8- CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH’S /ROCKS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN THE

GENESIS AND EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS

Rocks are referred to as any naturally occurring agglomerations that are

composed of minerals. Viewing this definition, a rock generally ranges from
mud to solid material. The study of those minerals in rocks constitutes what is
known as mineralogy. The study of the various rock types is called petrology.
The nature of rocks plays a great role on landscapes. The way rocks influence
landform evolution is clearly seen through the lithological composition. Hard
rocks are bound to withstand the force of denudation (weathering, erosion,
transportation and deposition). Meanwhile soft or less resistant rocks are easily
eroded. Some minerals are easily weathered than others. This differential
incidence is also noticed when viewing the vulnerability of different strata or
layers to erosion. The lithosphere is made of rocks that are classified into
Igneous, Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Igneous rocks are those formed when molten or partially molten

material, called magma, cools and solidifies. Of the three types of rocks, only
igneous rocks are formed from melted material. When solidification takes place
within, it is called plutonic rock. When the magma reaches the surface, flows
as lava and solidifies, it is called volcanic/extrusive rock. The two most
common types of igneous rocks are granite and basalt. Granite is light colored
and is composed of large crystals of the minerals quartz, felspars and mica.
Basalt is dark and contains minute crystals of the minerals olivine, pyroxene
and felspars.

The most felsic or silicon rich mineral is quartz. It is pure silicon dioxide
and contains Aluminum, Iron, Magnesium, Calcium, Sodium, and Potassium
(Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, and K). The other important felsic mineral is feldspar. In
feldspar, a quarter or half has been replaced by Al. Feldspar also contain K, Na,
Mg but no Mg or Fe. Intrusive rocks under this category include granite and
granodiorite which are both light colored rocks that have large crystals of quartz
and feldspars. Extrusive rocks with similar composition include Rhyolite and
dacite in all fine-grained light coloured rocks.

The intermediate rocks, are those with more of felsic or mafic

characteristics such as trachytes. The last category is the mafic rock. The
forming minerals in this type are olivine, pyroxene and amphibole. All three
contain silicon and a lot of either magnesium or iron or both. All three minerals
are often dark colored. Intrusive rocks under this include diorite or gabbro. Both
are dark colored rocks with large, dark mafic crystals as well as crystals of light
colored felspars. None of them contains quartz. Diorite contains amphibole and
pyroxene, meanwhile gabbro contains pyroxene and olivine. The feldspar in
diorite tends to be sodium (Na) rich. Extrusive rocks that have the same
chemical composition as diorite or gabbro are called basalt. Basalt is fine-
grained dark rock.

In virtually all climates, the most resistant rocks to chemical weathering are
those that are rich in alkaline feldspars such as granite. Meanwhile granodiorite,
which contains abundant feldspars and biotite, are comparatively not very
resistant.

When they outcrop or are exposed by forces of erosion, granitic surfaces can
produce peneplain surfaces. With differential physical or mechanical
weathering, these surfaces might evolve into residual features. These residual
feature, usually known as inselbergs (dos de baleine and demis oranges) are
well shaped, after some joints or lines of weakness have been exploited. The
geneses of these features are usually linked to scarp retreat and parallel
recession. In other places, these features appear as Tors, Castle Kopjes, sugar
loaves or even boulders.

Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are formed by the accumulation and
consolidation of minerals and particles deposited by the action of water or less
frequently, wind and glacier. These rocks are classified according to the manner
of their origin. The first type is mechanically formed rocks derived from
mechanical disintegration of other rocks and transportation, without chemical
deterioration, by flowing water. Examples of this type of rock are shale,
sandstone and conglomerate.

The second type of sedimentary rock is the chemically formed sedimentary

rock.. This is formed when minerals precipitate or solidify. Examples include
limestone (remains of microscopic marine organisms precipitated on ocean
floor). Other examples are halite, gypsum, and anhydrite (from evaporation and
eventual precipitation of salts).

