Theme VI

Literature and Translations

Time Line
Indic Literary Culture
Sanskrit
Awadhi
Brajbhasha
Other Indic Literary Traditions
Imperial and Sub-Imperial Patronage
Society and Economy

Radha and Krishna in Rasikapriya, Malwa, India, Circa 1634

Author: Anonymous
Photograph Source: Victoria and Albert Museum;
308 Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Radha_and_Krishna_in_Rasikapriya,_ca1634.jpg
 Urban Economy and
UNIT 18 PATRONAGE OF LITERARY Monetization
CULTURE*
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Approaches to Study the Indic Literary Traditions
18.2.1 Sheldon Pollock on Vernacularisation of Indic Literary Tradition
18.2.2 Allison Busch on Indic Literary Tradition
18.2.2 Audrey Trushkey on Cultural Encounters

18.3 Characteristics of Indic Literary Tradition

18.3.1 Political Will and the Vernacularisation
18.3.2 Circulation and Porous Boundaries
18.3.3 Hybridity
18.3.4 Vernacularisation of the Sanskrit Texts
18.3.5 Bhakti Tradition and Vernacular Literature

18.4 Sanskrit and the Mughal Patronage

18.5 Patronage to Indic Literary Tradition
18.5.1 Patronage at the Mughal Court
18.5.2 Patronage Provided at the Sub-Imperial Level

18.6 Vernacular Literary Tradition

18.6.1 Vernacular Literary Tradition: Awadhi
18.6.2 Vernacular Literary Tradition: Brajbhasha
18.6.3 Other Indic Literary Traditions

18.7 Summary
18.8 Keywords
18.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
18.10 Suggested Readings
18.11 Instructional Video Recommendations

18.0 OBJECTIVES
The study of this unit would enable you to:
 Comprehend various approaches to study the Indic literary traditions,

* Prof. Abha Singh, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open Uniersity,
New Delhi 309
Society and
Literature Economy
and  Identify the characteristics of Indic literary traditions,
Translations
 Understand the nature and pattern of Mughal patronage to Sanskrit literature.
 Contemplate the patronage given to the Indic literary traditions at the Mughal
court,
 Assess the growth of vernacular literary tradition during the sixteenth century,
 Examine the role of bhakti in the growth of Indic literary tradition, and
 Appraise the process of assimilation of classical Sanskrit tradition into
vernacular traditions and the emergence of new styles of genres.

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The present Unit attempts to dig into re-evaluating the literary achievements during
the Mughal period. Two things are important here: a) To what extent there was a
decline of the Sanskritic tradition; b) To what extent Imperial patronage was
received by Sanskritist scholars; and c) The nature of patronage at Sub-Imperial
level to Sanskrit and vernacular traditions. However, the mega-translation works
from Sanskrit to Persian undertaken at the Imperial Court are kept out of the
discussion here, for we have already touched upon this in Unit 1 in the context of
the activities at the maktabkhana at the Imperial establishment of Akbar.
To recapitulate, in our Course BHIC 107 we have discussed the general decline
of Sanskrit much before the emergence of the Turks on the scene primarily, on
account of the rise of the vernaculars. The present Unit aims to elaborate the details
further into the sixteenth century, particularly under the Mughals.
The present Unit also delves into the major debate prevailing among the historians
over the break in the ‘millennial’ Sanskrit literary and cultural traditions. As a
result of Turkish and Mughal ascendancy Persian dominated, and Sanskrit literary
tradition gradually faded away. However, you would find that still Kashmir, Gujarat,
and Banaras were major centres of Sanskrit learning, though no longer it enjoyed
the language of the court. Even Indo-Muslim patronage played a crucial role in
the development of vernacular tradition, particularly Brajbhasha.
Even though Persian remained chiefly the language of the elites from the advent
of the Turks, Hindawi did enjoy an important place and remained the chief language
of all administrative and revenue transactions/records at the local level till 1582
when finally Akbar declared Persian as official language and records were to be
maintained thence onwards till pargana level in Persian, though still at village
level revenue records continued to be maintained/written in Hindawi.
However, the development of vernacular literature was not linear; it passed through
multiple experiences. The dominant influence and themes in general picked up by
these vernacular poets/writers were either Puranic or were eulogistic poems.
In the medieval period, it is difficult to bind languages within the bounds of
geographical spaces; instead, multiplicity was the commonplace. Boundaries were
flexible, cutting across regions, and fluidity, mobility and borrowings across
linguistic bounds was the norm.
We would be using terms ‘cosmopolitan’ and ‘vernacular’ quite often in the present
310
Unit. Here let us explain the terms ‘cosmopolitan’ and ‘vernacular’ in the context of Urban Economy
Patronage and
of Literary
Indic literary tradition. The term ‘cosmopolitan’ indicates something that had wide-ranging Monetization
Culture
expanse in terms of space and time and which cut across in terms of religious and
regional boundaries; while ‘vernacular’ speaks something confined to limited space and
time, often circumscribed to a limited locality/region.

18.2 APPROACHES TO STUDY THE INDIC LITERARY

TRADITIONS
The categories ‘cosmopolitan’ and ‘vernacular’ are not exclusive. Some prominent
‘vernaculars’ did assume ‘cosmopolitan’ character. Braj and Awadhi within no
time emerged ‘cosmopolitan’ ‘within their regional worlds’. Equally, not all
‘cosmopolitan’ languages necessarily passed through the process of vernacular. It
is very much true for the cosmopolitan Sanskrit that does not seem to have passed
through the phase of vernacular. Pollock (February 1998: 25) argues, ‘As the
cosmopolitan is constituted through cultural flows from the vernacular, so the
vernacular constructs itself by appropriation from the cosmopolitan…’ A
‘cosmopolis’ did enjoy ‘imperial-cultural association and aesthetic style’, ‘shaped
political vocabulary and culture’ (Pollock February 1998: 15).
In the light of the ‘Cosmopolitan’ vs. Vernacular’, the present Section focuses on
three major approaches current among the scholar pertaining to the emergence of
Indic literary traditions during the medieval period.
Here, our emphasis is on the growth of Indic literary traditions in northern India
for we have already discussed the growth of regional languages in south India and
the Deccan in our Course BHIC 107.

