-
mr␻r2␪rB Mru0

冉 冊
Vp = , 共28兲 sues. As the numerical approximation to the transducer shape
1 is improved by using more finite elements, the number of
c r C pi ␻ r + + ␪r2
Rl variables to be optimised 共i.e., the length of f兲 increases lead-
ing to poor conditioning and the presence of many local
where cr = 2␨r␻rmr is the rth modal damping parameter. optima. The problem of local optima is compounded by con-
Since the beam parameters are assumed to be fixed, the straints on the width of the transducer, which cannot extend
output voltage, and hence power harvested, for a given out- outside the width of the beam; often the global optimum is
put load and excitation frequency, is a function of the elec- located on one of these constraint boundaries. The condition-
tromechanical coupling parameter, ␪r, and the capacitance of ing of the problem can be improved by also minimising the
the piezoelectric material, C p. Both of these parameters de- curvature of the piezoelectric material width,20 given by
pend on the shape of the piezoelectric transducer; as the area
of coverage of the electrode increases, both C p and ␪r tend to Jc = fEf, 共31兲
increase. For a typical case, where ␻r = 100 Hz, Rl where E is the stiffness matrix of a uniform free-free beam
= 100 k⍀, B Mr = 1, mr = 1 kg, ␨r = 0.01, Fig. 3 shows the with a flexural rigidity of unity. The problem then becomes a
power generated for a range of values of C p and ␪r. It is clear multi-objective optimization that can be solved to obtain a
that the electromechanical coupling, ␪r has an optimum Pareto front that highlights the trade-off between maximising
value, and that the piezoelectric capacitance, C p, should be power and minimising curvature.
minimised. For rectangular transducers, these two require- The difficulty in the optimization problem does suggest
ments are often conflicting, and hence a shaped transducer an alternative, where the transducer shape is decoupled from
may be able to help. Increasing the thickness of the piezo- the approximation inherent in f. The shape may be specified
electric material is another way to reduce the capacitance, using a small number of variables, and for a given set of
but this may not be possible. values of these variables the corresponding f may be ob-
If a mode has a vibration node, then it is important that tained and the power estimated. In this way the number of
the transducer only covers parts of the beam where the cur- variables used in the optimization is not related to the quality
vature has the same sign 共or the transducer could be seg- of the approximation 共given by the number of finite elements
mented兲. used兲. Furthermore promising candidate shapes, such as a
Consider now the system with an inductor. Suppose that rectangular transducer of variable length, may be imple-
the natural frequency of the beam has been tuned to the mented and easily optimised.
excitation frequency, so that ␻ = ␻r, as above. Furthermore
assume that the electrical circuit has been tuned so that it
VI. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
also resonates at the excitation frequency 共neglecting the
electrical resistance and the electromechanical coupling兲, so This example is designed to demonstrate that different
that ␻ = ␻e where ␻2e = 1 / 共LC p兲. The voltage generated is then shaped sensors can influence significantly the power gener-

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014901-5 M. I. Friswell and S. Adhikari J. Appl. Phys. 108, 014901 共2010兲

15

Sensor 1 (mm)
5

Power (W)
10
0
5
−5 0

Capacitance (pF)
60
Sensor 2 (mm)

5
40
0
20

−5 0
0
Sensor 3 (mm)

Coupling
−0.005
0

−0.01
−5 0 50 100 150
Distance along the beam (mm)
Sensor 4 (mm)

5
FIG. 5. The effect of varying the length of a rectangular transducer.
0

−5 between the full width sensor and the no sensor. Sensor

0 50 100 150
Distance along the beam (mm) shape 4 is rectangular, whereas sensor shape 3 has a smooth
transition over one finite element. Note that the rectangular
FIG. 4. 共Color online兲 The shapes of the four candidate sensors. The dotted transducer has slightly smaller area, and hence gives a
lines represent the extent of the steel beam. smaller capacitance and coupling coefficient, but this results
in a higher power output.
ated by the harvester. Consider a steel beam of length 150 To demonstrate the effect the shape of the transducer can
mm, breadth 10 mm, and thickness 3 mm, clamped at one have, the length of sensor shape 3 is varied. All of the physi-
end at a support that vibrates with an amplitude of 1 mm at cal parameters remain unchanged, although the number of
a frequency of 110 Hz. Note that this is very close to the first elements is now increased to 50. Figure 5 shows the effect of
natural frequency of the cantilever beam at 111.4 Hz. The varying the transducer length 共defined as the distance where
damping ratio for the first mode is 1%. The piezoelectric the transducer remains at the full beam width兲 and shows
material is 0.27 mm thick, with permittivity given by ⑀33 that the capacitance increases with length, but the coupling
= 1800⑀0, where the permittivity of free space is ⑀0 coefficient decreases. This results in a length, just below 60
= 8.854 pF/ m, and the piezoelectric constant is given by mm, that gives maximum power.
e31 = −12.54 C / m2. The load resistance is 100 k⍀ and no
inductor is present. Four possible sensor shapes are tested, as VII. CONCLUSIONS
shown in Fig. 4. The excitation frequency is very close to the
first natural frequency and hence the harvester is resonant. The paper has developed the equations to estimate the
Table I gives the capacitance, coupling coefficient and power power output from a beam energy harvester with a piezoelec-
output for the four sensors, and shows that the sensor shape tric transducer. In particular the possibility of changing the
has a significant effect on the power, through the competing shape of the transducer has been included by specifying the
influences of the capacitance and the coupling coefficient. width and slope of the transducer at the finite element nodes.
Furthermore covering the whole beam with piezoelectric ma- The transducer shape alters both the capacitance of the pi-
terial generates about one third of the power of the case ezoelectric material, and also the coupling factor; often these
where the material only covers part of the beam. Table I parameters give rise to opposing effects on the power output.
gives the power estimated from the full model and also that Four example shapes have been evaluated to determine the
estimated from the single mode model, showing that the lat- power output obtained, and this clearly shows that the shape
ter is a good approximation. Note that the coupling coeffi- has a significant influence. The example was a cantilever
cient is a single value based on the single mode approxima- beam where the support was excited; other systems, for ex-
tion. ample, where a discrete mass is placed at the free end of the
The difference between shapes 3 and 4 is the transition beam, may also be analyzed. A further example demon-

TABLE I. The properties and performance of the three shaped sensors.

Power output 共W兲

Capacitance
Sensor number Description 共pF兲 Coupling Full model Single mode

1 Uniform 44.27 ⫺0.00918 6.361 6.549

2 Triangular 22.14 ⫺0.00667 10.17 10.76
3 Segment 共smooth兲 21.40 ⫺0.00762 13.48 13.80
4 Segment 共square兲 20.66 ⫺0.00748 13.65 13.98

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014901-6 M. I. Friswell and S. Adhikari J. Appl. Phys. 108, 014901 共2010兲

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