The third type of sedimentary rock is the organically formed sedimentary rock.
This type is formed from animal and plant remains. Examples of this type of
rock are coal and limestone. Sediments can be of continental marine or
lacustrine deposits. They are usually deposited in layers, and compaction and
cementation preserve layers called beds. Most fossils are found in sedimentary
rocks because the process that forms igneous and metamorphic rocks prevents
fossilization or would likely destroy fossils.

Sedimentary rocks are therefore always to be found with strata or layers.

Meanwhile the lithological composition of these layers has a lot to contribute in
landform evolution. This is viewed in the resistance of rocks. According to
stratigraphy, some sedimentary rocks are concordant ie found with an orderly
succession of layers from bottom to top. See diagram

Meanwhile others are discordant ie the layers are not found with orderly
succession. (some layers are horizontal and others are vertical)

See diagram

Some arrangements permit to realize that there are lacuna(s) (absence of Certain
layers) eg cretace or *****
The erosion of some sedimentary rocks depends on the texture of
the deposits. All of them will depend on whether the deposits are
predominantly clay, silt, sand, pebble/gravel or blocks (i.e. fine textured
to coarse grained). Erosion also depends on structure which entails
cohesion, form of cementation and arrangement. Meanwhile, the
lithological composition of these layers, has a lot to contribute in
landform evolution. This is viewed in the resistance of rocks. Soft rocks
are distinguished; clay; marls and limestone marls, very sensitive to
linear erosion, so that drainage pattern is irrespective of the rock
deformation. Weathering rapidly transforms these rocks into small
particles that are easily transported, leading to a rapid decrease in
elevation contrasts and in steepness. Mountains are prematurely
transformed into hills. Shale is more resistant and this is visible where
steepness of slopes persist longer than in clay marl rocks.
Areas with sedimentary rocks that undergo folding and faulting
are prone to the formation of specific landforms. Limestone or Karstic
landscapes are characterised by specific forms such as Grikes, Clints,
Stalagmite, Stalactites Caverns etc.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocky materials experience intense

heat and pressure in the crust of the earth. Through the metamorphic process,
both igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rock,
and a metamorphic rock can change into another metamorphic rock. Heat and
pressure do not change the chemical make up of the parent rocks but they do
change the mineral structure and physical properties of these rocks. There are
three types of metamorphism. These include; Contact (where recrystallization is
common), Regional, and Dynamic Metamorphism.

To get to its present state, a metamorphic rock follows a Pressure Temperature

and Time (PTT) path. Examples of metamorphic rocks are quartzite, micaschist,
marble (from limestone) and gneiss. Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock
formed from shale or clay sedimentary rock that has been exposed to low
temperature.

The processes involved in the formation of metamorphic rocks and landform

evolution can be seen in the diagrams ……….

As shown by the above representation, subsidence is followed by compression

and folding of metamorphic rocks at depth within the earth, and later the whole
region rises. As the metamorphosed rocks are uplifted, the surface is weathered
and eroded away, so that eventually the once deeply buried rocks become
exposed at the surface. Metamorphic rocks include not only modified
sediments, but any kind of pre-existing rock that became involved in the
tectonic cycle.

The heat and pressure that form metamorphic rocks often deform the rocks,
giving rise to a variety of texture and structures collectively referred to as fabric.
Some common metamorphic rocks can be identified according to their fabric.
Regional metamorphism often produces a fabric quality called foliation, while
rocks formed by contact metamorphism are generally nonfoliated.

a)Foliated ones include’ i) Slate ii)Schist iii)Gneiss

b)Non foliated ones include ; i) Quartzite ii)Marble iii)Horfels (formed

when basalt basalt or shale is expose to heat from magma)