18.2.1 Sheldon Pollock on Vernacularisation of Indic Literary

Tradition
The emergence of local/regional dialects during the early medieval period is looked
at by Sheldon Pollock as ‘vernacularisation’ ‘a process of change by which the
universalistic orders, formations, and practices of the preceding millennium were
supplemented and gradually replaced by localized forms’ (Pollock Summer 1998:
41). According to him, through the process of literalization (local language exposed
to literacy), produced literature, leading to homogenization and thus unified and
eventually succeed in ‘territorialization’ and in some cases ‘ethnicization’. Through
this process, argues Pollock (Summer 1998: 42), ‘vernacular literary cultures
gradually encompassed and superseded the translocal codes, aesthetic forms, and
geocultural spaces that had earlier been prevalent’. This vernacularization created
‘new regional worlds’, argues Pollock. These vernaculars, unlike cosmopolitan
Sanskrit (which had reached from Central Asia to Srilanka to Afghanistan to
Annam), had limited reach, were not global, transregional, or cosmopolitan.
Initially, these languages were used for local documentation and local inscriptions
were inscribed in that, much before the appearance of any literary text. In the case
of Kannada, the first document appears in the fifth century and the ninth century,
almost four hundred years later first literary text appears in the court of the
Rashtrakutas, around 850, Kavirjamrgam (The Way of the King of Poets), a text-
based on Sanskrit Kavyadarsa (Mirror of Poetry). Thus first was the attempt to
establish the ‘language of science’, a step in the direction of establishing itself as
311
Society and
Literature Economy
and a literary language. The next important feature was their attempt to situate themselves in
Translations the local geocultural spheres. In North India, by fifteenth century ‘non-Muslim courts’
were vernacularised. Braj assumed prominence in the Tomar court of Gwalior in the
fifteenth century. Again here the Sanskrit idioms and texts were ‘redeployed’ to the
contemporary concerns and situations. Vishnudas’ Mahabharata (1435) and his
Ramayanakatha was an attempt in this direction. ‘Vernacular language choice, within
the context of Sanskrit cultural norms and activities, entails a commitment to a range of
disciplinary language practices (grammaticization, for example) and technologies for
reproduction (especially writing) that ensure the unification, standardization, and above
all differentiation of the vernacular code’ (Pollock Summer 1998: 58).
This trend, argues Pollock, varied in periods: In Gujarati, such literary productions started
in the 12th century; in Assamese in the 14th century; in Oriya and Malayalam in the
fifteenth century, in Avadhi in the 14th century, while in the Braj in the 15th-16th century,
nonetheless, visible uniformly across the subcontinent. Pollock (Summer 1998: 54) argues,
‘By appropriating Sanskrit models for inscriptional and literary expressivity, remapping
epic space, invoking new sociotextual communities that would inhabit the new vernacular
places and (re)produce themselves by reading/hearing those new vernacular texts, courtly
intellectuals in southern Asia at the start of the second millennium created a wholly new
kind of cultural formation. Although the cosmopolitan code of Sanskrit is not
eliminated,…its significance in the literary sphere and in the articulation of the political
dramatically decreased.’ Pollock (Summer 1998: 57) argues that of this vernacularization
three features were common across the subcontinent: ‘the new definition of culture-
space, the importance of superposed models for local language literary creation, and the
interest of the court in the production of vernacularity’. Further, Sanskrit holy scriptures
were hardly translated, instead vernacular writings produced their scriptures, Saiva
vachanas (in Kannada), Tamil Veda (Tirumulai). In the context of Kannada Pollock
argues (February 1998: 25), ‘Kannada could not achieve its new rank [cosmopolitan
idiom] unless it possessed both the epistemological status of Sanskrit and the dignity of
it philological apparatus (i.e. lakshanagranthas or rule-setting texts.’

18.2.2 Allison Busch on Indic Literary Tradition

While analysing courtly patronage and courtly riti poetry of Brajbhasha in the court of
the Bundela rulers of Orchha Busch argues that during the colonial period in the garb of
‘modernity’ and ‘nationalism’ Indian literati failed to appreciate the vibrant character of
classical Hindi poetry i.e. riti poetry. Here our focus is not to enter into that part of the
debate to what extent British colonialism played a decisive role in undermining the
importance of ‘pre-modern’ (Mughal period) vernacular literary culture, instead, our
focus is to look into the vibrancy of vernacular literary tradition vis-à-vis the patronage
received.
Though scholars have largely discarded and looked down upon the riti poetry (vernacular
Brajbhasha) lacking in intellect (acharyatva) and originality (maulikta), Allison Busch
argues that Braj writers like Keshavdas did not dissociate themselves with classical
Sanskrit style. However, they brought changes to the need of the time, suggestive of the
fact that they were ready to question the supremacy of Sanskrit and the existing literary
norms. ‘In short, the rýti aesthetic was a unique blend of the old and the new, the
familiar and the unfamiliar, the cosmopolitan and the regional’(Busch 2011: 66). According
to Busch riti poetry was much radical in this manner. They considered themselves not
just the transmitter of Sanskrit texts instead viewed themselves as the theorists of a new
312 style of bhasha kavita (vernacular literature). Braj poets proclaimed that they ventured
out to pen down ‘new literary theory’ in Brajbhasha. Keshavadas’ Rasikapriya is an Urban Economy
Patronage and
of Literary
adaptation of the Sanskrit Sringaratilaka of Rudrabhatt nonetheless he had his detour Monetization
Culture
in that. Further, Keshavdas also attempts to bring in Braj milieu in that. He did borrow
motifs from Sanskrit, but modified them as per his perspective and attempted to break
the ‘age-old linguistic hierarchies’.
Allison Busch (2011) in the context of riti poetry attempts to establish the link between
the Imperial (Mughal) and sub-Imperial (regional; Orchha) literary cultures. While
articulating Keshavdas’ literary genius she argues how the poet gradually adapted his
poetry to the political needs of his patron, the Orchha rulers. She comments that
Keshavdas attempted to embody Orchha king, his patron, with ‘divine’ king ‘Rama’
thus in turn attempted to raise the position of the Orchha king in the Mughal (‘Imperial’)
‘court’. Even Keshavdas wrote a panegyric in praise of Emperor Jahangir. Sub-Imperial-
Imperial connections of Brajbhasha riti poetry were the key to power, argues Busch.
She projects Raja Birbal as a possible mediator to the Mughal court. She remarks that
Brajbhasha poets worked under the ‘penumbra’ of Mughal court. Keshavdas’ writings
had a great impact on his disciples, particularly on woman courtesan disciple, Pravi.
Riti poets made conscious choice to create Indic linguistic register distinct from the
Persian register, though deriving heavily long ‘topai’ and phrases. Keshav’s conscious
choice to use vernacular equivalents, e.g. for earth instead of bhumi he uses the vernacular
equivalent ‘puhumi’.
Busch argues that vernacular was more popular in the sub-Imperial courts (in their watan-
jagirs) for it was ‘more culturally relevant’. It was there that ‘they cultivated the richest
range of genres’. She argues that the Rajput and other nobles though possessed working
knowledge of Persian to interact at the Mughal court, in their watan-jagirs they encouraged
the local dialect and patronised the local talents.
Nonetheless, Indic literature possessed distinct charm among the Persianate literati as
well. This could be gleaned from the fact that Tulsi’s Ramcharitmanas, Sursagar, and
Prabodhachandrodaya were sparingly copied in Persian script. Keshavdas’ Rasikpriya,
Sundarshringar, and Bihari Satsai were also penned down in nastaliq; all this is
suggestive of addressing at Persianised readership (elites) of the time.