The fabric or lithological composition (ie texture and structure of a

metamorphic rock would obviously determine the way that it can be weathered
and eroded. Some foliated rocks are bound to be easily weathered and
detachable that non-foliated metamorphic rocks. It is important to not that the
color of some minerals also determine the way that they are weathered. For
instance, dark coloured as opposed to white or leucocratic rocks.
The processes involved in the formation of metamorphic rocks
and landform evolution is complex. Subsidence is followed by
compression and folding of metamorphic rocks at depth within the
earth, and later on, the whole region rises. As the metamorphosed rocks
are uplifted, the surface is weathered and eroded away, so that
eventually the once deeply buried rocks become exposed at the surface.
Metamorphic rocks include not only modified sediments, but any kind
of pre-existing rock that became involved in the tectonic cycle.
The heat and pressure that form metamorphic rocks often deform
the rocks, giving rise to a variety of texture and structures collectively
referred to as fabric. Some common metamorphic rocks can be identified
according to their fabric. Regional metamorphism often produces a
fabric quality called foliation, while rocks formed by contact
metamorphism are generally non-foliated. Foliated rocks include Slate,
Schist, and Gneiss. Meanwhile non-foliated includes Quartzite, Marble,
Hornfels.
The fabric or lithological composition of a metamorphic rock
would obviously determine the way that it can be weathered and
eroded. Some foliated rocks are bound to be easily weathered and
detachable than non- foliated metamorphic rocks. It is important to note
that, the colour of some minerals also determine the way that they are
weathered. For instance dark coloured rocks absorb heat faster and
weathered as opposed to white or leucocratic rocks.

9-SEDIMENTARY BASINS

A basin is an area of relatively low lying ground surrounded by higher terrain.

A Sedimentary basin is a large area in which thick layers of sediments
accumulate. An ocean basin is a basin on the sea floor. A drainage basin is an
area drained by a stream and its tributaries. An interior basin is a basin without a
river draining it.
A Sedimentary basin has an area of at least 10 000km². Most sedimentary
basins form under oceans and are called marine basins. Some sedimentary
basins develop on land and are called continental basins. Sediments deposited in
marine basins can become exposed if the sea level falls or the basin is uplifted
during the collision of tectonic plates.
Most sedimentary basins contain material carried by rivers, as the
accumulated remains of living creatures. Chalk for example, is a rock found in
many marine basins that is almost entirely made up of the shells of tiny marine
organisms such as foraminifera and coccolithophores. Most oil and natural gas
deposits are composed of the decayed remains of microscopic organisms
deposited in marine basins. (see petroleum formation). Marine sedimentary
basins are often located around the continental margin. Rivers draining from
continents deposit sediment at the margin as the rivers slow upon reaching the
ocean. The coarser sediments require a faster flow to be carried along, so they
are deposited first. Ocean currents may carry very fine sediments, such as silt,
great distances away from the mouth of the rivers.
As a sedimentary basin accumulates more and more sediments, the
growing weight of sediment pushes down the underlying crust. This sinking
makes room for further sediments to be deposited in the basin and the basin
becomes progressively deeper and broader over time. In this way,
accumulations more the 1 2000m thick can accumulate. In many cases, the
accumulation of sediments is much thicker than the initial depth of the basin.
Without the continual sinking of the basin floor, sediment would overfill the
basin. Sedimentary basins with extraordinary accumulation of sediments are
called geosynclines.

The Appalachian mountains in the eastern United States are an example of a

marine sedimentary basin that is now dry land. The mountains are made up of
sediments originally deposited in an ancient ocean, known as the ancestral
Atlantic ocean, along the edge of what was the North American continent. The
collision of the African plate with the North American plate around 300 million
years ago closed this ocean and uplifted its floor into a mountain range.
Hundred of millions of years of erosion have r educed the mountain to their
present height.

ADVANTAGEs OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS

 Source of fossil Fuel (Gas, Petrol/oil and Coal)

 Fertile Sediments

 Clay for Medicinal purpose and Pottery

 Chalk and Limestone

 Sand for construction

 For scientific studies – Achaeology/ Anthropology and paleogeography

Active Sedimentary Basins constitute where accumulation is still going on e.g.

Congo, Amazon and Niger basins

Inactive or dead Basins are where deposition/accumulation had stopped byt

there are still traces of sedimentation e.g. Kalahari, Apppalachian, western
Siberia, Autralia, Parisian Basin, London Basin

Continental Basins are those that are found within continental landmasses

Marine Basins are those that are found within oceans

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