18.2.3 Audrey Truschke on Cultural Encounters

Truschke takes the debate to the issue of patronage to Indic literary traditions, particularly
to Sanskrit provided by the Mughal emperors. She has elaborated upon the patronage
networks and their impacts on production of Indic literature. Truschke argues that Mughals
cultivated ‘multicultural and multilingual imperial image’. However, the Mughal patronage
was not meant to win over the Indian communities instead for ‘themselves’. Truschke
(2016: 23) underlines the importance of Sanskrit as ‘a significant frontier within India
that stands on its own as a consistent component of imperial court life and a political
potent tradition for the Mughal rulers’. Truschke argues that unlike the generally accepted
view Mughal cultural world was vibrant and not just confined to Islamicate and Persian
Cultural tradition. Thus, according to Truschke (2016: 62), ‘Mughal power and sovereign
imagination often operated entirely outside Islamicate culture and Persian literary
production’.
These encounters not went uncontested in Akbar’s court. Badauni refused to write
the preface of Ramayana. Badauni was critical of Abul Fazl’s preface of Razmnama
which he believed was ‘diversification of Indo-Islamic knowledge’; he found
313
Society and
Literature Economy
and himself in an awkward position writing something without the praise of ‘Prophet
Translations Muhmmad’ (Truschkey 2016).
Power and Patronage
While exploring the relationship between power and patronage Truschke argues
that the Mughal patronage to Sanskrit works not meant to ‘justify imperial rule to
Brahmans, Hindu, or Jain populations’, rather ‘were far more complex’. ‘The
Mughals were formulating the contours and boundaries of their imperial culture,
and Sanskrit was a significant part of that process…Sanskrit thinkers, texts and
knowledge systems participated in the ongoing project of defining and redefining
Mughal power, particularly its cultural politics’ (Truschke 2016: 99-100). The
equally important goal of the translation project as rightly commented upon by
Abul Fazl was ‘to prompt conservative Muslims to reconsider their beliefs’
(Truschke 2016: 207). That fitted well into Akbar’s scheme of claiming mujtahid
(interpreter of law) in a bid to drive away power from the hands of the powerful
ulama (Islamic jurists). Truschke argues that in the networks of the literary
engagements among the Mughal elites, Jain, Brahman and other literati Mughal
royal court occupied the key position. ‘Many thinkers, both Persianate and Sanskrit,
viewed the imperial court as a principal hub for negotiating the boundaries of
their respective traditions. The Mughals bolstered this image by bestowing lavish
patronage on people working in Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, and other languages’
(Truschke 2016: 229). Further, ‘Mughals saw unique possibilities in the Sanskrit
tradition to know India in historical, mythic, and empirical senses’ (Truschke 2016:
230). Truschke identified ‘multiculturalism’ as the key factor of Mughal imperial
practices and thus they ‘so crafted their royal court as a space defined by multiple
cultural frontiers’ (Truschke 2016: 231). It was Hindi that served the mediating
tongue between Persian and Sanskrit intellectuals.
Check Your Progress-1
1) Mention Sheldon Pollock’s views on the vernacularization of Indic literary
tradition.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) Do you agree with Allison Busch’s argument that Indian literati failed to
appreciate the vibrant character of classical Hindi riti poetry?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
3) What relationship Audre Truschke sees between power and patronage?
Analyse in the context of sub-Imperial patronage to Sanskrit literature.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
314
 Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
18.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIC LITERARY Culture
TRADITIONS
The chief characteristic of vernacular literature was, largely it was the poetry and
not the prose that remained the concern of the composers.

18.3.1 Political Will and the Vernacularisation

In elevating the vernacular status, political linkages and the patronage played a
key role. Instead of cosmopolitan Sanskrit by the turn of the millennium
inscriptional records were penned down in vernacular, thus vernacular assumed
the ‘expression of political will’. It was the patronage that Braj received from the
Orchha household as well as from the Mughals and the elites that elevated the
status of Braj on the path of ‘cosmopolitan’ status. Pollock, while undermining
the role of religion in the process of vernacularization emphasises the importance
of court in elevating the status of vernacular to a literary language. Pollock
(February 1998: 31) argues, ‘It is cosmopolitan elites…writing courtly poetry for
their peers, who first turned Kannada (and Telugu, Malayalam, Braj, Assamese)
into an instrument for literary and political expressivity…The grammatical and
literary-normative will-to-unification of the language…is intimately connected
with the political will-to-unification, since the power over language is power over
the users of the language.’ Inscriptions and royal orders were then inscribed in the
vernacular, thus assuming the character of ‘cosmopolitan vernacular’, thus
recreating the ‘conditions of imperial culture at the level of the region’.

18.3.2 Circulation and Porous Boundaries

An important feature of medieval vernacular literature was its circulation,
circulation of ideas, intellectuals as well as the dissemination of literature and
texts across boundaries which led to the idea of poetic community, the kavikul,
sharing the common shared heritage and genre. Cultural boundaries were fluid
and porous; the flow of ideas and borrowings was a natural and common trend of
the period. The agents of these literary circulations were courts, merchants/merchant
centres, and the religious divines, particularly the bhakti saints. Merchants served
links between the ‘regional and supra-local’ levels. This fluidity and circulation
did not remain confined within the ‘single’ linguistic tradition but travelled widely
across literary traditions. Vernaculars were particularly porous and borrowed
liberally from both the Sanskrit and the Persian literary traditions. However, these
borrowings were not just remained confined within a single religious community,
instead, it travelled across ‘socio-linguistic communities’, it was peripatetic in
nature. Keshavdas himself kept on moving from Orchha to Mughal patronage to
the patronage of Rahim and later his son Iraj and then again joining the Orchha
kingdom. ‘No tradition was sui generis or isolated within its own boundaries’
(Bruijn and Busch 2014: 4). Thus Braj kavikul was not just in dialogue with each
other but also with their Sanskrit predecessors. ‘The kavikul,… was a complex
structure of cultural power… It was a mechanism by which writers transmitted
cherished cultural traditions’ (Busch 2014: 201).
Thus, textual fixity or textual purity was not a feature of the medieval vernacular tradition.
Fluidity and mobility were such a strong component that scholars followed no standardized
format and twisted and borrowed liberally from one and all traditions. There also no
315
Society and
Literature Economy
and linguistic barriers on the basis of caste and religion. Another important feature of this
Translations fluidity and popularity of the Hindawi texts was their rendition in Persian script.
Premakhyan, written in Awadhi, but in the Persian script, borrowed liberally from both
the Brahmanical and Islamic cultural traditions.
Mobility and Early Modernity
As discussed above mobility of ideas as a result of vibrant travels, particularly of the
Vaishnavite saints and as well as those of the literati desiring to seek patronage, became
the hallmark of the period between 1500-1800, thus viewed by the scholars as features
of early modernity.

18.3.3 Hybridity
Hybridity and not the ‘exclusivity’ was the norm. Indic poets borrowed from both the
Sanskritic tradition as well as Persianate cultural tradition. Nonetheless, they established
their signature, distinct both from the Sanskrit and Persian traditions. The Krishna bhakta
Braj poets Hit Harivansha (1502-1552?), the so-called founder of the Radhavallabha
Sampradaya, Swami Haridas, Hariram Vyas, and Surdas derived inspiration from
Bhagavat Purana and Sanskrit alankarashastra (aestheticised love).
Similarly, Tulasidas’ Ramcharitmanas was largely an Awadhi version of the Sanskrit
Ramayana. Equally representative are the works of Shaiva and Vaishnava Bhakti poetry
across India which, deriving inspiration from Bhagavata Purana, represented
Bhagavata versions/commentaries in their literary genre. ‘A defining feature of the early
modern landscape in India is the cross-pollination between Persianate and vernacular
realms that occurred during the heyday of Mughal rule (1526–1857)’ (Bruijn and Busch
2014: 7). Rahim’s (Khan-i Khanan) dohas on ethics and morality appear to have derived
heavily from Sanskrit niti tradition. His Nagarshobha (doha) and Barvai Nayikabheda
(barvai) suggest the impact of court-poetry and linked to sringara rasa and suggest
the influence of Awadhi and both loaded heavily with the Sanskrit and Persian vocabulary.
It not only suggests Rahim’s command over Persian and Sanskrit traditions at the same
time help establish the linkages between the Persian and Hindawi tradition and thus
bridges the ‘gap between the Braj bhasha and Persian Poetry genre’ (Lefebvre 2014:
97). At the same time, his viraha poetry (on separation of gopis from Krishna) appears
to have been inspired by bhakti poetry. His Madanashatak is more tilted towards
Khari Boli idioms; while his Kheta Kautukam (astronomical verses) is a mixture
of Sanskrit and Persian.
Braj poets were also influenced greatly by Rajasthani (Prakrit) raso style,
particularly their historical works represent great borrowings in terms of style
from raso tradition. Keshavdas’ jahangirjaschandrika was written in raso style in
chhappay (sextets), the favourite metre of the raso.
The sheer presence of the community of poets can be gleaned from the presence
of the idea of kavikul. It was very much present in Keshavadas’s Rasikpriya. It
indicates that the idea of ‘solidarity’ ‘common concerns’ ‘common genre/idiom’
was very much present at that time. It thus suggests, whether a poet was in the
Mughal court or serving at Orchha or other Rajput courts this awareness of ‘community’
feeling of ‘fellow’ poets of the same genre was very much present among them. Thus,
‘even when the poets never met one another they were bound together by a literary
consensus about classical aesthetics which encouraged a certain uniformity even
conformity of genres’, argues Busch (2009:16).
316
Riti poets favoured muktakas (free-standing verse) suggests that they did succeed in Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
developing their signature mark and established trans-regional literary tradition. Culture

18.3.4 Vernacularisation of the Sanskrit Texts

Indic writers even attempted to produce avernacular versions of the Sanskritic texts.
Hariram Vyas who enjoyed the patronage of Madhukar Shah of Orchha penned down
the Braj version of the five chapters of Bhagavat Purana in his Rasapanchadhyayi.
Vyas even skipped certain chapters of the Sanskrit text. Nand Das’s (1570) Braj
compositions also had heavy imprints of Sanskritic works and Sanskrit styles: he brought
out the braj verses of Rasamanjari of Bhanudatta, Rasapanchadhyayi (five chapters
of Bhagavata Purana), and Prabodhacandrodaya of Krishna Mishra; similarly, his
Manmanjari and Anekarthamanjari (Braj dictionaries) followed the pattern of
Amarkosha; while his Panchadhyayi was an imitation of Jayadev’s Gita Govind.
These were not mere translations of Sanskrit texts but they employed their styles, imprints
into it. As A.K. Ramanujan puts it these translations were ‘indexical translations’ and not
the word-by-word translations of modern writers. They reworked on shastras; modified
themes and localized them in the specific Braj milieu, comments Busch (2014: 128).
Further, the main objective of bringing in vernacular translations was to make available
the Sanskrit texts to the vernacular readers. ‘Brajbhasha appropriated Sanskrit space,
rendering the classical language increasingly irrelevant’ (Busch 2014: 129).

18.3.5 Bhakti Tradition and Vernacular Literature

In the rise of vernacular tradition bhakti, particularly Vaishnava saguna bhakti tradition
played a key role. Braj and Gujarati traditions were largely centred around Krishna
bhakti, while Awadhi centred around Rama tradition. Though Keshavdas compares
Jahangir in his Jahangirjaschandrika to the Suryavanshi Raghu clan of Lord Rama.
However, they did not ‘embrace the idea of bhakti rasa’ instead opted for shringara
rasa (aestheticized love). However, Pollock questions the ‘role’ of bhakti in the process
of ‘vernacularization’. He argues in the case of Kannada that the ‘vernacularization
[was] not driven by religious imperatives, it was not in any meaningful sense
popular…What is abundantly clear however in virtually every case we can historically
capture…is the role of court in the vernacular turn’ (Pollock February 1998: 30-31).
Check Your Progress-2
1) Discuss chief characteristics of vernacular literary traditions.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) What do you understand by circulation and porous boundaries? Explain in the
context of vernacular literary tradition.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
3) Define hybridity in the context of vernacular literature.
........................................................................................................................
317
Society and
Literature Economy
and ........................................................................................................................
Translations
........................................................................................................................
4) Do you agree that there was a subtle relationship between the rise of bhakti and the
emergence of vernacular literary tradition.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

18.4 SANSKRIT AND THE MUGHAL PATRONAGE

Sanskrit intellectuals’ visits to Akbar’s court began in the 1560s which further got
accelerated in the 1570s particularly with the establishment of Ibadatkhana; such
religious discussions continued throughout Akbar’s period down to Jahangir’s
reign. Akbar sponsored Persian renditions of a number of Sanskrit texts in
translations – Ramayana (1588) Mahabharata (Razmnama), Harivamsha,
Panchatantra, Katha Sarit Sagar, etc. All this we have already taken up and
discussed in Unit 1, therefore a discussion on the plethora of patronage given by
the Mughal rulers to the Sanskrit translation project is intentionally kept out of the
discussion of the present Unit. Here our focus would be more on the nature of
patronage provided by the Mughals.
Truschke argues that Mughal cross-cultural interests wereprimarily confined to
literature and grammar. To articulate official histories, royal proclamations, and
documentation, etc. Mughals largely opted for Persian. One should remember
neither did the Mughal elite nor his translators study Sanskrit. Sanskrit readers
often briefed the translators in Hindawi the Sanskrit texts than the Persian translators
used to translate that content into Persian. Thus the verbal reiteration of the Sanskrit
texts was the common feature of the Mughal cultural world and vernaculars,
particularly Brajbhasha served as the link.
Mughals themselves were not acquainted with Sanskrit. Nonetheless, Sanskrit
texts were often presented to the Mughal emperors. However, the production seems
largely for gifting purposes than for actual readings at the Mughal court.
Sanskrit scholars, both Jains and Brahmans, were active participants of Mughal
court culture. Under Akbar, Jains were prominent participants (1560-1610), though
their fortunes declined after Akbar; while Brahmans’ presence (1560-1660)
continued till Shah Jahan’s period. Jain presence was exclusively the result of the
Mughal occupation of Gujarat (1572-73) and predominantly scholars who received
Mughal patronage were from the region of Gujarat. However, Brahmans’ presence
in the Mughal court was from across much wider geographical zones 6 from
Bengal to down south.
The first recorded Sanskrit intellectual receiving the Mughal patronage was
Mahapatra Krishnadasa of Odisha (1565) who composed Gitaprakasha followed
by Narasimha, both originally hailed from the Gajapati court. Pundarikavitthala
joined Akbar’s court through the patronage of Kachhawaha rulers Man Singh and
Madho Singh; similarly, Govinda Bhatta, who was known as ‘Akbar’s Kalidas’,
entered Akbar’s court from the court of Ramchandra of Rewa. Interestingly, Sanskrit
318
texts produced under Mughal patronage were not meant for the readership of the Mughal Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
emperors as such. In 1569 under Akbar’s patronage Padmasundara, a Jain scholar, Culture
composed Akbarasahishringaradarpana (Mirror of Erotic Passion for Shah Akbar).
Another Jain intellectual associated with Akbar’s court was Hiravijaya, who joined Akbar
at Sikri in 1583. At Akbar’s instructions Vihari Krishnadas composed the first Sanskrit-
Persian dictionary, Parasiprakasha in the late sixteenth century thus attempted to
establish a relationship between Sanskrit, Persian, and the Mughal empire. Krishnadasa
projects Akbar as a ‘very ethical’ monarch.
Brahmans who entered Akbar’s court were largely employed as translators of Sanskrit
texts so also as astrologers. Akbar instituted a post of jyotisharaja (royal astrologer).
Nilakantha held the position of jyotisharaja under Akbar.
Sanskrit received liberal patronage from the Rajput elites as well. Kachhawahas of
Amber were great patrons. Raja Man Singh commissioned Sanskrit biographical work
Manprakasha composed by Murari Das; while Harinath penned down commentaries
of Dandin and Bhoja, Kavyadarsha-marjana and Sarasvatikanthabharana-marjana.

18.5 PATRONAGE TO INDIC LITERARY TRADITION

During the sixteenth century, vernacular literary tradition received liberal patronage at
the court. However, these poets were performing multifaceted roles; they were not just
the panegyrists, writing in praise of their patrons but they serve chiefly as counsels, were
sent on diplomatic missions, performed liaison roles between various conflicting and
local groups vis-à-vis the state. These poets and scholars not necessarily been the officials;
many times they just served as counsel/courtier (nadim). Afif, was never been a noble in
Firuz Shah Tughlaq’s court, he was a nadim, a scholar counsellor. Keshavdas was not
just the poet laureate of Orchha but also a friend, advisor, and guru to Orchha kings.
Lahori and Kamboh refer to Sundar Kaviraj not as Braj poet but as a courtier and
diplomat who was sent by Shahjahan to negotiate with recalcitrant Bundella chiefs Jujhar
Singh and Bir Singh Deo. Khafi Khan records that during the war of succession Aurangzeb
sent ‘Kab’ to negotiate with Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Marwar.
Here we would be confining our discussion to the sixteenth century. Though a number of
nobles-cum-scholar-poets adorned the courts of Jahangir, Shahjahan, and regional courts.
Sundar Kaviraj was a poet laureate in the court of Shahjahan. However, all this would
form part of a discussion in our next course BHIC-112.
In the process of expansion and consolidation, Mughal court facilitated the exchange of
ideas and cultures across regions. ‘Poets and poems regularly moved between regional
courts and the imperial capitals, fostering a shared Mughal and Rajput [regional] courtly
ethos’ (Busch 2014: 193). Further, one of the important reasons for the growth of Indic
literature was ‘acculturation’ of Mughal rulers to Indian milieu. Mughal court gradually
became more and more Indianised, particularly from Akbar’s period onwards who was
more interested in the local environment, unlike his father and grandfather who situated
themselves more in the Central Asian environment.
Being born to Rajput mothers, Hindawi was literally the mother tongue of both Jahangir
and Shahjahan. Thus knowledge of Hindawi of the Mughal emperors is beyond doubt.
It is reported that Keshav himself had presented his poems to Jahangir. Jahangir mentions
his brother Daniyal as a lover of Indian singing and composed poems in the ‘language of
the people’. Bhramargita popularised by Surdas and Nanddas during Akbar’s period
received much appreciation of Jahangir. 319
Society and
Literature Economy
and 18.5.1 Patronage at the Mughal Court
Translations
Mughals shared a ‘multi-lingual and multi-literary realm’. Courts were not just the centres
of political activities but cultural activities also centred around them. Braj texts developed
under the Mughal patronage hardly survive. There is also almost complete silence of
Persian writers on the presence of Braj poets at the Mughal courts. Thus to glean
information on the presence and importance of Braj in the Mughal court we have to rely
on stray references. It is said that Humayun did sponsor the sons of the Hindawi musicians.
Even Islam Shah Sur’s court was adorned with a number of vernacular poets including
the Braj poet Narhari, who later reported to have joined Akbar’s court. Avadhi poets
Manjhan of Madhumalati (1545) fame and Afghan noble Muhammad Farmuli who
composed in Avadhi, adorned Islam Shah Sur’s court. However, Avadhi showed decline
towards the end of the sixteenth century giving way to Braj.
Akbar (1556-1605) was a great patron of literati transcending religious and linguistic
boundaries. Abul Fazl in Book 4 of his Ain-i Akbari dedicates one full section on Danish-
i Hindustan (Learning of India). Abul Fazl intended that Persianate culture should
incorporate and integrate Sanskrit knowledge systems thus aimed to alter the nature of
the Indo-Persian knowledge system. The chief aim of inducting Sanskrit ideas to Persian
intellectuals was to expose Persian literati to Sanskritic traditions. Akbar encouraged
Sanskrit-based astronomy and calculations. He even created a separate post of
jyotishacharya (Indian astrologer) and reported to have relied upon Indian horoscopes.
Akbar is reported to have sponsored a number of rhetorics in Braj. Abul Fazl’s comment
that ‘The inspired nature of His Majesty is strongly drawn to composing poetry in Hindi
and Persian, and he exhibits a subtle understanding of the finest points of literary conceits’
(Busch 135), clearly suggests Akbar’s knowledge of Braj and inclination towards
Hindawi poetry, even his own compositions. We do not find any surviving works
commissioned by Akbar. The only Akbar commissioned work survived to date is Jain
Padmasundara’s Akbarshahishringaradarpanòa (1569), a Sanskrit work on Indian
poetics. However, riti poetry written in Braj was mainly court poetry. Braj received
new heights under the Mughal court patronage under Akbar (1556-1605). A faint hint
of it one can find in Abul Fazl’s discussion. Braj riti poetry was largely written in
nayikabheda in shringara rasa. Abul Fazl in his section on literature in the Ain-i
Akbari mentions nayikabheda; which faintly suggests, could be attributed to Braj
influence. Busch looks emergence of riti literature as ‘vernacular revival of Sanskrit
kavya tradition’. Akbar was an ardent lover of dhrupad, which were basically
composed in Braj and in Akbar’s court Tansen was its greatest exponent. We hear of
Vrind and Sundar but hardly anything about them survive. Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki
Varta, a Braj text composed around 1584, mentions Akbar’s visit to Surdas in Mathura
and his cold response. Without going into the ‘truth’ of the story, it does suggest that
there seems great receptivity of Brajbhasha at the Mughal court and their resistance to
being enamoured by Mughal grandeur. Riti texts of Karnes, Karnabharan,
Shrutibhushan, and Bhupbhushan, though do not survive but are frequently mentioned
in Hindawi literature. Another Braj poet of Akbar’s court was Manohar Kachhawaha
about whom Jahangir refers but unfortunately we know only his Persian compositions.
Among the Hindawi poets, Gang (Braj poet) is mentioned by Bhikharidas among one of
the two sardars (stalwarts) Hindawi poets, other named by him was Tulsi (Avadhi). We
do not know anything about Gang’s antecedents. Strangely, he was in close contact with
the Mughal court. None of the Persian text mentions him. Gang interestingly did not
compose prabandhas instead wrote muktak poems which are the combination of bhakti,
320
shringara, and nayaikabheda during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
Culture
Thus distinctly, though there is an almost complete absence of information on Mughal
court patronage to vernacular literary traditions, there are strong stray references of the
presence of Braj poetry in the Mughal court.
There was cultural transmission as a result of vernacular interactions with the Imperial
court and Persianate cultural traditions. One can look similarities between the chroniclers’
accounts and the Indic charitas. Similarly, Braj dhrupad and Persian rubai both shared
almost similar lyrical genres. Similarly, Persian sarapa (head to toe) and nakhashikh
(head to toe) descriptions shared much in common. Rahim’s Nagarshobha was inspired
by the Persian genre of Shahrashob; it was analogous to nagara varnana (description
of a city) of Sanskrit and Indic tradition (Busch 2014: 195-196).

18.5.2 Patronage at the Sub-Imperial Level

Vernaculars received special patronage at the hands of the Mughal nobility. In this
endeavour, Akbar’s step-son and leading noble Abdul Rahim Khan-i Khanan stands
out, who not only patronised ‘Hindawi’ but also himself composed verses both in
Avadhi and Brajbhasha and was a writer of great repute in ‘Hindawi’. He wrote
largely in muktak genre like Gang. Bhikharidas in his Kavinirnay (1746) claims
Rahim as an established poet of Brajbhasha. Rahim primarily chose to write in
doha and barvai formats. Khan-i Khanan was a literary genius and an ardent lover
of books collection. He was a scholar of repute of just not Persian but also of
Arabic, Sanskrit and Hindawi; even at the request of Akbar, he did learn Portuguese.
He is reported to have possessed the biggest library at the sub-regional level. He
himself wrote in Hindawi with the pen name ‘Rahim’ evince his genius. His court
in the Deccan not only attracted scholars from across India but also from central
Asia and Persia. Maasir-i Rahimi informs that he patronised a number of Hindawi
poets: Alaquli, Ban, Gang, Harinath, Jada, Lakshminarayana, Mandan, Mukund,
Narhari, Prasiddh, Santa Kavi, and Tara. Keshavdas and Gang eulogised Khan-i
Khanan in their poems. Keshavdas has compared Khan-i Khanan with Hanuman;
as Hanuman was dutiful to Rama so was Khan-i Khanan towards Akbar. Gang
equally praised Khan-i Khanan’s qualities of alms-giving. Gang also seems to
have received the patronage of Khan-i Khanan. He composed a number of eulogies
(prashastis) in Rahim’s honour. Khan-i Khanan’s son Shahnawaz Iraj Khan also
seems to be a great patron of Brajbhasha poets. The famous historical work of
Keshavdas Jahangirjaschandrika was probably patronised by Iraj Khan.
Among other prominent courtiers of Akbar who themselves composed verses/
prose in Brajbhasha were Birbal (d. 1586) and Tansen (d. 1586? 1589?). Birbal
wrote with takhallus (pen name) ‘Brahma’ and it is reported that Akbar adorned
Birbal (d. 1586) with the title Kaviraj for his Brajbhasha compositions. Abul Fazl’s
brother Faizi and Todar Mal are also reported to have composed in Brajbhasha.
Shahnawaz Khan mentions Zain Khan Koka’s (d. 1601) love for Hindawi ragas
and kavitts (riti metres) suggests Mughal noble’s inclination for vernacular literature
during Akbar’s period.
Similarly, Akho (Akha Bhagat; circa 1615 to 1674 or 1600 to 1655), who was the
mint master under Jahangir, studied Vedanta at Banaras and wrote a simplified
version of the Vedantic philosophy in the language of the people. Bihari Lal, was
another great poet of ‘Hindawi’ who enjoyed the patronage of Mirza Raja Jai Singh, a
Kachhawaha Rajput, noble of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. A detailed account of them is 321
Society and
Literature Economy
and provided in our Course BHIC 112. Thus, a large number of Mughal nobles were not
Translations only themselves poets of repute, but also great patrons of poets and writers.
Check Your Progress-3
1) Do you agree that unlike the common beliefs Mughals provided liberal patronage
to Sanskrit literary tradition?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the nature of patronage received by vernacular literary traditions at sub-
Imperial level.

...................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

18.6 VERNACULAR LITERARY TRADITION

During the medieval period, main dialects of Hindawi (modern Hindi) were: Avadhi
(Khari Boli), Brajbhasha, Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Malwai, etc. The origin
of Hindawi can be seen in the evolution of Apabhramsha during the 7-10th centuries.
Linguists divide the earliest period of the development of Hindawi as Virgatha
Kala (age of heroic poetry). The earliest of such works, as we have discussed in
BHIC 107 is raso literature: Prithviraja Raso, Hammira Raso, etc. It was followed
by Bhakti Kala (age of bhakti poetry) which lasted up to 16-17th centuries, followed
by Riti Kala (age of poetry of high style/method) which began in the 16th century
and reached its peak in the seventeenth century.

18.6.1 Vernacular Literary Tradition: Awadhi

Khari Boli/Avadhi/Magadhi-Prakrit developed during the 15-16th centuries. Awadhi
first arose into prominence under the patronage of sufis who composed premakhyan
literature (in Persian script and Avadhi language) in Avadhi. The earliest of this in
this series (tradition goes up to the early nineteenth century) is Mulla Daud’s
Chandayan (1379), followed by Mrigavati (Qutban; 1503), Padmavat (Jayasi;
1540), Madhumalati (Shaikh Manjhan; 1545), etc. Phukan has commented that
‘Indeed, one explanation for the popularity of Awadhi texts among the Mughal
elite is that they were a medium for intense emotional experience and thus prized
for their ability to embody Sufi values like zawq (taste/epiphany), ma¿rifat (spiritual
insight), jazb (emotion), and %aqîqat (truth perception)’ (Phukan in Busch 2014:
202).
While bhakti poetry is written in Awadhi largely carried the Rama bhakti tradition,
Brajbhasha compositions mainly centred around Krishna bhakti. Both, the poet-
laureates, Tulsi and Surdas, in a sense translated the Ramayana (Tulsi; in Awadhi)
and Bhagavata Purana (Surdas; in Brajbhasha).
The greatest exponent of Avadhi was Gosvami Tulsidas (1532?-1623?). He
322 composed his masterpiece Ramacharitamanasa in 1574. Tulsidas, a Smarta
Vaishnavite, evoked Rama bhakti tradition. Around Lord Rama, he weaved and Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
idealized kingship and human qualities (ramarajya, dharma, and niti) which Lord Culture
Rama embodied. He popularized the Rama bhakti tradition among the ‘common’
masses. Mahatma Gandhi calls it the ‘greatest book of all devotional literature’.
Philip Lutgendorf applauds it as the ‘living sum of Indian culture’. The popularity
of Ramacharitamanasa was the prime factor in pushing back the popularity of the
Krishna cult in north India. Tulsidas is reported to have written eleven other works:
Vinaya Patrika, Kavitavali, Krishna Gitavali, Janakimangal, Parvatimangal,
Barvai Ramayana, etc. Tulsi’s writings inspired many later writers, particularly,
Agradas and Nabhadas who composed Bhaktamala, a biographical account of the
Vaishnava saints.
In the seventeenth century, ‘Brajbhasha does begin to eclipse Awadhi as a literary
language by late in Akbar’s Period’. ‘Perhaps the Mughals were deliberately turning
away from Awadhi, the earlier Indo-Muslim literary vernacular, because it had
been so assiduously cultivated at the courts of their Afghan rivals and thus was
too readily associated with a competing political formation’, argues Busch (2014:
187).

18.6.2 Vernacular Literary Tradition: Brajbhasha

Mirza Khan (late 17th century) praises Brajbhasha as afsah-yi zabanha (most
eloquent of all languages) and Faqirullah calls it afsahtarin zaban (most eloquent
language). Bhakti saints exploited Brajbhasha as the vehicle of transmission.
Besides, Brajbhasha received liberal patronage at the sub-regional levels under
the aegis of Rajputs and other Hindu Jain elites and also at various mercantile
centres. The popularity of Brajbhasha created a ‘new reading public’ beyond the
bounds of ‘Imperial’ ‘Persian’ and ‘Sanskritic’ traditions.
In the sixteenth century, one finds dramatic rise of Braj Krishna bhakta poets in
and around Mathura and Vrindavan – Hit Harivansha, Swami Haridas, Hariram
Vyas, and Surdas. Among the Brajbhasha tradition, poet laureate Surdas is the
towering figure. A disciple of Vallabhacharya, Surdas (c.1503-1563) was one of
the jewels of ashtachhap poets. Surdas, a Krishna bhakt, wrote independent of the
royal patronage. Vaishnava Vartas of Vallabha Sampradaya mention Akbar’s
fondness for Surdas. Gokulnath in his Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta (c. 1640)
narrates the meeting of Akbar with Surdas at Mathura. Surdas is reported to have
refused Akbar’s invitation to join his court entourage. In the list of singers given in the
Ain-i Akbari by Abul Fazl Sur’s name appears. His celebrated work is Sursagar. The
earliest recession of the text belongs to as early as 1582 from the Jaipur collection which
contains 297 padas which swells to 5000 by the twentieth century. Among his various
styles, Bhramaragit (bee-messenger) style of Sur’s padas stands out.
Clearly, the Mughal elites shared distinct charm with Braj poetry. By the seventeenth
century, Braj practically replaced Sanskrit and served as a link language while translating
the Sanskrit texts, what Truschkey calls it a ‘spoken vernacular in the Mughal Imperium’.
Even the Mughal ruling elite, including the Mughal emperors from Akbar’s period onwards,
were conversant in Hindawi (Braj).
Orchha and the Patronage of the Vernacular Literary Tradition
The Bundela kingdom of Orchha emerged as a prominent centre of vernacular literary
tradition, particularly that of the Brajbhasha. Brajbhasha flourished particularly under
323
Society and
Literature Economy
and the courtly patronage of Orchha rulers. Kriparam and Hariram Vyas enjoyed the patronage
Translations of the Bundela rulers. Kriparam’s Hittarangini (1541) is considered to be the earliest
ritigranth. It is written in nayikabheda genre and evokes Vaishnava ethos. Hariram
Vyas received the patronage of Orchha ruler Madhukar Shah. It received a new height
under the court poet Keshavdas (1555-1717) in the court of Bundela rulers of Orchha.
Keshavdas’s compositions mark the zenith of Brajbhasha poetry tradition. The importance
of Keshavdas can be gauged from the fact that Keshavdas shared the stage among the
prominent poetical Sanskrit legendary scholars Dhananjaya, Mammala, and Bhanudatta.
The ‘riti’ poetry of which Keshavdas was one of the most prominent poets was basically
‘court poetry’. Keshavdas belonged to a distinguished family of Pandits whose ancestors
served Tomar and Gwalior kings and his grandfather enjoyed the patronage of the founder
of the Orchha kingdom Rudra Pratap (1501-31); while his father served Madhukar
Shah (1554-1592) of Orchha. Keshavdas composed eight works (prabandhas). His
early work Ratnabavani was a historical treatise. However, during 1591-1602
Keshavdas emerged more as a literary theorist. During this phase Raja Indrajit, the fifth
son of Madhukar Shah and his brother Bir Singh Deo Bundela were Keshav’s patrons.
Keshav’s Kavipriya was written in praise of Raja Indraji. Indrajit himself wrote Braj
commentary on Bhartrihari. He is reported to have composed poems under the pen
name Chap or ‘Dhiraj Narind’. His Rasikpriya (1591; Handbook of Poetry), Kavipriya
(1601; handbook of Poets); and Chhandamala (1602; Guide to Meters) were
ritigrantha (books of methods) that marks a new trend of handbook and rhetoric
tradition in vernacular and sets in the defining features of riti literature.
Braj Beyond Braj
Braj widened its wings what Allison Busch calls ‘Braj Beyond Braj’. Vaishnava saints
through their vast travels not only attempted to spread their doctrines and ideas and
achieved a popular base across regions, this in turn enriched the vernaculars in which
they spread their ideas. This helped vernaculars crossing local boundaries and acquiring
a wider base. Adi Granth, the Sikh scripture, compiled in 1604 by Guru Arjan contains
a number of Braj poetic compositions of Vaishnava saints.
As we have mentioned above that the idea of kavikul was very much present among
the poet community. What ‘Braj kavikul’ shared was: biographies of patrons; Radha-
Krishna love; Alankara Shastra (literary theory; nayikabheda, etc.). As they were
aware of their contemporary peers so were also in touch with their Sanskrit forefathers.
Braj received patronage and extended its wings in Rajasthan (Galta and Fatehpur).
Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar were equally patrons of Indic literary tradition.
Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari (c. 1550) was commissioned by Nizam Shah of
Ahmadnagar.

18.6.3 Other Indic Literary Traditions

Gujarati
Under the influence of Vaishnav bhakti movement, particularly Krishna bhakti
sect of Sri Chaitnya, Gujarati literature also flourished. Vallabhacharya’s son
Vitthala got settled down in Gujarat and spread Krishna bhakti in Gujarat. Gopaldas,
grandson of Vallabhacharya wrote Vallabhakhyan in Gujarati in c. 1570.
The towering figure during our period was Narsimha (Narsi) Mehta (c. 1500-
1580) who is considered the father of Gujarati poetry (Adi Kavi). Narsimha Mehta
324
exercised influence on almost all later Gujarati poets. He wrote in akhyan (pioneer Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
Culture
among them is Sudamacharita, written in Jhulna metre) and prabhatiya (morning
devotional songs) genres. His major compositions are: Govinda Gamana, Surata
Sangrama, Shringaramala. The earliest manuscript of his compositions is dated
1612. His compositions are compiled in Rasa-Sahasta-padi and Chaturis (depicted
lilas of Krishna) are basically couched in Shringara rasa. Mandana brought out
in Gujarati Prabodha Battisi, Ramayana, and Rukamangada Katha. Bhalana (1434-
1514) brought out Bana’s Kadambari in Gujarati. He is known for his akhyan
style. He also composed Dasam Skandha, Nalakhyana, Ramabala Charita, and
Chandi Akhyan.
Sufi writer Khub Muhammad Chishti’s (1539-1615) Chhanda Chhandan and
Bhavo- Bhed texts (generally touches vatsalya and madhurya bhav) were composed
in Gujarati in quasi-riti genre.
Bengali
Bengali language and literature flourished with Sri Chaitanya. Brindabandas wrote
Chaitanya Bhagavata/Chaitanya Mangal in Bengali. Chaitanya Charitamrita of
Krishnadas Kaviraj laid the philosophical foundation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.
Other works of importance composed in Bengali are Gouranga Vijaya by
Chudamanidas and Jayananda and Lochandas’ Chaitanya Mangal. Lochandas
introduced new genre dhamali dealing exclusively on Krishna-gopi lilas. Padavalis
incorporated rasa genre of Sanskrit and were based on Radha-Krishna rasa-lilas
in Vrindaban Lila.
In Bengal another genre of Mangal Kavya emerged during this period which largely
propagated the local cult deities 6 Chandi, Manasa, Dharma and also Puranic
Gods Shiva and Vishnu. Mangal Kavyas largely derived their narratives from
Puranas. In Dharma-Mangala merged the Buddhist dharma with the Puranic
Narayana and Muslim Pir emerged as Satyapir or Satyanarayana.
A number of Muslim compositions in Bengal were penned down. Notable among them
was Daulat Qazi of Arakan who composed Laur-Chandani or Mayna Sati. It is said
that Laur-Chandani was completed later by Alaol, son of a Muslim governor of Lower
Bengal. He also rendered Bengali version of Padmavat, Saifulmulkbanduijjamal and
also two works of Nizami. Sabire wrote a version of the Vidya Sundar while Saiyyid
Sultan composed Resularjay which included some Hindu gods as well. His two disciples
composed Satya Kali Vivadsambad.
Assamese
In Assam Vaishnavism flourished under the influence of Shankardeva (1449-1560). His
disciple Madhavadas composed Bhakti Ratnavali which consists of a number of
baragits depicting the life of Krishna in Vrindavan and his childhood. Rama Rarasvati
translated Mahabharata into Assamese for his patron king of Cooch Bihar. Similarly,
based on Bhagavata and Vishnu Puranas Gopal Chandra Dvija composed the narrative
of Krishna in Assamese.
Oriya
During the sixteenth century Oriya literature was still heavily influenced by Sanskrit.
Kavyas were composed on Puranic themes. Oriya literature of our period was greatly
influenced by Vaishnava movement of Sri Chaitanya. In the 16th century Dharanidhara
325
Society and
Literature Economy
and Mishra, Brindavan Das (Rasabaridhi) and Trilochan Das (Govinda Gita) translated
Translations Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda into Oriya.
Check Your Progress-4
1) Examine the growth of Awadhi during the sixteenth century.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) Write briefly the patronage provided by the Orchha rulers to brajbhasha.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
3) Explain the relationship between the rise of the Chaitanya sect and the growth of
Bengali literature.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

18.7 SUMMARY
Sheldon Pollock argues that by the turn of the millennium there was a definite decline of
the ‘cosmopolitan’ Sanskrit and the period is marked by the vernacularisation of the
literary culture. However, Audrey Truschke argues that not only Sanskrit continued to
flourish and received Imperial and sub-Imperial patronage till the seventeenth century,
when ultimately Braj assumed the ‘cosmopolitan’ character and a link language for the
Persian literati. Allison Busch’s work on Brajbhasha literature suggests that the Brajbhasha
started emerging into prominence during the sixteenth century and soon it developed in
the form of a vernacular ‘cosmopolis’ and assumed the status of a ‘literary language’.
The boundaries of the vernacular literary traditions were often porous and circulated
across the confined borders. The vernacular scholars attempted not only the
translation of the Sanskrit texts instead they attempted at the vernacularisation of
the Sanskrit texts and in that effort succeeded in establishing their distinct genres.
Awadhi and Brajbhasha were among the most prominent of the vernacular
languages that succeeded in developing their distinct styles and thus assumed the
status of a ‘cosmopolitan’ literary tradition.

18.8 KEYWORDS
Akhyan Lit. tell/narrate. These are religious
instructions in a story form that combines the
singing and acting; popularised by poet
laureate Narsimha Mehta in Gujarat
Aalkara Shastra A manual of rhetoric

326
Bargits/Borgeet Lit. ‘song celestial’. It is predominantly a collection Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
of lyrical songs composed by Shankardeva and Culture
Madhavadeva
Charitas Biographies
Kavikul Poetic community having shared/common heritage
and genre
Muktak Freestanding poems; a muktak is generally not
part of a larger narrative
Nagara Shobha/ Description of a city
Nagara Varnana
Nayikabheda Catalogue of female characters
Padavali Literally ‘foot’; versified compositions,
euologising the Lord; associated with bhakti
literature
Prabhatiya Morning devotional songs
Raso Heroic ballads
Riti (Kavya) Literally poetry of method; poetry in which
primary concepts are defined and explained
from the Sanskrit rhetoric (rasa [emotion]),
nayikabheda (categories of female characters),
alankara (figures of speech). Poets attempted
to transform Sanskrit poetic genres into
vernacular literary culture. In riti poetry there
is emphatic emphasis on shringara (erotic
poetry)
Shaharashob Literally a poem of a ruined city; satirical poem
narrating the description of the city exposing
the social and political malaise of the period
Shringara Rasa Erotic emotions/aestheticized love
Smarta Orthodox vaishnavites; its members were
composed of twice born (initiated upper class)
Watan-jagirs Jagirs assigned to respective chieftains in their
homeland

18.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress-1
1. See Sub-section 18.2.1
2. See Sub-section 18.2.2
3. See Sub-section 18.2.3

327
Society and
Literature Economy
and Check Your Progress-2
Translations
1. See Section 18.3
2. See Sub-section 18.3.2
3. See Sub-section 18.3.3
4. See Sub-section 18.3.5
Check Your Progress-3
1. See Section 18.5.1
2. See Sub-section 18.5.2
Check Your Progress-4
1. See Section 18.6.1
2. See Sub-section 18.6.2
3. See Sub-section 18.6.3

18.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bruijn, Thomas de and Allison Busch, (ed.) (2014) Culture and Circulation Literature
in Motion in Early Modern India (Leiden: Brill).
Busch, Allison, (2014) ‘Poetry in Motion: Literary Circulation in Mughal India’, in Bruijn,
Thomas de and Allison Busch, (ed.) (2014) Culture and Circulation Literature in
Motion in Early Modern India (Leiden: Brill).
Busch, Allison, (2011) Poetry of kings: the classical Hindi literature of Mughal
India (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Busch, Allison, (2009) Braj Beyond Braj: Classical Hindi in the Mughal World,
Occasional Publication-12 (New Delhi: India International Centre).
Lefèvre, Corinne, (2014) ‘The Court of ¿Abd-ur-Ra%îm Khân-i Khânân as a Bridge
between Iranian and Indian Cultural Traditions’, in Bruijn, Thomas de and Allison
Busch, (ed.) (2014) Culture and Circulation Literature in Motion in Early Modern
India (Leiden: Brill).
Pollock, Sheldon, (Summer, 1998) ‘India in the Vernacular Millennium: Literary
Culture and Polity, 1000-1500’, Daedalus, Vol. 127, No. 3, pp. 41-74.
Pollock, Sheldon, (February, 1998) ‘The Cosmopolitan Vernacular’, Journal of
Asian Studies, Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 6-37.
Truschkey, Audery, (2016) Culture of Encounters: Sanskrit at the Mughal Court
(Gurgaon: Penguine Books).

18.11 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO

RECOMMENDATIONS
Language and Literature Under The Mughals - I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa8L7LrgcRo
Language and Literature Under The Mughals - II
328
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OdO3XDxqIk Inland and Oceanic
Patronage Trade
of Literary
Culture
Role of Hindustani and Its Literary Version: Rekhta Under the Mughals
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eG4YxRh0k40

329